159:
are ones that give rise to proteins that modify the antibiotic or pump it out. They are different from mutations that give bacteria resistance to antibiotics by preventing the antibiotic from getting in or changing the shape of the target protein. R-factors have been known to contain up to ten resistance genes. They can also spread easily as they contain genes for constructing pili, which allow them to transfer the R-factor to other bacteria. R-factors have contributed to the growing antibiotic resistance crisis because they quickly spread resistance genes among bacteria. The R factor by itself cannot be transmitted.
33:
168:
gene that inhibits the transfer operon's functionality. The size and number of drug resistance genes in each R factor varies.The RTF is bigger than the R determinant. An IS 1 element separates the RTF and R determinant on either side before they combine into a single unit.The IS 1 components simplify it for R determinants to be transferred between different R-RTF unit types.
235:
338:
discovered in integrons and transposons on MDR plasmids of various incompatibility groups, which could carry a number of resistance-related molecules, such as carbapenemases and ESBLs. Examples of resistance mechanisms include different Qnr proteins, aminoglycose acetyltransferase aac(6')-Ib-cr that is able to hydrolyze
301:
ESBL enzymes can hydrolyze all beta-lactam antibiotics, including cephalosporins, except for the carpabepenems. The first clinically observed ESBL enzymes were mutated versions of the narrow spectrum beta-lactamases, like TEM and SHV. Other ESBL enzymes originate outside of family
Enterobacteriaceae,
135:
Most of the resistance plasmids are conjugative, meaning that they encode all the needed components for the transfer of the plasmid to another bacterium, and that isn't present in mobilizable plasmids. According to that, Mobilizable plasmids are smaller in size (usually < 10 kb) while conjugative
67:
process, they can stimulate lateral transfer between bacteria from various genera and kingdoms. Numerous plasmids contain addiction-inducing systems that are typically based on toxin-antitoxin factors and capable of killing daughter cells that don't inherit the plasmid during cell division. Plasmids
158:
genes. They were first found in Japan in 1959 when it was discovered that some
Shigella strains had developed resistance to a number of antibiotics used to treat a dysentery epidemic. Shigella is a genus of Gram-negative, aerobic, non-spore-forming, non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria. Resistance genes
167:
The majority of the R-RTF (Resistance
Transfer Factor) molecules are found in the resistance plasmid, which can be conceptualized as a circular piece of DNA with a length of 80 to 95 kb. This plasmid shares many genes with the F factor and is largely homologous to it. Additionally, it has a fin 0
337:
resistance genes are frequently located on the same plasmid as the ESBL genes. The proteins known as QnrS, QnrB, QnrC, and QnrD are four others that are similar. Numerous variants have been found for qnrA, qnrS, and qnrB, and they are distinguished by sequential numbers. The qnr genes can be
281:
B-lactamases are antibiotic-hydrolyzing enzymes that typically cause resistance to b-lactam antibiotics. These enzymes are prevalent in
Streptomyces, and together with related enzymes discovered in pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria, they form the protein family known as the "b-lactamase
257:
it is a family of Gram-negative rod-shaped (bacilli) bacteria, the pathogenic bacteria that are most frequently found in the environment and clinical cases, as a result, they are significantly impacted by the use of antibiotics in agriculture, the ecosystem, or the treatment of diseases. In
200:, which emerges from the donor bacterium and ensnares the recipient bacterium, draws it in, and eventually triggers the formation of a mating bridge, merging the cytoplasms of two bacteria via a controlled pore. This pore allows the transfer of genetic material, such as a
359:
resistance genes are also commonly found together with ESBL genes. Resistance to aminoglycosides is conferred via numerous aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes and 16S rRNA methyltransferases. Resistance to aminoglycosides is conferred via numerous mechanisms:
320:
represent type of ESBL which are able to hydrolyze carbapenem antibiotics that are considered as the last-resort treatment for ESBL-producing bacteria. KPC, NDM-1, VIM and OXA-48 carbapenemases have been increasingly reported worldwide as causes of
364:
aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes and inactivation of the aminoglycosides, which is frequently seen in both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and is induced by nucleotidyltransferases, phosphotransferases, or aminoglycoside
119:
It is very common for the resistance genes or entire resistance cassettes to be re-arranged on the same plasmid or be moved to a different plasmid or chromosome by means of recombination systems. Examples of such systems include
354:
xResistance to aminoglycosides in Gram-negative pathogens is primarily caused by enzymes that acetylate, adenylate, or phosphorylate the medication. On mobile elements, such as plasmids, are the genes that encode these
104:. Multiple resistance genes are commonly arranged in the resistance cassettes. The antibiotic resistance genes found on the plasmids confer resistance to most of the antibiotic classes used nowadays, for example,
333:
Several studies have shown that fluoroquinolone resistance has enhanced worldwide, especially in
Enterobacteriaceae members. QnrA was the first known plasmid-mediated gene associated in quinolone resistance.
