1208:, farmers that employed hybrid seeds and fertilizer supplements were able to double or even triple their yields per acre. Unfortunately, these products came at a relatively high cost, out of the reach of many farmers struggling after the devaluation of the price of maize. The combined effects of the maize price regulation and the Green Revolution was the consolidation of small farms into larger estates. A 1974 study conducted by Osorio concluded that in 1960, about 50.3% of the individual land plots in Mexico contained less than 5 hectares of land. In contrast, the top 0.5% of estates by land spanned 28.3% of all arable land. As many small farmers lost land, they either migrated to the cities or became migrant workers roving from large estate to large estate. Between 1950 and 1970, the proportion of migrant workers increased from 36.7% to 54% of the total population. The centralized pattern of industrial development and government policies overwhelmingly favoring industrialization contributed to massive rural flight in Mexico beginning in the late 1960s until the present day.
886:, greatly restricted the ability of their citizens to internally migrate. Since 1983, the Chinese government has progressively lifted the restrictions on internal migration. This has led to a great increase in the number of people migrating to urban areas. However, even today, the hukou system limits the ability of rural migrants to receive full access to urban social services at the urban subsidized costs.As with most examples of rural flight, several factors have led towards China's massive urbanization. Income disparity, family pressure, surplus labor in rural areas due to higher average fertility rates, and improved living conditions all play a role in contributing to the flows of migrants from rural to urban areas. In 2014, approximately 250 million rural migrants lived in cities with 54% of the total Chinese population living in urban areas.
758:. Since the industrialization of agriculture, mechanization has reduced the number of jobs present in rural communities. Some scholars have also attributed rural flight to the effects of globalization as the demand for increased economic competitiveness leads people to choose capital over labor. At the same time, rural fertility rates have historically been higher than urban fertility rates. The combination of declining rural jobs and a persistently high rural fertility rate has led to rural-urban migration streams. Rural flight also contains a positive feedback loop where previous migrants from rural communities assist new migrants in adjusting to city life. Also known as
705:, and livestock industries has meant that there are fewer small businesses in rural areas. This decrease in turn exacerbated the decreased demand for labor. Rural areas that used to be able to provide employment for all young adults willing to work in challenging conditions, increasingly provide fewer opportunities for young adults. The situation is made worse by the decrease in services such as schools, business, and cultural opportunities that accompany the decline in population, and the increasing age of the remaining population further stresses the social service system of rural areas.
1217:
worsens underemployment and unemployment, common among rural migrants. Employers offer lower wages and poorer labor conditions to rural migrants, who must compete with each other for limited jobs, often unaware of their labor rights. Rural migrants often experience poor living conditions as well. Many cities have exploded in population; services and infrastructure, in these cities, are unable to keep up with population growth. Massive influxes in rural population can lead to severe housing shortages, inadequate water and energy supply, and general slum-like conditions throughout cities.
714:
600:
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754:, migration to urban areas will continue as long as "expected urban real income at the margin exceeds real agricultural product" (127). However, sociologist Josef Gugler points out that while individual benefits of increased wages may outweigh the costs of migration, if enough individuals follow this rationale, it can produce harmful effects such as overcrowding and unemployment on a national level. This phenomenon, when the rate of urbanization outpaces the rate of economic growth, is known as
1118:. Between 1939 and 1959, the rural population declined by 21.3 million, while that of urban centers increased by 39.4 million. Of this dramatic shift in population, rural flight accounts for more than 60% of the change. Generally, most rural migrants tended to settle in cities and towns within their district. Rural flight persisted through the majority of the 20th century. However, with the
1110:. In 1926 only 18% of Russians lived in urban areas, compared to over 75% at the same time in the United Kingdom. Although the process began later, throughout World War II and the decades immediately proceeding, rural flight proceeded at a rapid pace. By 1965, 53% of Russians lived in urban areas. Statistics compiled by M. Ya Sonin, a Soviet author, in 1959, demonstrate the rapid
555:, rural flight occurred in mostly localized regions. Pre-industrial societies did not experience large rural-urban migration flows primarily due to the inability of cities to support large populations. Lack of large employment industries, high urban mortality, and low food supplies all served as checks keeping pre-industrial cities much smaller than their modern counterparts.
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33:
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wage increases in the urban areas pulled young people to migrate for work and at the same time drove down work opportunities in the countryside. Between 1925 and 1965, Sweden's GDP per capita increased from US$ 850 to US$ 6200. Simultaneously, the percentage of the population living in rural areas decreased drastically from 54% in 1925 to 21% in 1965.
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agricultural wages, debt peonage, semi-feudalism, and religious oppression by the State church. Most of the migration was ad-hoc and directed towards emigration to the three big cities of Sweden, America, Denmark, or
Germany. Many of these first emigrants were unskilled, barely literate laborers who sought farm work or daily wage labour in the cities.
