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life" into old theories and assumptions. She further exposits the issues revolving around gender equality that were mainly brought to her attention by how she and her colleagues suddenly started getting promoted from their "ghetto" lab positions right into proper titles. She promptly stresses that " the subject of women's biology is profoundly political", explaining away the book's title as she does so. Proceeding onward her desire to go beyond "defining as victims of male power and dominance," and pushes for women everywhere to show independence and individuality while learning to accept and embrace the biology that's continuously used by men to undermine them. To follow up, she goes on to talk about women's health activists re-educating women on the functions of their body and goes on to encourage women to use the re-education to attain great power by eliminating the footholds of male misinformation and misrepresentation of their bodies.
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the disdain that the distinguished
Harvard professors had for the system that required them to travel to the Radcliffe campus to teach the small female classes after teaching the same lecture to their male students at Harvard. However, by 1946 most classes were coeducational and taught by Harvard professors. For a brief period, Ruth was interested in pursuing a degree in Philosophy and Physics, and even though she was never explicitly told not to go into Physics, she got the feeling that she was not welcome. She attributes this feeling of unease to the time that she took a coeducational Physics course in which she was only one of two women in the class of 350 students. Ruth finally settled on biochemical sciences, and in 1944 graduated from Radcliffe College with a B.A. in biochemical sciences.
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Each of the women were accomplished in their fields, yet none of them had real jobs. They all had what Ruth called “nonjobs.” They had titles such as lecturer or associate which meant they had little to no job security, while their male-counterparts were either on the path to professorships or had already received tenure. This led Ruth and others to join a group that petitioned
Harvard to reevaluate the job statuses of its female faculty. Ruth Hubbard was the first woman to be offered a tenured Harvard professorship in the Biology Department in 1973.
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upper-class white men. “Women and nonwhite, working-class and poor men have largely been outside the process of science-making,” Dr. Hubbard told The New York Times in 1981. “Though we have been described by scientists, by and large we have not been the describers and definers of scientific reality. We have not formulated the questions scientists ask, nor have we answered them. This undoubtedly has affected the content of science, but it has also affected the social context and the ambience in which science is done.”
423:, Hubbard iterates that she is a scientist and states that "ature is part of history and culture", but not vice versa. She goes on to say that scientists are largely unable to grasp the concept of nature being part of life--- noting how she needed several years to understand the statement. Going into her scientific history, the narrator mentions how she originally never questioned how her efforts fit into society. Narrowing her focus, she exposits that the Vietnam-era women's rights and
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not unlike how men view women and their desire for equality. She raises the question of whether or not women can improve the sciences but makes an attempt to bring into attention her belief that women can make an impact. Hubbard closes by saying that scientists never want their work to be forgotten and lost, and that she sides with feminism for political insight and analytic testing on the scientific assumptions about women.
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outside factors. She termed this craze “genomania.” She was also worried about the safeguards surrounding such research. In a letter published by the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Hubbard stated that if an epidemic caused by a recombinant organism were to break out, it would be almost impossible to distinguish it from the natural E. coli strains that humans are already exposed to.
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338:. She showed that this is the only direct action of light on the visual system. She also identified the specific intermediate in the visual cycle (called metarhodopsin2) that leads to downstream effects, that culminate in a light-activated neural signaling to the brain Hubbard also described the bleaching and resynthesis of the rhodopsin molecule each time a
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come forward to argue, as though in complete innocence and ignorance of our recent history, that nothing could be more interesting and worthwhile than to sort out the "racial" or "ethnic" components of our thoroughly mongrelized species so as to ascertain the root identity of each and everyone of us. And where to look for that identity if not in our genes?
265:. Her parents, Richard Hoffmann and Helene Ehrlich Hoffmann, were both physicians and leftist intellectuals. Her mother was also a concert-quality pianist, and as a child, Ruth showed promise on the piano as well. When Nazi Germany annexed Austria in 1938, the Hoffmanns immigrated to the United States to escape. The family settled first in
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She continues forth with the various means of debate for both sides. One notable instance from men is when they revive various old and unfounded biological theories on women to justify the typical subservient positions of the female gender. Hubbard even refers to the means of debate as "breathing new
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Around the same time in the late 1960s, as a member of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Ruth was asked to give a talk about being a female in the sciences. While conducting interviews of her fellow female scientists, Hubbard discovered that they were all in similar situations.