2074:
258:
Enterobacteriaceae, 28 different plasmid types can be identified by PCR-based replicon typing (PBRT).The plasmids that have been frequently reported contain a broad variety of resistance genes.
63:. Plasmids possess mechanisms that ensure their independent replication as well as those that regulate their replication number and guarantee stable inheritance during cell division. By the
1449:
Baquero F, Bouza E, Gutiérrez-Fuentes J, Coque TM (January 2018). "Ecology and
Evolution of Chromosomal Gene Transfer between Environmental Microorganisms and Pathogens".
2067:
1762:"Occurrence of aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes among isolates of Escherichia coli exhibiting high levels of aminoglycoside resistance isolated from Korean cattle farms"
224:, or via bacteriophage, although conjugation is the most common means of antibiotic resistance spread. They contain the gene called RTF (Resistance transfer factor).
921:"Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms in Bacteria: Relationships Between Resistance Determinants of Antibiotic Producers, Environmental Bacteria, and Clinical Pathogens"
136:
plasmids are larger (usually > 30 kb) due to the considerable size of DNA required to encode the conjugation mechanisms that allow for cell-to-cell conjugation.
309:
determinants for many other antibiotics, ESBL strains are often resistant to many non-beta-lactam antibiotics as well, leaving very few options for the treatment.
2060:
1199:
391:
and mediated expression of host sRNAs. These sRNAs were antisense to genes involved in replication, conjugate transfer and plasmid stabilisation :
1484:
Hussain T, Jamal M, Nighat F, Andleeb S (2014). "Broad spectrum antibiotics and resistance in non-target bacteria: an example from tetracycline".
317:
212:, to transfer genetic material one way. Since many R-factors contain F-plasmids, antibiotic resistance can be easily spread among a population of
596:
Schultsz C, Geerlings S (January 2012). "Plasmid-mediated resistance in
Enterobacteriaceae: changing landscape and implications for therapy".
241:
bacteria on the right are sensitive to two beta-lactam antibiotics, and do not grow in the semi-circular regions surrounding the antibiotics.
1030:
154:
are also called a resistance factors or resistance plasmid. They are tiny, circular DNA elements that are self-replicating, that contain
96:
Resistance plasmids by definition carry one or more antibiotic resistance genes. They are frequently accompanied by the genes encoding
641:"The role of epidemic resistance plasmids and international high-risk clones in the spread of multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae"
387:
J53 found that the plasmid reduced bacterial motility and conferred resistance to beta-lactams. The pHK01 produced plasmid-encoded
2902:
286:
282:
superfamily". it is hypothesized that b-lactamases also serve a double purpose, such as housekeeping and antibiotic resistance.
2728:
2323:
293:. Often multiple beta-lactamase genes are found on the same plasmid hydrolyzing a wide spectrum of beta-lactam antibiotics.
2864:
76:(MDR). Antibiotic resistance mediated by MDR plasmids severely limits the treatment options for the infections caused by
2512:
2432:
2188:
748:"Are Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance Genes Linked? A Comprehensive Analysis of Bacterial Chromosomes and Plasmids"
322:
145:
2733:
217:
799:"Plasmid Mediated Antibiotic and Heavy Metal Resistance in Bacillus Strains Isolated from Soils in Rize, Turkey"
2580:
2481:
2398:
193:
1203:
273:
pose the biggest threat regarding plasmid-mediated resistance in hospital- and community-acquired infections.