543:. To some extent, governments generally seek only to manage rural flight and channel it into certain cities, rather than stop it outright as this would imply taking on the expensive task of building airports, railways, hospitals, and universities in places with few users to support them, while neglecting growing urban and suburban areas.
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many as one out of every four residents in the Plains States left during the 1930s. More recently, drought in Syria from 2006 to 2011 has prompted a rural exodus to major urban centers. Massive influxes in urban areas, combined with difficult living conditions, have prompted some scholars to link the drought to the arrival of the
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However, as government policies increasingly favored industry over agriculture, rural conditions began to deteriorate. In 1957, the
Mexican government began to regulate the price of maize through massive imports in order to keep low urban food costs. This regulation severely undercut the market price
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demonstrate this trend with over 1.8 million jobs created over the course of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. Young people with schooling were the segment of population most likely to migrate away from rural life to urban life, attracted by the promise of many jobs and a more modern lifestyle as compared
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implemented a series of agricultural reforms that led to massive redistribution of agricultural land among the rural peasants. Some commentators have subsequently dubbed the period from 1940 to 1965 as the "Golden Era for
Mexican Migration." During this period, Mexican agriculture grew at an average
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Although migrants came from all segments of society, several groups were more likely to migrate than others. Like other examples of rural flight, the young were more likely than the old to migrate to the cities. Young women under 20 were the most likely segment of the population to leave rural life.
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Lastly, natural disasters can often be single-point events that lead to temporarily massive rural-urban migration flows. The 1930s Dust Bowl in the United States, for example, led to the flight of 2.5 million people from the Plains by 1940, many to the new cities in the West. It is estimated that as
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Some families choose to send their children to cities as a form of investment for the future. A study conducted by Bates and
Bennett (1974) concluded that rural communities in Zambia that had other viable investment opportunities, like livestock for instance, had lower rates of rural-urban migration
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Additionally, rural migrants often struggle adjusting to city life. In some instances, there are cultural differences between the rural and urban areas of a region. Lost in urban regions, it becomes difficult for them to continue holding onto their cultural traditions. Urban residents may also look
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The second wave started from the late 1890s and reached its peak between 1922 and 1967, with the highest rates of rural flight occurring in the 1920s and the 1950s. This was mostly "pull factors" due to the economic boom and industrial prosperity in Sweden wherein the massive economic expansion and
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There are several determinants, push and pull, that contribute to rural flight: lower levels of (perceived) economic opportunity in rural communities versus urban ones, lower levels of government investment in rural communities, greater education opportunities in cities, marriages, increased social
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Rural flight in Russia and the former USSR had several major determinants. The industrialization of agriculture, which came later in Russia and the former USSR, led to declines in available rural jobs. Lower living standards and tough work also motivated some peasants to migrate to urban areas. In
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Rural counties in the United States make up about 70 percent of the nation's land mass. Historically, population increase from births in rural areas more than compensated for the number of people moving from rural areas to urban areas, but from 2010 to 2016, rural areas lost population in absolute
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and encouragement from their parents, rural youth may choose to migrate to cities out of social norms – demonstrating leadership and self-respect. With this societal encouragement combined with depressed rural economies, rural youth form a large proportion of the migrants moving to urban areas. In
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In other instances, rural flight may occur in response to social determinants. A study conducted in 2012 indicated that a significant proportion of rural flight in India occurred due to social factors such as migration with household, marriage, and education. Migration with households and marriage
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have grown into, or have been replaced by, heavily mechanized and specialized industrial farms. While a small family farm typically produced a wide range of crop, garden, and animal products—all requiring substantial labor—large industrial farms typically specialize in just a few crop or livestock
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in the late 19th century removed many of these checks. As food supplies increased and stabilized and industrialized centers arose, cities began to support larger populations, sparking the start of rural flight on a massive scale. The United
Kingdom went from having 20% of the population living in
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for governments, which can lead to closures of state-funded offices and services, which further harm the rural economy. Schools are the archetypal example because they influence the decisions of parents of young children: a village or region without a school will typically lose families to larger
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Women, in particular, face a unique set of challenges. Some women undergo rural flight to escape domestic abuse or forced early marriages. Some parents choose to send women to cities to find jobs in order to send remittances back home. Once in the city, employers may attempt to take advantage of
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The rise of corporate agricultural structures directly affects small rural communities, resulting in decreased populations, decreased incomes for some segments, increased income inequality, decreased community participation, fewer retail outlets and less retail trade, and increased environmental
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Rural migrants to cities face several challenges that may hinder their quality of life upon moving into urbanized areas. Many migrants do not have the education or skills to acquire decent jobs in cities and are then forced into unstable, low paying jobs. The steady stream of new rural migrants
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Rural flight and out-migration in Sweden can be traced in two distinct waves. The first, beginning in the 1850s when 82% of the
Swedish population lived in rural areas, and continuing till the late 1880s, was mostly due to push factors in the countryside related to poverty, unemployment, low
619:
to commodity crops and livestock began in the late 19th century. New capital market systems and the railroad network began the trend towards larger farms that employed fewer people per acre. These larger farms used more efficient technologies such as steel plows, mechanical
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This exodus of young women further exacerbated the demographic transitions occurring in rural communities as the rate of natural increase dropped precipitously over the course of the 20th century. Lastly, the skilled and educated were also likely to migrate to urban areas.
