117:. The spontaneous radiative decay of this exciton results in the emission of a photon. Since a quantum dot has discrete energy levels, it can be achieved that there is never more than one exciton in the quantum dot simultaneously. Therefore, the quantum dot is an emitter of single photons. A key challenge in making a good single-photon source is to make sure that the emission from the quantum dot is collected efficiently. To do that, the quantum dot is placed in an
85:, which is still a technical challenge. The other challenge is to realize high-quality quantum dot single-photon sources at telecom wavelength for fiber telecommunication application. The first report on Purcell-enhanced single-photon emission of a telecom-wavelength quantum dot in a two-dimensional photonic crystal cavity with a quality factor of 2,000 shows the enhancements of the emission rate and the intensity by five and six folds, respectively.
94:
273:
usually have relatively high indices of refraction about n≅3. Therefore, their extraction cone is small. On a smooth surface the micropillar works as an almost perfect waveguide. However losses increase with roughness of the walls and decreasing diameter of the micropillar. The edges thus must be as smooth as possible to minimize losses. This can be achieved by structuring the sample with
156:
313:
Other single-photon sources are nanobeam or photonic crystal waveguides that contain quantum dots. For such structures, no DBRs are needed but can be used to improve the outcoupling efficiency. Compared to micropillars, this architecture has the advantage that on-chip routing of photons is possible.
191:
with the already existing exciton changes the energy for creating another exciton at the same space slightly. If the energy of the pump laser is tuned on resonance, the second exciton cannot be created. Still, there is a small probability of having two excitations in the quantum dot at the same time.
272:
is used to grow the quantum dot above the first DBR. The second layer of DBRs can now be grown on top of the layer with the quantum dots. The diameter of the pillar is only a few microns wide. To prevent the optical mode from exiting the cavity the micropillar must act as a waveguide. Semiconductors
39:
leads to the emission of a single photon. Due to interactions between excitons, the emission when the quantum dot contains a single exciton is energetically distinct from that when the quantum dot contains more than one exciton. Therefore, a single exciton can be deterministically created by a laser
1838:
Liu, Feng; Brash, Alistair J.; O’Hara, John; Martins, Luis M. P. P.; Phillips, Catherine L.; Coles, Rikki J.; Royall, Benjamin; Clarke, Edmund; Bentham, Christopher; Prtljaga, Nikola; Itskevich, Igor E.; Wilson, Luke R.; Skolnick, Maurice S.; Fox, A. Mark (2018). "High
Purcell factor generation of
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Ding, Xing; He, Yu; Duan, Z-C; Gregersen, Niels; Chen, M-C; Unsleber, S; Maier, Sebastian; Schneider, Christian; Kamp, Martin; Höfling, Sven; Lu, Chao-Yang; Pan, Jian-Wei (2016). "On-demand single photons with high extraction efficiency and near-unity indistinguishability from a resonantly driven
1634:
Najer, Daniel; Söllner, Immo; Sekatski, Pavel; Dolique, Vincent; Löbl, Matthias C.; Riedel, Daniel; Schott, Rüdiger; Starosielec, Sebastian; Valentin, Sascha R.; Wieck, Andreas D.; Sangouard, Nicolas; Ludwig, Arne; Warburton, Richard J. (2019). "A gated quantum dot strongly coupled to an optical
186:
To eliminate the probability of the simultaneous emission of two photons it has to be made sure that there can only be one exciton in the cavity at one time. The discrete energy states in a quantum dot allow only one excitation. Additionally, the
Rydberg blockade prevents the excitation of two
2129:
Schweickert, Lucas; Jöns, Klaus D.; Zeuner, Katharina D.; Covre da Silva, Saimon Filipe; Huang, Huiying; Lettner, Thomas; Reindl, Marcus; Zichi, Julien; Trotta, Rinaldo; Rastelli, Armando; Zwiller, Val (2018). "On-demand generation of background-free single photons from a solid-state source".
76:
since the beginning of the 21st century, research in different kinds of single-photon sources was growing. Early single-photon sources such as heralded photon sources that were first reported in 1985 are based on non-deterministic processes. Quantum dot single-photon sources are on-demand. A
1564:
Tomm, Natasha; Javadi, Alisa; Antoniadis, Nadia
Olympia; Najer, Daniel; Löbl, Matthias Christian; Korsch, Alexander Rolf; Schott, Rüdiger; Valentin, Sascha René; Wieck, Andreas Dirk; Ludwig, Arne; Warburton, Richard John (2021). "A bright and fast source of coherent single photons".