1097:
Bragagnolo N, Rodriguez C, Samari-Kermani N, Fours A, Korouzhdehi M, Lysenko R, Audette GF (September 2020).
2607:
2383:
699:"Plasmid encoded antibiotic resistance: acquisition and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in bacteria"
221:
1552:
Salah FD, Soubeiga ST, Ouattara AK, Sadji AY, Metuor-Dabire A, Obiri-Yeboah D, et al. (18 June 2019).
2835:
2151:
465:
105:
77:
2897:
2595:
2568:
2019:"Characterization of plasmid-mediated lincosamide resistance in a field isolate of Haemophilus parasuis"
306:
269:
180:
Genes in the resistance plasmids enable bacteria to produce Pilli and develop resistance to antibiotics.
155:
69:
64:
56:
45:
37:
1621:"Plasmid-mediated fluoroquinolone resistance in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli in Konya, Turkey"
1408:
Rozwandowicz M, Brouwer MS, Fischer J, Wagenaar JA, Gonzalez-Zorn B, Guerra B, et al. (May 2018).
1976:"qnrA prevalence in extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-positive Enterobacteriaceae isolates from Turkey"
2539:
2534:
2410:
1150:"Plasmid Transfer by Conjugation in Gram-Negative Bacteria: From the Cellular to the Community Level"
144:
This section is about the plasmid. For information about the residual factor in crystallography, see
125:
73:
2775:
2617:
2573:
2529:
2267:
2825:
2005:
1642:
1264:
621:
85:
81:
245:
bacteria on the left are resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics, and grow next to one antibiotic (
746:
Darmancier H, Domingues CP, Rebelo JS, Amaro A, Dionísio F, Pothier J, et al. (May 2022).
2892:
2820:
2524:
2040:
1997:
1962:
1927:
1873:
1832:
1783:
1742:
1691:
1601:
1534:
1466:
1431:
1364:
1313:
1256:
1181:
1130:
1079:
1026:
1003:
952:
898:
857:
779:
728:
670:
613:
565:
513:
447:
1852:"The CTX-M-14 plasmid pHK01 encodes novel small RNAs and influences host growth and motility"
551:
177:
they play a role in the autonomous replication, conjugation, and ampicillin resistance genes.
88:
from antimicrobial medications used in medical facilities and when raising animals for food.
2556:
2450:
2083:
2030:
1987:
1952:
1917:
1909:
1863:
1822:
1814:
1773:
1732:
1722:
1681:
1673:
1632:
1591:
1581:
1524:
1516:
1458:
1421:
1354:
1344:
1303:
1295:
1246:
1238:
1171:
1161:
1120:
1110:
1069:
1059:
993:
983:
942:
932:
888:
847:
837:
769:
759:
718:
710:
660:
652:
605:
555:
547:
503:
492:"Bacterial plasmid addiction systems and their implications for antibiotic drug development"
437:
263:
109:
1803:"Aminoglycoside Resistance: The Emergence of Acquired 16S Ribosomal RNA Methyltransferases"
1620:
798:
2813:
2507:
2486:
2415:
2218:
1462:
395:, AS-traI, AS-finO, AS-traG, AS-pc02 . The over-expression of one of the plasmid-encoded
1251:
1226:
374:
variations to the 30S ribosomal subunit that prevent aminoglycosides from binding to it.
2803:
2690:
2561:
2420:
2403:
2208:
2138:
1922:
1897:
1827:
1802:
1737:
1710:
1686:
1661:
1596:
1553:
1529:
1504:
1359:
1332:
1308:
1283:
1176:
1149:
1125:
1098:
1074:
1047:
998:
971:
947:
920:
893:
876:
852:
821:
774:
747:
723:
698:
665:
640:
560:
535:
508:
491:
356:
113:
2052:
820:
McMillan EA, Gupta SK, Williams LE, Jové T, Hiott LM, Woodley TA, et al. (2019).