994:
lost about 1,600,000 people to the cities, where these former agricultural workers were absorbed into the rapidly growing factory labor class; One of the causes of this mass-migration was the decrease in rural income compared to the rates of pay in the cities.
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these women preying on their unfamiliarity with labor laws and social networks on which to rely. In the worst of cases, destitution may force women into prostitution, exposing them to social stigma and the risks of sexually transmitted diseases.
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as compared to regions without viable investment opportunities. Sending their children into cities can serve as long-term investments with the hope that their children will be able to send remittances back home after getting a job in the city.
1137:, experienced gains, contradicting the general pattern of rural-urban migration of this period. Increased diversification of crops and labor shortages were primary contributors to the gains in rural population in the periphery.
781:. This has led to the loss of farmland, range land, woodlands and water sources from local communities. Large-scale agricultural projects funded by FDI only employed a few experts specialized in the relevant new technologies.
624:, and higher-yield seed stock, which reduced human input per unit of production. The other issue on the Great Plains was that people were using inappropriate farming techniques for the soil and weather conditions. Most
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rate of 5.7% outpacing the natural increase of 3% of the rural population. Concurrently, government policies favoring industrialization led to a massive increase of industrial jobs in the cities. Statistics compiled in
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to the conservative conditions in rural villages. Additionally, due to the large demand for new workers, many of these jobs had low entrance requirements that also provided on-site job training opening the avenue for
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Rural flight in Mexico occurred throughout the 1930s up until the present day. Like other developing nations, the beginning of industrialization in Mexico quickly accelerated the rate of rural flight.
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down upon these newcomers to the city who are often unaware of city social norms. Both marginalized and separated from their home cultures, migrants face many social challenges when moving to cities.
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Some migrants choose to leave rural communities out of the desire to pursue greater economic opportunity in urban areas. Greater economic opportunities can be real or perceived. According to the
469:(refining and processing) are consolidated. Rural exodus can also follow an ecological or human-caused catastrophe such as a famine or resource depletion. These are examples of
358:
1624:
Davis, Kingsley, and Hilda Hertz Golden. "Urbanization and the
Development of Pre-Industrial Areas." Economic Development and Cultural Change 3, no. 1 (October 1954): 6–26.
762:, migrant networks lower barriers to rural flight. For example, an overwhelming majority of rural migrants in China located jobs in urban areas through migrant networks.
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Rural youth may choose to leave their rural communities as a method of transitioning into adulthood, seeking avenues to greater prosperity. With the stagnation of the
628:
had family farms generally considered too small to survive (under 320 acres), and
European-American subsistence farming could not continue as it was then practiced.
850:
1322:
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Since the 1990s, China has merged schools into more centralized village-, town-, or county-level schools in rural areas to address some of these very problems.
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to many rural residents. From 1940 to about 1965, rural flight occurred in a slow, yet steady pace with both agriculture and industry growing concurrently.
1036:
has negative connotations in German, as it was coined by agricultural employers, often of the German aristocracy, who were lamenting their labor shortages.
434:
1995:
Shoemaker, Robert B. (1999). "Prosecution and
Punishment. Petty crime and the law in London and rural Middlesex, c. 1660–1725". Essex: Longman: Harlow.
882:, like many other currently industrializing countries, has had a relatively late start to rural flight. Until 1983, the Chinese government, through the
1163:'s wage reforms in 1965 ameliorated the low wages received by peasants, rural life remained suffocating, especially for the skilled and the educated.
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affect women in particular as most often they are the ones required to move with households and move for marriage, especially in developing regions.
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varieties, using large machinery and high-density livestock containment systems that require a fraction of the labor per unit produced. For example,
2556:
1239:
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In 1870 the rural population of
Germany constituted 64% of the population; by 1907 it had shrunk to 33%. In 1900 alone, the Prussian provinces of
386:
674:"Women leave in greater numbers than men. There is a glass ceiling for women everywhere, but in rural areas it tends to be made of thick steel."
1933:
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Poorer people face severe challenges in the agricultural sector because of diminishing access to productive farmland. Foreign investors through
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system (the collective farms in the Soviet Union) aided in maintaining low living standards for Soviet peasants. Beginning around 1928, the
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regions, and to a lesser extent rural areas of the northeast and southeast and Appalachia. It is also particularly noticeable in parts of
1514:
Cai, Weixian; Chen, Gong; Zhu, Feng (2017). "Has the compulsory school merger program reduced the welfare of rural residents in China?".