228:. However, this way the emitted photons have the same frequency as the pump laser. A polarizer is needed to distinguish between them. As the direction of polarization of the photons from the cavity is random, half of the emitted photons are blocked by this filter.
286:
Tunable micro-cavities hosting quantum dots can be also used as single-photon source. Different compared to micro-pillars, only a single DBR is grown below the quantum dots. The second part of the cavity is a curved top mirror that is physically detached from the
196:. They interact with each other and thus slightly change their energy. Photons resulting from the decay of biexcitons have a different energy than photons resulting from the decay of excitons. They can be filtered out by letting the outgoing beam pass an
1704:
Fischbach, Sarah; Schlehahn, Alexander; Thoma, Alexander; Srocka, Nicole; Gissibl, Timo; Ristok, Simon; Thiele, Simon; Kaganskiy, Arsenty; Strittmatter, André; Heindel, Tobias; Rodt, Sven; Herkommer, Alois; Giessen, Harald; Reitzenstein, Stephan (2017).
291:. The top-mirror can be moved with respect to the quantum dot position which allows tuning the cavity quantum dot coupling as needed. A further advantage over micro-pillars is that the charge-environment of the quantum dots can be stabilized by using
1762:
Schöll, Eva; Hanschke, Lukas; Schweickert, Lucas; Zeuner, Katharina D.; Reindl, Marcus; Covre da Silva, Saimon Filipe; Lettner, Thomas; Trotta, Rinaldo; Finley, Jonathan J.; Müller, Kai; Rastelli, Armando; Zwiller, Val; Jöns, Klaus D. (2019).
1440:
Somaschi, Niccolo; Giesz, Valérian; De Santis, Lorenzo; Loredo, JC; Almeida, Marcelo P; Hornecker, Gaston; Portalupi, Simone Luca; Grange, Thomas; Anton, Carlos; Demory, Justin (2016). "Near-optimal single-photon sources in the solid state".
665:. The theoretical solution of the Jaynes-Cummings Hamiltonian is a well-defined mode in which only the polarization is random. After aligning the polarization of the photons, their indistinguishability can be measured. For that, the
677:
is placed on both exits of the beam splitter. Coincidences between the two detectors are measured. If the photons are indistinguishable, no coincidences should occur. Experimentally, almost perfect indistinguishability is found.
861:
Kress, A.; Hofbauer, F.; Reinelt, N.; Kaniber, M.; Krenner, H.J.; Meyer, R.; Böhm, G.; Finley, J.J. (2005). "Manipulation of the spontaneous emission dynamics of quantum dots in two-dimensional photonic crystals".
327:. As photons are emitted one at a time, the probability of seeing two photons at the same time for an ideal source is 0. To verify the antibunching of a light source, one can measure the autocorrelation function
2032:
Papon, Camille; Zhou, Xiaoyan; Thyrrestrup, Henri; Liu, Zhe; Stobbe, Søren; Schott, Rüdiger; Wieck, Andreas D.; Ludwig, Arne; Lodahl, Peter; Midolo, Leonardo (2019). "Nanomechanical single-photon routing".
77:
single-photon source based on a quantum dot in a microdisk structure was reported in 2000. Sources were subsequently embedded in different structures such as photonic crystals or micropillars. Adding
167:. In this model, the quantum dot only interacts with one single mode of the optical cavity. The frequency of the optical mode is well defined. This makes the photons indistinguishable if their
159:
Figure 2: The decay of a linewidth broadened excited state results in the emission of a photon of frequency ħω. The linewidth broadening is a result of the finite lifetime of the excited state.
686:
Single-photon sources are of great importance in quantum communication science. They can be used for truly random number generators. Single photons entering a beam splitter exhibit inherent
915:
Moreau, E.; Robert, I.; Gérard, J.M.; Abram, I.; Manin, L.; Thierry-Mieg, V. (2001). "Single-mode solid-state single-photon source based on isolated quantum dots in pillar microcavities".