2886:
2843:
2808:
2651:
2641:
2612:
2245:
2238:
1268:
1242:
1048:"Comparative Genomics of the Conjugation Region of F-like Plasmids: Five Shades of F"
1046:
Fernandez-Lopez R, de Toro M, Moncalian G, Garcillan-Barcia MP, de la Cruz F (2016).
609:
396:
392:
339:
2009:
1646:
1520:
625:
2830:
2673:
2633:
2600:
2372:
2358:
2256:
101:
877:"Control of genes for conjugative transfer of plasmids and other mobile elements"
2854:
2720:
2668:
2663:
2176:
1299:
1115:
764:
343:
1992:
1975:
1503:
Poirel L, Rodriguez-Martinez JM, Mammeri H, Liard A, Nordmann P (August 2005).
1383:
2762:
2757:
2710:
2703:
2698:
2683:
2678:
2519:
2454:
2203:
2145:
1941:"Emergence of plasmid-mediated resistance to quinolones in Enterobacteriaceae"
1818:
1727:
1586:
442:
425:
32:
1064:
937:
842:
426:"Evolution of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in the Clinical Context"
183:
MDR genes in bacteria are transmitted mainly through the resistance plasmids.
2767:
2752:
2739:
2491:
2279:
2198:
2193:
2183:
2171:
2110:
1868:
1851:
1778:
1761:
1349:
388:
334:
97:
2044:
2001:
1966:
1931:
1877:
1836:
1787:
1746:
1695:
1605:
1538:
1470:
1435:
1368:
1317:
1260:
1185:
1134:
1083:
1007:
988:
956:
902:
861:
783:
732:
714:
674:
617:
569:
517:
451:
305:
In addition, since the plasmids that carry ESBL genes also commonly encode
1166:
2798:
2744:
2646:
2590:
2585:
2476:
2437:
2393:
2295:
2100:
2035:
2018:
2017:
Chen LP, Cai XW, Wang XR, Zhou XL, Wu DF, Xu XJ, Chen HC (October 2010).
1957:
1940:
1913:
1677:
1637:
1426:
1409:
656:
213:
205:
121:
1850:
Jiang X, Liu X, Law CO, Wang Y, Lo WU, Weng X, et al. (July 2017).
1410:"Plasmids carrying antimicrobial resistance genes in Enterobacteriaceae"
1148:
Virolle C, Goldlust K, Djermoun S, Bigot S, Lesterlin C (October 2020).
234:
216:. Also, R-factors can be taken up by "DNA pumps" in their membranes via
192:
Bacteria containing F-factors (said to be "F+") have the capability for
17:
2780:
2658:
2442:
2427:
2130:
2105:
809:(2): 133–141 – via Süleyman Demirel University science Institute.
209:
201:
60:
976:
The
Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases & Medical Microbiology
914:
912:
2871:
2849:
2546:
2469:
2464:
2229:
2120:
2115:
822:"Antimicrobial Resistance Genes, Cassettes, and Plasmids Present in
2353:
2345:
2163:
2125:
1505:"Origin of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance determinant QnrA"
803:
Suleyman
Demirel University Journal of Natural and Applied Science
383:
Study investigating physiological effect of pHK01 plasmid in host
233:
197:
31:
1896:
Strahilevitz J, Jacoby GA, Hooper DC, Robicsek A (October 2009).
1660:
Strahilevitz J, Jacoby GA, Hooper DC, Robicsek A (October 2009).
1384:"Enterobacteriaceae- Definition, Characteristics, Identification"
2859:
2551:
2092:
2056:
285:
Both narrow spectrum beta-lactamases (e.g. penicillinases) and
1898:"Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance: a multifaceted threat"
1662:"Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance: a multifaceted threat"
41:
1711:"Amikacin: Uses, Resistance, and Prospects for Inhibition"
1760:
Belaynehe KM, Shin SW, Hong-Tae P, Yoo HS (August 2017).
972:"The Spread of Antibiotic Resistance Genes In Vivo Model"
84:. The global spread of MDR plasmids has been enhanced by
1809:. Antibiotic Resistance: Challenges and Opportunities.
1333:"Viral and nonviral delivery systems for gene delivery"
466:"conjugation (prokaryotes) | Learn Science at Scitable"
100:
determinants, specific enzymes or resistance to toxic
970:
Tao S, Chen H, Li N, Wang T, Liang W (18 July 2022).