1130:
1677:
1122:, rural flight reversed as political and economic instability in the cities prompted many urban dwellers to return to rural villages.
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urban areas in 1800 to more than 70% by 1925. While the late 19th century and early 20th century saw much of rural flight focused in
1830:
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experienced the greatest declines in rural population, 30% and 17% respectively. Conversely, peripheral regions of the USSR, like
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into Poland after World War II. Also, some labor-intensive enterprises were replaced by much less labor-intensive ones such as
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Rural flight has been occurring to some degree in Germany since the 11th century. A corresponding principle of German law is
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Sub-Saharan Africa, a study conducted by Touray in 2006 indicated that about 15% (26 million) of urban migrants were youth.
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throughout the Soviet Union. Forced to work long hours for low pay at rates fixed by the government and often unadjusted to
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and migrant workers, particularly Poles from the east (Sachsengänger), became more common. This was especially true in the
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and the Midwest due to depressed commodity prices and high debt loads exacerbated by several years of drought and large
1878:
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in Iowa dropped from 65,000 in 1980 to 10,000 in 2002, while the number of hogs per farm increased from 200 to 1,400.
195:
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their livestock. They sometimes resorted to illegal means to support their families. This was followed, in turn, by
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682:
249:
2018:
The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present
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followed quickly behind. In the early twenty-first century, rural flight was especially distinctive phenomenon in
499:. Even in non-market sectors of the economy, providing services to smaller and more dispersed populations becomes
2514:
1634:
Perz, Stephen (2000). "The Rural Exodus in the Context of Economic Crisis, Globalization, and Reform in Brazil".
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379:
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1959:
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Government policies to combat rural flight include campaigns to expand services to the countryside, such as
72:
37:
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2596:
1002:
450:
372:
269:
84:
1805:
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Arizpe, Lourdes (Winter 1981). "The Rural Exodus in Mexico and Mexican Migration to the United States".
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552:
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274:
89:
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1159:, Russian peasants experienced quite low living-conditions - especially compared to urban life. While
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which sent offenders out of the country, often Australia. Eventually, economic measures produced the
903:
608:
509:
458:
301:
41:
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1903:
Liang, Zai; Zhongdong Ma (2004). "China's floating population: new evidence from the 2000 census".
1244:
1234:
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1045:
987:
938:
751:
653:
616:
116:
2212:
Wegren, Stephen K. (July 1995). "Rural Migration and Agrarian Reform in Russia: A Research Note".
1017:. The Polish population of eastern Germany was one of the justifications for the creation of the "
898:
in the 16th and 17th centuries. This created unrest in rural areas as tenants were then unable to
495:, the population is too small to support certain businesses, which then also leave or close, in a
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588:
532:
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329:
222:
163:
2140:
Wadekin, Karl-Eugen (October 1966). "Internal Migration and the Flight from the Land in USSR".
1572:
933:("city air makes you free after a year and a day"): by custom and, from 1231/32, by statute, a
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2489:
2460:
2436:
2316:
2237:
2021:
1996:
1981:
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Loyalka, Prashant; Rozelle, Scott; Luo, Renfu; Zhang, Linxiu; Liu, Chengfang (November 2010).
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to make rural flight illegal. Economic conditions that can counter rural depopulation include
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Resource repletion and ecological factors: case study of the Dust Bowl in 1930s North America
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60:
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1543:"The Effect of Primary School Mergers on Academic Performance of Students in Rural China"
1054:
The rural exodus of Scotland followed that of England, but delayed by several centuries.
1341:
17:
2175:
Sonin, M. Ya. (March 1959). "Vosproizvodstvo rabochei sily v SSSR i balans truda": 144.
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899:
648:
625:
572:
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540:
496:
465:—when fewer people are needed to bring the same amount of output to market—and related
94:
2118:
A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland and the Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides
1573:"In the Wake of Nuclear Disaster, Animals Are Thriving in the Red Forest of Chernobyl"
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1916:
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826:
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156:
111:
104:
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Shaw, R. Paul (October 1974). "Land Tenure and the Rural Exodus in Latin America".
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He deplored the exodus but did not have the information to analyze the problem.
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324:
242:
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168:
146:
1806:"Youth migration and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: Empowering the Rural Youth"
1647:
44:, illustrating the flight of young female adults (red) to urban centers in Iowa
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Urbanization and Values: Volume 5 of Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change
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2153:
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resulted in a major transformation of the German countryside and agriculture.