651:
1908:
Uppu, Ravitej; Pedersen, Freja T.; Wang, Ying; Olesen, Cecilie T.; Papon, Camille; Zhou, Xiaoyan; Midolo, Leonardo; Scholz, Sven; Wieck, Andreas D.; Ludwig, Arne; Lodahl, Peter (2020).
314:
On the other side, the structure sizes are much smaller requiring more advanced nano-fabrication techniques. The close proximity of quantum dots to the surface is a further challenge.
765:
Grangier, Philippe; Roger, Gerard; Aspect, Alain (1986). "Experimental evidence for a photon anticorrelation effect on a beam splitter: a new light on single-photon interferences".
1291:
Gurioli, Massimo; Wang, Zhiming; Rastelli, Armando; Kuroda, Takashi; Sanguinetti, Stefano (2019). "Droplet epitaxy of semiconductor nanostructures for quantum photonic devices".
716:, no eavesdropping can happen without being noticed. The use of quantum randomness while writing the key prevents any patterns in the key that can be used to decipher the code.
240:
cavities, or tunable micro-cavities. Inside the cavity, different types of quantum dots can be used. The most widely used type are self-assembled InAs quantum dots grown in the
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451:
367:
499:
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409:
204:
can be used for excitation of the quantum dots. In order to have the highest probability of creating an exciton, the pump laser is tuned on resonance. This resembles a
146:
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structures. A disadvantage of the micro-cavity system is that it requires additional mechanical components to tune the cavity which increases the overall system size.
1360:
Zhai, Liang; Löbl, Matthias C.; Nguyen, Giang N.; Ritzmann, Julian; Javadi, Alisa; Spinnler, Clemens; Wieck, Andreas D.; Ludwig, Arne; Warburton, Richard J. (2020).
97:
Figure 1: Schematic structure of an optical microcavity with a single quantum dot placed between two layers of DBR's. This structure works as a single photon source.
222:
818:
Michler, P.; Kiraz, A.; Becher, C.; Schoenfeld, W.V.; Petroff, P.M.; Zhang, Lidong; Hu, E.; Imamoglu, A. (2000). "A Quantum Dot Single-Photon
Turnstile Device".
121:. The cavity can, for instance, consist of two DBRs in a micropillar (Fig. 1). The cavity enhances the spontaneous emission in a well-defined optical mode (
2241:
244:
mode, but other materials and growth methods such as local droplet etching have been used. A list of different experimental realizations is shown below:
304:: To increase the brightness of a quantum dot single-photon source, also microlens structures have been used. The concept is to reduce losses due to
236:
There are several ways to realize a quantum dot-cavity system that can act as a single-photon source. Typical cavity structures are micro-pillars,
81:(DBRs) allowed emission in a well-defined direction and increased emission efficiency. Most quantum dot single-photon sources need to work at
2313:
260:
are grown in alternate order. Their lattice parameters should match to prevent strain. A possible combination is a combination of
2191:
C. K. Hong; Z. Y. Ou & L. Mandel (1987). "Measurement of subpicosecond time intervals between two photons by interference".
1985:"On-chip beamsplitter operation on single photons from quasi-resonantly excited quantum dots embedded in GaAs rib waveguides"
544:
1124:
T. Kazimierczuk; D. Fröhlich; S. Scheel; H. Stolz & M. Bayer (2014). "Giant
Rydberg excitons in the copper oxide Cu2O".
64:. Additionally, the cavity leads to emission in a well-defined optical mode increasing the efficiency of the photon source.
249:
188:
78:
73:
1494:
Herve, P.; Vandamme, L. K. J. (1994). "General relation between refractive index and energy gap in semiconductors".
125:), facilitating efficient guiding of the emission into an optical fiber. Furthermore, the reduced exciton lifetime
1014:
Senellart, P.; Solomon, G.; White, A. (2017). "High-performance semiconductor quantum-dot single-photon sources".
592:
1059:"Fast Purcell-enhanced single-photon source in 1,550-nm telecom band from a resonant quantum dot-cavity coupling"
305:
274:
241:
1983:
Rengstl, U.; Schwartz, M.; Herzog, T.; Hargart, F.; Paul, M.; Portalupi, S. L.; Jetter, M.; Michler, P. (2015).
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709:
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1707:"Single Quantum Dot with Microlens and 3D-Printed Micro-objective as Integrated Bright Single-Photon Source"
176:
1057:
Birowosuto, M. D.; Sumikura, H.; Matsuo, S.; Taniyama, H.; Veldhoven, P.J.; Notzel, R.; Notomi, M. (2012).