2791:
2719:
2632:
2500:
2382:
2371:
2344:
2316:
2266:
2255:
2228:
2217:
2162:
2091:
1974:Oktem IM, Gulay Z, Bicmen M, Gur D (January 2008).
261:Members of family Enterobacteriaceae, for example,
1099:"Protein Dynamics in F-like Bacterial Conjugation"
1025:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. p. 633.
346:, as well as efflux transporters OqxAB and QepA.
1619:Azeez DA, Findik D, Hatice TÜ, Arslan U (2018).
249:) and are less inhibited by another antibiotic (
1574:Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control
639:Mathers AJ, Peirano G, Pitout JD (July 2015).
2068:
1225:Helinski DR (December 2022). Kaper JB (ed.).
289:(ESBL) are common for resistance plasmids in
8:
1554:"Distribution of quinolone resistance gene (
1284:"Membrane-associated DNA transport machines"
1807:Infectious Disease Clinics of North America
826:Associated With United States Food Animals"
2379:
2263:
2225:
2075:
2061:
2053:
1801:Doi Y, Wachino JI, Arakawa Y (June 2016).
1288:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
220:, or less commonly through viral mediated
2034:
2023:The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
1991:
1956:
1945:The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
1921:
1867:
1826:
1777:
1736:
1726:
1709:Ramirez MS, Tolmasky ME (December 2017).
1685:
1636:
1595:
1585:
1528:
1425:
1414:The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
1358:
1348:
1331:Nayerossadat N, Maedeh T, Ali PA (2012).
1307:
1250:
1175:
1165:
1124:
1114:
1073:
1063:
997:
987:
946:
936:
892:
851:
841:
773:
763:
722:
664:
559:
507:
441:
27:Antibiotic resistance caused by a plasmid
1486:Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology
552:10.1146/annurev.biochem.78.082907.145923
297:Extended spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL)
1980:Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases
1939:Nordmann P, Poirel L (September 2005).
416:
1509:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
72:genes, contributing to the spread of
36:An example plasmid with two areas of
7:
1463:10.1128/microbiolspec.MTBP-0006-2016
692:
690:
688:
686:
684:
591:
589:
587:
585:
583:
581:
579:
529:
527:
1200:"Prokaryotic Cell Structure: Pili"
1052:Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences
894:10.1111/j.1574-6976.1998.tb00355.x
536:"Multidrug resistance in bacteria"
25:
302:but have been spreading as well.
287:extended spectrum beta-lactamases
92:Properties of resistance plasmids
1282:Burton B, Dubnau D (July 2010).
1243:10.1128/ecosalplus.ESP-0028-2021
610:10.2165/11597960-000000000-00000
208:, not necessarily from the same
172:Functions of Resistance Plasmids
163:Structure of Resistance Plasmids
1521:10.1128/AAC.49.8.3523-3525.2005
703:British Journal of Pharmacology
2729:Last universal common ancestor
2324:Defective interfering particle
424:San Millan A (December 2018).
1:
2865:Clonally transmissible cancer
2301:Satellite-like nucleic acids
1902:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1666:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1227:"A Brief History of Plasmids"
645:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
540:Annual Review of Biochemistry
132:-promoted gene mobilization.
1337:Advanced Biomedical Research
875:Zatyka M, Thomas CM (1998).
323:hospital-acquired infections
1300:10.1101/cshperspect.a000406
1116:10.3390/biomedicines8090362
919:Peterson E, Kaur P (2018).
765:10.3390/antibiotics11060706
196:; they can construct a sex
59:genes which are carried on
53:Plasmid-mediated resistance
2919:
2421:Class II or DNA transposon
2416:Class I or retrotransposon
1993:10.7883/yoken.JJID.2008.13
407:log phase of host growth.
146:R-factor (crystallography)
143:
2734:Earliest known life forms
2608:Repeated sequences in DNA
1856:FEMS Microbiology Ecology
1819:10.1016/j.idc.2016.02.011
1766:FEMS Microbiology Letters
1728:10.3390/molecules22122267
1587:10.1186/s13756-019-0552-0
1023:Biology A Global Approach
925:Frontiers in Microbiology
881:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
830:Frontiers in Microbiology
797:Sevim A, Sevim E (2015).