959:
953:
695:
662:
647:. Rural flight from the Great Plains has been depicted in literature, such as
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415:
151:
51:
1772:
International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences
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632:
604:
536:
481:
2320:
2241:
1090:
2530:
Land, Labor and the Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, 1882–1914
1739:
Learning knowledge and skills for agriculture to improve rural livelihoods
1714:
681:
Post-World War II rural flight has been caused primarily by the spread of
32:
2392:
Osorio, S.R (1974). "Estructura Agrariay Desarrollo Agricola en Mexico".
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778:
774:
254:
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in a city was free, and could not be reclaimed by their former master.
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869:
A Chinese migrant worker leaving the worksite after a shift in a city.
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spread throughout the world during the 20th century, rural flight and
1455:"Rural areas bear the burden of Japan's ageing, shrinking population"
830:
621:
508:) can be applied more generally to many services and is explained by
173:
141:
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1200:
lowering the profit margins of small farmers. At the same time, the
2362:
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occurred over about 110 years from the 18th to the 19th centuries.
773:(FDI) schemes have been encouraged to lease land in rural areas in
1197:
1125:
Rural flight did not occur uniformly throughout the USSR. Western
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879:
864:
712:
598:
584:
31:
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acceptance in urban areas, and higher levels of rural fertility.
563:, scholars estimate, had peak populations of 80,000 and 500,000.
2459:(1991 ed.). Council for Research in Values and Philosophy.
1588:"Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis"
1115:
1103:
934:
477:
476:
The same phenomenon can also be brought about simply because of
1021:" after World War I and the absorption of the land east of the
676:
Hiroya Masuda, author of Japanese report on rural depopulation.
2563:
Ravenstein, E. G. (1889): "The Laws of Migration", in London:
2554:
Ravenstein, E. G. (1885): "The Laws of Migration", in London:
1678:"China Human Development Report 2005: Development with Equity"
1204:
had entered into Mexican agriculture. Inspired by the work of
1984:(1998). "The Lost Villages of England (Revised ed.)". Sutton.
1310:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. pp. 353–391.
1056:
Consolidation of farms and elimination of inefficient tenants
2103:
The Highland Clearances: People, Landlords and Rural Turmoil
1094:
The defunct church in the abandoned village Novospasskoye,
2336:
Enough: Why the World's Poorest Starve in an Age of Plenty
971:(and throughout most of Europe) in the late 19th century.
894:
A focus by landowners on efficient production led to the
833:
to describe the flight of people from rural areas in the
1062:
encountered this in 1773 and documented it in his work
1102:
Rural flight began later for the former states of the
27:
Migratory pattern of people from rural to urban areas
2511:
Modern and Contemporary European History (1815–1922)
359:
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants
1879:"Rural Population Loss and Strategies for Recovery"
1426:
1397:
1308:Population: an introduction to concepts and issues
2482:Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow
2101:Richards, Eric (2008). "Answers and Questions".
2069:
2067:
1611:Gugler, Josef. "Overurbanization Reconsidered."
1547:International Journal of Educational Development
1429:Dust to eat: drought and depression in the 1930s
2509:Jacob Salwyn Schapiro, James Thomson Shotwell.
1854:"A rural exodus as drought takes hold of Syria"
1400:Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West
672:
1768:"Determinants of Rural Out-Migration in India"
1766:Hassan, Tarique; Khan, Jabir (December 2012).
2120:(James Boswell ed.). London: Penguin UK.
2057:
2055:
967:of peasants into the cities that occurred in
523:. Governments can also use restrictions like
404:rural-to-urban migration, rural depopulation,
380:
8:
1928:
1926:
1696:"Determinants of the Rural Exodus in Zambia"
1065:A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland
963:("flight from the land") refers to the mass
929:("city air makes you free"), in longer form
2567:- vol. 52, nº. June 1889, pp. 241–301.
2560:- vol. 48, nº. June 1885, pp. 167–227.
2455:George F. McLean, John Kromkowski (1991).
2135:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2020:. Cambridge University Press. p. 18.
1323:"The Urbanization of the Human Population"
665:during the Dust Bowl period of the 1930s.
387:
373:
47:
2429:Europe's Population in the Interwar Years
2286:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2278:
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2207:
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2565:Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
2557:Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
2351:Economic Development and Cultural Change
1799:
1797:
1795:
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1613:Economic Development and Cultural Change
1240:Demographic history of the United States
36:Population age comparison between rural
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1280:
851:collapse of Atlantic cod fishing fields
504:towns that have one. But the concept (
50:
2189:
2178:
1934:"China's cities: The Great Transition"
931:Stadtluft macht frei nach Jahr und Tag
639:of the 1930s, large numbers of people
484:available in urban areas; examples of
2334:Thurow, Roger; Kilman, Scott (2009).
701:The consolidation of the feed, seed,
7:
641:fled rural areas of the Great Plains
491:Once rural populations fall below a
1962:. International labour organization
1615:31, no. 1 (1 October 1982): 173–89.