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53:
36:
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C. H. Bennett and G. Brassard. "Quantum cryptography: Public key distribution and coin tossing". In
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330:
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324:
49:
45:
31:. It is an on-demand single-photon source. A laser pulse can excite a pair of carriers known as an
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200:. The quantum dots can be excited both electrically and optically. For optical pumping, a pulsed
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scheme. It works with a light source that perfectly emits only one photon at a time. Due to the
550:
372:
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Gold, Peter (2015). "Quantenpunkt-Mikroresonatoren als
Bausteine für die Quantenkommunikation".
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Apart from that, single photon sources can be used to test some fundamental properties of
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110:
1765:"Resonance Fluorescence of GaAs Quantum Dots with Near-Unity Photon Indistinguishability"
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Proceedings of IEEE International
Conference on Computers, Systems and Signal Processing
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179:. A vacuum Rabi oscillation of a photon interacting with an exciton is known as an
106:
839:
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1722:
2257:
Wootters, William; Zurek, Wojciech (1982). "A Single
Quantum Cannot be Cloned".
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http://researcher.watson.ibm.com/researcher/files/us-bennetc/BB84highest.pdf
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is used. Two photons of the source are prepared so that they enter a 50:50
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Reitzenstein, S. & Forchel, A. (2010). "Quantum dot micropillars".
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For applications the photons emitted by a single photon source must be
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2009:
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57:
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Eisaman, M. D.; Fan, J.; Migdall, A.; Polyakov, S. V. (2011-07-01).
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Micropillars: In this approach, quantum dots are grown between two
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are typically in the regime of just a few percent. Values down to
292:
201:
702:
48:. The emission of single photons can be proven by measuring the
690:. Random numbers are used extensively in simulations using the
959:"Invited Review Article: Single-photon sources and detectors"
547:. Using resonant excitation schemes, experimental values for
308:
similar to what can be achieved with a solid immersion lens.
673:
at the same time from the two different input channels. A
35:
in the quantum dot. The decay of a single exciton due to
175:. The solution of the Jaynes-Cummings Hamiltonian is a
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507:
459:
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210:
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can be enhanced by integrating the quantum dot in an
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Furthermore, single photon sources are essential in
268:-layers. After the first DBR, material with smaller
256:(MBE). For the mirrors two materials with different
252:(DBR mirrors). The DBRs are typically both grown by
44:
source that emits photons one by one and thus shows
1362:"Low-noise GaAs quantum dots for quantum photonics"
192:Two excitons confined in a small volume are called
645:
581:
535:
493:
445:
403:
361:
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140:
653:have been reached without resonant excitation.
8:
646:{\displaystyle g^{(2)}(0)=7.5\times 10^{-5}}
1839:indistinguishable on-chip single photons".
1435:
1433:
1431:
657:Indistinguishability of the emitted photons
163:The system can then be approximated by the
50:second order intensity correlation function
1910:"Scalable integrated single-photon source"
319:Verification of emission of single photons
89:Theory of realizing a single-photon source
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148:(see Fig. 2) reduces the significance of
130:
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2094:Paul, H (1982). "Photon antibunching".
754:
2237:, volume 175, page 8. New York, 1984.
1202:
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1183:
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113:creates an excited state, a so-called
1531:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
453:. For an ideal single photon source,
7:
369:. A photon source is antibunched if
40:pulse and the quantum dot becomes a
187:excitons at the same space... The
132:
14:
1496:Infrared Physics & Technology
963:Review of Scientific Instruments
277:and processing the pillars with
21:quantum dot single-photon source
1230:quantum dot in a micropillar".