697:Bennett PM (March 2008).
534:Nikaido H (1 June 2009).
443:10.1016/j.tim.2018.06.007
350:Aminoglycoside resistance
204:. Conjugation allows two
2903:Antimicrobial resistance
2581:Endogenous viral element
2399:Horizontal gene transfer
1625:Cukurova Medical Journal
1065:10.3389/fmolb.2016.00071
938:10.3389/fmicb.2018.02928
843:10.3389/fmicb.2019.00832
194:horizontal gene transfer
2278:dsDNA satellite virus (
1382:Dahal P (20 May 2022).
1350:10.4103/2277-9175.98152
2836:Helper dependent virus
2152:Biological dark matter
715:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707607
709:(Suppl 1): S347–S357.
430:Trends in Microbiology
277:Beta-lactam resistance
254:
78:Gram-negative bacteria
49:
2596:Endogenous retrovirus
2569:Origin of replication
2285:ssDNA satellite virus
2275:ssRNA satellite virus
1869:10.1093/femsec/fix090
1779:10.1093/femsle/fnx129
1451:Microbiology Spectrum
1167:10.3390/genes11111239
368:reduced permeability.
270:Klebsiella pneumoniae
237:
156:antibiotic resistance
70:antibiotic resistance
68:often carry multiple
57:antibiotic resistance
46:origin of replication
38:antibiotic resistance
35:
2540:Secondary chromosome
2535:Extrachromosomal DNA
2411:Transposable element
1914:10.1128/CMR.00016-09
1678:10.1128/CMR.00016-09
1638:10.17826/cumj.341637
989:10.1155/2022/3348695
657:10.1128/CMR.00116-14
490:Tsang J (May 2017).
329:Quinolone resistance
80:, especially family
74:multidrug-resistance
2776:Model lipid bilayer
2618:Interspersed repeat
1237:(1): eESP00282021.
1021:Campbell N (2018).
824:Salmonella enterica
365:acetyltransferases.
55:is the transfer of
2086:organic structures
2036:10.1093/jac/dkq304
1958:10.1093/jac/dki245
1427:10.1093/jac/dkx488
1206:on 7 December 2016
291:Enterobacteriaceae
255:
229:Enterobacteriaceae
86:selective pressure
82:Enterobacteriaceae
50:
2880:
2879:
2821:Non-cellular life
2628:
2627:
2367:
2366:
2340:
2339:
2294:ssRNA satellite (
2029:(10): 2256–2258.
1032:978-1-292-17043-5
16:(Redirected from
2910:
2557:Gene duplication
2380:
2376:self-replication
2264:
2226:
2084:Self-replicating
2077:
2070:
2063:
2054:
2048:
2038:
2013:
1995:
1970:
1960:
1935:
1925:
1882:
1881:
1871:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1830:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1740:
1730:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1689:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1599:
1589:
1564:Escherichia coli
1549:
1543:
1542:
1532:
1515:(8): 3523–3525.
1500:
1494:
1493:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1429:
1420:(5): 1121–1137.
1405:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1379:
1373:
1372:
1362:
1352:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1311:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1254:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1202:. Archived from
1196:
1190:
1189:
1179:
1169:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1128:
1118:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1077:
1067:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1018:
1012:
1011:
1001:
991:
967:
961:
960:
950:
940:
916:
907:
906:
896:
872:
866:
865:
855:
845:
817:
811:
810:
794:
788:
787:
777:
767:
743:
737:
736:
726:
694:
679:
678:
668:
636:
630:
629:
593:
574:
573:
563:
531:
522:
521:
511:
487:
481:
480:
478:
476:
462:
456:
455:
445:
421:
371:enhanced efflux.