1086:Russia and the former Soviet states
657:(1939), in which a family from the
2394:Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica
1811:. Disponible en ligne dans le site
1636:The International Migration Review
439:East Asia in the twentieth century
25:
2528:Gershon Shafir (19 August 1996).
1905:Population and Development Review
1372:"Rural exodus to cities continue"
1350:10.1038/scientificamerican0965-40
435:Britain in the eighteenth century
426:seen from the rural perspective.
1917:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00024.x
1502:"Changes in Iowa farm structure"
1473:"Living with Hogs in Rural Iowa"
821:Depopulation of the Great Plains
2480:Ludwig von Mises (March 2006).
2091:McLean, Kromkowski 1991, p. 56.
2040:SchapiroShotwell; 1922, p. 300.
1593:. American Economic Association
1504:; University of Iowa Extension;
908:British Agricultural Revolution
568:Industrial Revolution in Europe
2534:University of California Press
2338:. New York, NY: PublicAffairs.
2293:International Migration Review
1559:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2010.05.003
501:proportionately more expensive
1:
2602:Demographic economic problems
1831:"Mass Exodus from the Plains"
441:, it can occur following the
1852:Aukalh, R. (16 March 2013).
1736:Robinson-Pant, Anna (2016).
1528:10.1016/j.chieco.2017.07.010
1212:Consequences of rural flight
857:numbers for the first time.
737:Determinants of rural flight
717:An abandoned post office in
2592:Rural community development
2416:(1909 ed.). J. Murray.
1703:Cahiers d'Études Africaines
1425:Cooper, Michael L. (2004).
2628:
2486:Ludwig von Mises Institute
1745:. UNESCO. pp. 90–91.
1648:10.1177/019791830003400308
1043:
951:
872:
825:The terms are used in the
818:
709:Abandonment of small towns
683:industrialized agriculture
575:and the United States, as
2515:Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
2226:10.1080/09668139508412292
2154:10.1080/09668136608410523
2116:Johnson, Samuel (2006) .
2105:. Edinburgh: Birlinn Ltd.
2016:Landes, David S. (1969).
771:Foreign Direct Investment
685:. Small, labor-intensive
431:industrializing economies
1396:Cronon, William (1991).
1321:Davis, Kingsley (1965).
1178:In the 1930s, President
896:enclosure of the commons
815:United States and Canada
18:Rural-to-urban migration
2260:Encyclopædia Britannica
1141:particular, the Soviet
1120:end of the Soviet Union
533:outdoor-focused tourism
38:Pocahontas County, Iowa
2188:Cite journal requires
1694:Bates, Robert (1974).
1099:
1015:Poland was partitioned
1003:Mechanized agriculture
870:
726:
694:reports the number of
679:
612:
45:
1715:10.3406/cea.1974.2636
1516:China Economic Review
1481:Iowa State University
1433:. New York: Clarion.
1287:2000 U.S. Census Data
1093:
1044:Further information:
868:
746:Economic determinants
716:
692:Iowa State University
615:The shift from mixed
602:
553:Industrial Revolution
35:
2612:Population geography
2433:Taylor & Francis
2073:Shafir 1996, p. 150.
1404:. New York: Norton.
1306:Weeks, John (2012).
1265:Unpromising villages
926:Stadtluft macht frei
904:penal transportation
609:Dallas, South Dakota
510:central place theory
467:secondary industries
250:Types of communities
42:Johnson County, Iowa
2549:- Total pages: 287
2448:- Total pages: 309
2214:Europe-Asia Studies
1883:www.richmondfed.org
1575:. 19 February 2019.
1342:1965SciAm.213c..40D
1330:Scientific American
1245:Highland Clearances
1235:Counterurbanization
1046:Highland Clearances
785:Social determinants
752:Harris-Todaro Model
654:The Grapes of Wrath
617:subsistence farming
603:The effects of the
531:, the expansion of
2607:Internal migration
2082:Drage 1909, p. 77.
1982:Beresford, Maurice
1960:"Labour Migration"
1100:
1050:Lowland Clearances
875:Migration in China
871:
727:
669:Since World War II
613:
589:sub-Saharan Africa
525:internal passports
521:distance education
482:educational access
447:primary industries
164:Indigenous peoples
46:
2550:
2543:978-0-520-20401-0
2532:(1996 ed.).
2522:
2521:Total pages: 799
2513:(1922 ed.).
2503:
2495:978-1-933550-01-5
2484:(when ed.).
2474:
2473:Total pages: 380
2466:978-1-56518-011-6
2449:
2442:978-0-677-01560-6
2431:(1969 ed.).
2421:
2420:Total pages: 846
2049:Kirk1969, p. 139.