1262:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.010401
618:
612:
607:
601:
576:
570:
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545:Hanbury Brown and Twiss effect
536:{\displaystyle g^{(2)}(\tau )}
530:
524:
519:
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482:
476:
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446:{\displaystyle g^{(2)}(\tau )}
440:
434:
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398:
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387:
381:
362:{\displaystyle g^{(2)}(\tau )}
356:
350:
345:
339:
323:Single photon sources exhibit
1:
1543:10.1088/0022-3727/43/3/033001
840:10.1126/science.290.5500.2282
72:With the growing interest in
1799:10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b05132
1723:10.1021/acsphotonics.7b00253
1516:10.1016/1350-4495(94)90026-4
494:{\displaystyle g^{(2)}(0)=0}
250:distributed bragg reflectors
79:distributed bragg reflectors
2213:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.2044
189:electromagnetic interaction
74:quantum information science
2330:
2116:10.1103/RevModPhys.54.1061
1597:10.1038/s41565-020-00831-x
1396:10.1038/s41467-020-18625-z
894:10.1103/PhysRevB.71.241304
582:{\displaystyle g^{(2)}(0)}
404:{\displaystyle g^{(2)}(0)}
101:Exciting an electron in a
2096:Reviews of Modern Physics
1871:10.1038/s41565-018-0188-x
1667:10.1038/s41586-019-1709-y
1323:10.1038/s41563-019-0355-y
797:10.1209/0295-5075/1/4/004
767:EPL (Europhysics Letters)
306:total internal reflection
275:Electron beam lithography
242:Stranski-Krastanov growth
2314:Condensed matter physics
710:quantum key distribution
232:Experimental realization
141:{\displaystyle \Delta t}
2132:Applied Physics Letters
2065:10.1364/OPTICA.6.000524
1989:Applied Physics Letters
1473:10.1038/nphoton.2016.23
1232:Physical Review Letters
969:(7): 071101–071101–25.
177:vacuum Rabi oscillation
1944:10.1126/sciadv.abc8268
1201:Cite journal requires
1036:10.1038/nnano.2017.218
647:
583:
543:is measured using the
537:
495:
447:
405:
363:
254:molecular beam epitaxy
218:
160:
142:
98:
83:cryogenic temperatures
1841:Nature Nanotechnology
1567:Nature Nanotechnology
1366:Nature Communications
1016:Nature Nanotechnology
688:quantum indeterminacy
667:Hong-Ou-Mandel effect
648:
584:
538:
496:
448:
406:
364:
258:indices of refraction
219:
165:Jaynes-Cummings model
158:
143:
96:
23:is based on a single
743:Single-photon source
721:quantum field theory
699:quantum cryptography
593:
551:
505:
457:
415:
373:
331:
302:solid immersion lens
279:reactive ion etching
217:{\displaystyle \pi }
208:
150:linewidth broadening
129:
56:rate of the emitted
54:spontaneous emission
37:spontaneous emission
2273:1982Natur.299..802W
2205:1987PhRvL..59.2044H
2154:2018ApPhL.112i3106S
2108:1982RvMP...54.1061P
2057:2019Optic...6..524P
2001:2015ApPhL.107b1101R
1936:2020SciA....6.8268U
1863:2018NatNa..13..835L
1791:2019NanoL..19.2404S
1659:2019Natur.575..622N
1589:2021NatNa..16..399T
1508:1994InPhT..35..609H
1465:2016NaPho..10..340S
1388:2020NatCo..11.4745Z
1315:2019NatMa..18..799G
1254:2016PhRvL.116a0401P
1156:10.1038/nature13832
1148:2014Natur.514..343K
1085:2012NatSR...2E.321B
1028:2017NatNa..12.1026S
975:2011RScI...82g1101E
929:2001ApPhL..79.2865M
886:2005PhRvB..71x1304K
832:2000Sci...290.2282M
826:(5500): 2282–2285.
779:1986EL......1..173G
733:Optical microcavity
46:photon antibunching
2244:2020-01-30 at the
714:no-cloning theorem
692:Monte Carlo method
643:
579:
533:
501:. Experimentally,
491:
443:
401:
359:
214:
161:
138:
99:
42:nonclassical light
2267:(5886): 802–803.
2199:(18): 2044–2046.
2162:10.1063/1.5020038
2010:10.1063/1.4926729
1643:(7784): 622–627.
1132:(7522): 343–347.
1093:10.1038/srep00321
1022:(11): 1026–1039.
984:10.1063/1.3610677
937:10.1063/1.1415346
923:(18): 2865–2867.
663:indistinguishable
262:aluminum arsenide
181:exciton-polariton
2321:
2293:
2292:
2281:10.1038/299802a0
2254:
2248:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2147:
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2120:
2119:
2102:(4): 1061–1102.
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2085:
2084:
2050:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2012:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1963:
1929:
1920:(50): eabc8268.
1914:Science Advances
1905:
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