264:Escherichia coli
239:Escherichia coli
110:fluoroquinolones
21:
2918:
2917:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2876:
2826:Synthetic virus
2814:Artificial cell
2787:
2715:
2624:
2513:RNA replication
2508:DNA replication
2496:
2487:Group II intron
2385:
2375:
2363:
2354:Mammalian prion
2336:
2312:
2291:dsRNA satellite
2288:ssDNA satellite
2258:
2251:
2220:
2213:
2158:
2087:
2081:
2051:
2016:
1973:
1938:
1895:
1891:
1889:Further reading
1886:
1885:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1568:Klebsiella spp.
1551:
1550:
1546:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1492:(4): 2667–2671.
1483:
1482:
1478:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1390:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1209:
1207:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1020:
1019:
1015:
969:
968:
964:
918:
917:
910:
874:
873:
869:
819:
818:
814:
796:
795:
791:
745:
744:
740:
696:
695:
682:
638:
637:
633:
595:
594:
577:
533:
532:
525:
496:Postdoc Journal
489:
488:
484:
474:
472:
464:
463:
459:
436:(12): 978–985.
423:
422:
418:
413:
397:antisense sRNAs
393:AS-repA3 (CopA)
381:
352:
331:
315:
299:
279:
232:
190:
174:
165:
149:
142:
114:aminoglycosides
94:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2916:
2914:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2885:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2874:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2852:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2823:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2713:
2708:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2693:
2691:Kappa organism
2688:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2649:
2638:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2562:Non-coding DNA
2559:
2554:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2482:Group I intron
2479:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2457:
2448:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2404:Genomic island
2401:
2390:
2388:
2384:Mobile genetic
2377:
2369:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2350:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2320:
2318:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2299:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2276:
2272:
2270:
2261:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2242:
2234:
2232:
2223:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2209:dsDNA-RT virus
2206:
2204:ssRNA-RT virus
2201:
2199:(−)ssRNA virus
2196:
2194:(+)ssRNA virus
2191:
2186:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2168:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2139:Incertae sedis
2135:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2108:
2103:
2097:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2072:
2065:
2057:
2050:
2049:
2014:
1971:
1951:(3): 463–469.
1936:
1908:(4): 664–689.
1892:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1842:
1813:(2): 523–537.
1793:
1752:
1701:
1672:(4): 664–689.
1652:
1631:(2): 295–300.
1611:
1570:in Lomé, Togo"
1544:
1495:
1476:
1441:
1400:
1374:
1323:
1294:(7): a000406.
1274:
1217:
1191:
1140:
1089:
1038:
1031:
1013:
962:
908:
887:(4): 291–319.
867:
812:
789:
738:
680:
651:(3): 565–591.
631:
575:
546:(1): 119–146.
523:
482:
470:www.nature.com
457:
415:
414:
412:
409:
380:
377:
376:
375:
372:
369:
366:
357:Aminoglycoside
351:
348:
330:
327:
318:Carbapenemases
314:
313:Carbapenemases
311:
298:
295:
278:
275:
231:
226:
218:transformation
189:
186:
185:
184:
181:
178:
173:
170:
164:
161:
141:
138:
93:
90:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2915:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2845:
2844:Nanobacterium
2841:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2809:Cell division
2807:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2657:
2653:
2652:Hydrogenosome
2650:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2642:Mitochondrion
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2634:Endosymbiosis
2631:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2613:Tandem repeat
2611:
2610:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2545:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2501:Other aspects
2499:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2315:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2246:Avsunviroidae
2243:
2241:
2240:
2239:Pospiviroidae
2236:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2216:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2093:Cellular life
2090:
2085:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2059:
2058:
2055:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1879:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1653:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1548:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1457:(1): 6.1.06.