2027:978-0-521-09418-4
2002:978-0-582-23889-3
1752:978-92-3-100169-7
1250:Rural development
1011:gained by Prussia
1007:province of Posen
890:England and Wales
577:industrialization
566:The onset of the
547:Historical trends
535:, and a shift to
529:commodities booms
443:industrialization
412:migratory pattern
397:
396:
16:(Redirected from
2619:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2504:
2502:Total pages: 108
2501:
2499:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2427:D. Kirk (1969).
2422:
2419:
2417:
2412:Geoffrey Drage.
2398:
2397:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2288:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2209:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2186:
2184:
2176:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2137:
2122:
2121:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2074:
2071:
2062:
2061:Mises2006, p. 8.
2059:
2050:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1930:
1921:
1920:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1810:
1801:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1744:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1700:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1616:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1592:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1432:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1403:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1327:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1303:
1288:
1285:
1202:Green Revolution
1151:system replaced
1023:Oder-Neisse line
939:a year and a day
756:overurbanization
723:Yaroslavl Oblast
637:Great Depression
389:
382:
375:
347:Peasant movement
337:Nomadic conflict
85:Delivery service
48:
21:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2587:Human migration
2572:
2571:
2570:
2544:
2527:
2526:
2508:
2507:
2496:
2479:
2478:
2467:
2454:
2453:
2443:
2426:
2425:
2414:Austria-Hungary
2411:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2305:10.2307/2545516
2290:
2289:
2274:
2264:
2262:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2211:
2210:
2201:
2187:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2139:
2138:
2125:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2065:
2060:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1965:
1963:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1943:
1941:
1940:. 21 March 2014
1932:
1931:
1924:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1885:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1862:
1860:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1834:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1804:Min-Harris, C.
1803:
1802:
1791:
1781:
1779:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1742:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1709:(55): 543–564.
1698:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1680:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1610:
1606:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1496:
1486:
1484:
1471:
1470:
1466:
1461:. 29 June 2019.
1453:
1452:
1448:
1441:
1424:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1380:
1378:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1305:
1304:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1260:Rural sociology
1231:
1214:
1173:
1088:
1075:
1052:
1042:
1019:Polish corridor
956:
950:
921:
916:
892:
877:
863:
843:Atlantic Canada
823:
817:
812:
787:
760:chain migration
748:
739:
711:
703:processed grain
671:
597:
549:
517:electrification
506:urban hierarchy
414:of people from
402:(also known as
393:
364:
363:
320:
312:
311:
297:
287:
286:
213:
203:
202:
137:
129:
128:
90:Electrification
63:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2625:
2623:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2582:Urban planning
2574:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2561:
2552:
2542:
2524:
2505:
2494:
2476:
2465:
2451:
2441:
2423:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2399:
2384:
2363:10.1086/450773
2357:(1): 123–132.
2341:
2326:
2299:(4): 626–649.
2272:
2247:
2220:(5): 877–888.
2199:
2190:|journal=
2167:
2148:(2): 131–152.
2142:Soviet Studies
2123:
2108:
2093:
2084:
2075:
2063:
2051:
2042:
2033:
2026:
2008:
2001:
1987:
1973:
1951:
1922:
1911:(3): 467–488.
1895:
1870:
1844:
1822:
1789:
1758:
1751:
1728:
1686:
1669:
1642:(3): 842–881.
1626:
1617:
1604:
1586:Harris, John.
1578:
1564:
1553:(6): 570–585.
1533:
1506:
1494:
1477:Iowa Ag Review
1464:
1446:
1439:
1417:
1410:
1388:
1362:
1313:
1289:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1230:
1227:
1213:
1210:
1206:Norman Borlaug
1172:
1169:
1108:Western Europe
1096:Saratov Oblast
1087:
1084:
1074:
1071:
1060:Samuel Johnson
1041:
1038:
1027:game preserves
952:Main article:
949:
943:
937:who had spent
920:
917:
915:
912:
891:
888:
873:Main article:
862:
859:
816:
813:
811:
808:
786:
783:
747:
744:
738:
735:
710:
707:
670:
667:
649:John Steinbeck
596:
593:
573:Western Europe
557:Ancient Athens
548:
545:
541:exurbanization
497:vicious circle
395:
394:
392:
391:
384:
377:
369:
366:
365:
362:
361:
356:
355:
354:
344:
339:
334:
333:
332:
321:
318:
317:
314:
313:
310:
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298:
293:
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284:
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277:
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247:
246:
245:
235:
230:
225:
220:
214:
209:
208:
205:
204:
201:
200:
199:
198:
196:in Agriculture
188:
183:
178:
177:
176:
166:
161:
160:
159:
154:
149:
147:Family farmers
138:
135:
134:
131:
130:
127:
126:
125:
124:
119:
109:
108:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
77:
76:
75:
64:
59:
58:
55:
54:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2624:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2597:Rural culture
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2545:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2497:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2468:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2444:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2395:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2342:
2337:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2261:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2182:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2119:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2097:
2094:
2088:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2046:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2029:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2009:
2004:
1998:
1991:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1939:
1938:The Economist
1935:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1896:
1884:
1880:
1874:
1871:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1845:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1807:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1759:
1754:
1748:
1741:
1740:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1690:
1687:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1630:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1608:
1605:
1589:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1537:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1495:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1465:
1460:
1459:The Economist
1456:
1450:
1447:
1442:
1440:9780618154494
1436:
1431:
1430:
1421:
1418:
1413:
1411:9780393029215
1407:
1402:
1401:
1392:
1389:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1363:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1284:
1281:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1092:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1047:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
972:
970:
966:
962:
961:
955:
948:
944:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
927:
918:
913:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
889:
887:
885:
881:
876:
867:
860:
858:
854:
852:
849:), since the
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
827:United States
822:
814:
809:
807:
805:
799:
796:
795:rural economy
791:
784:
782:
780:
776:
772:
767:
763:
761:
757:
753:
745:
743:
736:
734:
731:
724:
720:
715:
708:
706:
704:
699:
697:
693:
688:
684:
678:
677:
668:
666:
664:
660:
656:
655:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
618:
610:
606:
601:
594:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
569:
564:
562:
558:
554:
551:Prior to the
546:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
513:
511:
507:
502:
498:
494:
493:critical mass
489:
487:
483:
479:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
390:
385:
383:
378:
376:
371:
370:
368:
367:
360:
357:
353:
352:Via Campesina
350:
349:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
331:
328:
327:
326:
323:
322:
316:
315:
308:
305:
303:
300:
299:
296:
291:
290:
281:
280:United States
278:
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268:
266:
263:
262:
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258:
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251:
248:
244:
241:
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150:
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145:
144:
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140:
139:
133:
132:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
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1858:Toronto Star
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659:Great Plains
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626:homesteaders
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581:urbanization
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478:higher wages
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471:push factors
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424:urbanization
408:rural exodus
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400:Rural flight
399:
398:
302:Agricultural
243:Agricultural
232:
186:Smallholders
169:Pastoralists
40:, and urban
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1487:25 November
1376:China Daily
1185:Mexico City
919:Middle ages
804:Arab Spring
696:hog farmers
645:dust storms
631:During the
537:remote work
451:agriculture
420:urban areas
416:rural areas
325:Agrarianism
117:Reservation
80:Development
2576:Categories
1271:References
1034:Landflucht
999:Landflucht
960:Landflucht
954:Landflucht
947:Landflucht
819:See also:
806:in Syria.
663:California
611:, May 1936
342:Parliament
260:By Country
152:Farmworker
52:Rural area
2379:154768869
2256:"Kolkhoz"
1888:30 August
1664:220350452
1276:Citations
1190:migration
1157:inflation
1032:The word
1009:that was
992:Pomerania
965:migration
853:in 1992.
651:'s novel
633:Dust Bowl
605:Dust Bowl
410:) is the
330:Socialism
228:Diversity
61:Economics
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2265:29 March
2242:12320195
1966:18 April
1944:18 April
1863:13 March
1837:13 March
1815:13 March
1782:13 March
1597:13 March
1381:13 March
1355:13 March
1229:See also
1180:Cardenas
1161:Brezhnev
1129:and the
1106:than in
1098:, Russia
1040:Scotland
810:Examples
779:Ethiopia
775:Cambodia
725:, Russia
635:and the
463:forestry
449:such as
422:. It is
319:Politics
307:Regional
255:Rurality
218:Agrarian
95:Internet
2404:Sources
2371:1153146
2313:2545516
1723:4391333
1683:. UNDP.
1656:2675947
1338:Bibcode
1149:kolkhoz
1144:kolkhoz
1131:Ukraine
1114:of the
988:Silesia
969:Germany
945:German
914:Germany
839:Midwest
719:Menkovo
622:reapers
459:fishing
295:History
238:Tourism
223:Country
211:Society
181:Peasant
112:Poverty
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455:mining
265:Canada
233:Flight
174:Herder
157:Tenant
142:Farmer
136:People
122:Ghetto
100:Health
68:Crafts
2375:S2CID
2367:JSTOR
2309:JSTOR
2230:JSTOR
2158:JSTOR
1833:. PBS
1809:(PDF)
1743:(PDF)
1719:JSTOR
1699:(PDF)
1681:(PDF)
1660:S2CID
1652:JSTOR
1591:(PDF)
1326:(PDF)
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1013:when
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900:graze
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861:China
585:China
539:, or
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270:China
191:Women
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2194:help
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1997:ISBN
1968:2014
1946:2014
1890:2020
1865:2014
1839:2014
1817:2014
1784:2014
1778:(12)
1747:ISBN
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