1456:
1452:
1445:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1401:
1389:
1388:Microbe Notes
1385:
1378:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1327:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1205:
1201:
1195:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
981:
977:
973:
966:
963:
958:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
913:
909:
904:
900:
895:
890:
886:
882:
878:
871:
868:
863:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
835:
831:
827:
825:
816:
813:
808:
804:
800:
793:
790:
785:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
757:
753:
749:
742:
739:
734:
730:
725:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
693:
691:
689:
687:
685:
681:
676:
672:
667:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
635:
632:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
592:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
576:
571:
567:
562:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
530:
528:
524:
519:
515:
510:
505:
501:
497:
493:
486:
483:
471:
467:
461:
458:
453:
449:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
420:
417:
410:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
378:
373:
370:
367:
363:
362:
361:
358:
349:
347:
345:
341:
340:ciprofloxacin
336:
328:
326:
324:
319:
312:
310:
308:
303:
296:
294:
292:
288:
283:
276:
274:
272:
271:
266:
265:
259:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
230:
227:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
187:
182:
179:
176:
175:
171:
169:
162:
160:
157:
153:
147:
139:
137:
133:
131:
127:
123:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
91:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
66:
62:
58:
54:
47:
44:(1,2) and an
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
2898:Cell biology
2831:Viral vector
2674:Gerontoplast
2601:Transpoviron
2373:Nucleic acid
2359:Fungal prion
2257:Helper-virus
2244:
2237:
2144:
2137:
2026:
2022:
1986:(1): 13–17.
1983:
1979:
1948:
1944:
1905:
1901:
1859:
1855:
1845:
1810:
1806:
1796:
1769:
1765:
1755:
1721:(12): 2267.
1718:
1714:
1704:
1669:
1665:
1655:
1628:
1624:
1614:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1479:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1417:
1413:
1403:
1391:. Retrieved
1387:
1377:
1340:
1336:
1326:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1208:. Retrieved
1204:the original
1194:
1160:(11): 1239.
1157:
1153:
1143:
1106:
1103:Biomedicines
1102:
1092:
1055:
1051:
1041:
1022:
1016:
979:
975:
965:
928:
924:
884:
880:
870:
833:
829:
823:
815:
806:
802:
792:
755:
751:
741:
706:
702:
648:
644:
634:
601:
597:
543:
539:
499:
495:
485:
473:. Retrieved
469:
460:
433:
429:
419:
404:
403:shortened t
400:
384:
382:
353:
332:
316:
304:
300:
290:
284:
280:
268:
262:
260:
256:
250:
246:
242:
238:
228:
222:transduction
191:
188:Transmission
166:
151:
150:
134:
129:
118:
106:beta-lactams
102:heavy metals
95:
52:
51:
29:
2855:Cancer cell
2721:Abiogenesis
2669:Chromoplast
2664:Chloroplast
2447:Degradative
2189:dsRNA virus
2184:ssDNA virus
2177:Giant virus
2172:dsDNA virus
1231:EcoSal Plus
982:: 3348695.
752:Antibiotics
604:(1): 1–16.
344:norfloxacin
126:transposons
65:conjugation
2887:Categories
2763:Proteinoid
2758:Coacervate
2711:Nitroplast
2704:Trophosome
2699:Bacteriome
2684:Apicoplast
2679:Leucoplast
2520:Chromosome
2438:Resistance
2146:Parakaryon
1580:(1): 104.
1562:producing
1210:19 January
1109:(9): 362.
758:(6): 706.
502:(5): 3–9.
411:References
389:small RNAs
379:small RNAs
307:resistance
2772:Research
2753:Protocell
2492:Retrozyme
2451:Virulence
2433:Fertility
2280:Virophage
2268:Satellite
2259:dependent
2111:Eukaryota
1715:Molecules
1393:9 January
1269:254686832
475:6 January
335:Quinolone
152:R-factors
122:integrons
98:virulence
2893:Plasmids
2799:Organism
2792:See also
2768:Sulphobe
2745:Ribozyme
2740:RNA life
2647:Mitosome
2591:Prophage
2586:Provirus
2574:Replicon
2530:Circular
2477:Phagemid
2394:Mobilome
2386:elements
2296:Virusoid
2219:Subviral
2131:Protista
2116:Animalia
2101:Bacteria
2045:20699244
2010:24744915
2002:18219128
1967:16020539
1932:19822894
1878:28854680
1837:27208771
1788:28637330
1747:29257114
1696:19822894
1647:49553107
1606:31244995
1539:16048974
1471:29350130
1436:29370371
1369:23210086
1318:20573715
1261:35373578
1252:10729939
1186:33105635
1135:32961700
1084:27891505
1008:35898691
957:30555448
931:: 2928.
903:25481925
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