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Hubbard describes an instance where she was working with squid as one of the pivotal moments where her interests shifted from scientific research to social relevance. Despite working with squid, cattle, and frogs for years when researching the complexities of vision, at that instant it suddenly began
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poets, novelists, and artists that can illustrate their points clearly and easily. She notes that politics seems to vanish within the sciences, exemplifying this point by noting social classes aren't a specific category listed under US health studies. The point she makes is that social and political
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It is beyond comprehension, in this century which has witnessed holocausts of ethnic, racial, and religious extermination in many parts of our planet, perpetrated by peoples of widely different cultural and political affiliations and beliefs, that educated persons—scholars and popularizers alike—can
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Ruth also became a critic of recombinant DNA research, in a time when the field was booming. She was concerned that people were attempting to assign every trait, disease, and behavior a genetic cause, leading to an oversimplification of science which does not consider the complexities of nature and
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must be raised and brought into public focus. After bringing up how science integrates itself into culture, she exemplifies the point by noting the prominence of biological terms in historical terminology and alluringly points out a biologist's tendency to place humanity above all other animals---
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Ruth decided to enroll at
Radcliffe College with the intent to pursue a pre-medicine degree, which she attributes to the fact that everyone around her was a doctor. At that time, Radcliffe was a sister institution to Harvard since women were not yet allowed to enroll at the university. Ruth sensed
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Ruth had met her second husband, George Wald, while they were both at
Harvard. Wald was a Professor of Biology and Ruth’s boss in the research lab. However, the two began and kept their love affair a secret for more than a decade since they were married to other people at the time. After their
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In the late 1980s and 1990s, Ruth gave several interviews challenging the power structure in STEM fields. What constitutes science, she told the Globe in 1990, usually is decided by “a self-perpetuating, self-reflexive group: by the chosen for the chosen,” and those “chosen” historically were
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One such interest manifested itself in the new seminar course she taught at
Harvard titled “Biology 109 - Biology and Women’s Issues.” The class looked at the role of women in science and how the absence of women in scientific fields had affected the scientific questions that were asked.
491:. Like her brother, Ruth Hubbard was an outspoken activist. However, she was not only known for her commentary on science in society but was also as an antiwar and antinuclear war activist, for which she was once arrested on charges of civil disobedience.
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and vitamin A. This intermediate was the base of Ruth’s early work, where she attempted to determine the chemistry of the rhodopsin cycle. In 1952, Ruth received a
Guggenheim Fellowship at the Carlsberg Laboratory in Copenhagen, Denmark. Wald shared the
2001:
443:. In addition, artists, novelists, and poets can compose their works without being victim to review under the funding agencies that makes the use of scientific fact tedious and less effective. The author leads in to surmise that the issues around
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Hubbard made many important contributions to the visual sciences but her single most important contribution was the fact that visual excitation is initiated by a chemical rearrangement of the visual pigment (rhodopsin) which is called a cis-trans
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Like her second husband, Ruth remained scientifically active until about 1975, and she made an excellent scientific presentation of George Wald's work at a symposium in his honor. George Wald was 18 years older than
Hubbard and he died in 1996.
346:) that converts all-trans retinal (the post-illumination form) back into 11-cis retinal. She also studied the visual pigments in several new species. Her early work focused on the basic properties of rhodopsin, which is a combination of the
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respective divorces to previous partners, Ruth and George married in 1958. The couple had two children: a son, musician and music historian Elijah Wald, and a daughter, attorney
Deborah Wald. Hubbard would go on to publish a book,
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where her first husband Frank Hubbard was stationed. When the war ended, they returned to Cambridge. Ruth returned to Radcliffe in 1946 in pursuit of her doctorate in biology. She was awarded a predoctoral fellowship by the
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After being promoted in 1973 from what she called the "typical women's ghetto" of "research associate and lecturer" positions to a tenured faculty position at Harvard, she felt increased freedom to pursue new interests.
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Ruth Hubbard was married to WWII GI and fellow Harvard graduate Frank Hubbard in 1942. Ruth fondly remembered the months that the pair spent traveling via motorcycle across Europe as Frank researched
313:. According to an interview given by Ruth, together they built on the work that Wald had researched during a fellowship following his own doctorate degree. He had confirmed the long-held belief that
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Both Ruth and her brother Alexander followed in the footsteps of their activist parents. Alexander Hoffman was a well-known lawyer and activist. Some of his high-profile clients included
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The essay asserts that women scientists must ultimately and paradoxically turn away from the sciences to make their stand against male supremacy as opposed to the many female and
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has said, "No one has been a more influential critic of the biological theory of women's inequality than Ruth Hubbard." In a 2006 essay entitled "Race and Genes," she wrote:
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Exploding the Gene Myth: How Genetic Information Is Produced and Manipulated by Scientists, Physicians, Employers, Insurance Companies, Educators, and Law Enforcers
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in 1967 for his discoveries about how the eye works. In the same year, the pair was awarded the Paul Karrer Gold Medal specifically for their work with rhodopsin.
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350:(retinal) and a protein called opsin, which is reutilized in the resynthesis of rhodopsin. Hubbard published at least 31 scientific papers devoted to vision.
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realities can be blended or integrated subtly into all mediums. The subtlety of the integration ultimately creates great difficulty in discerning fact from
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During her active research career from the 1940s to the 1960s, she made important contributions to the understanding of the biochemistry and
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in 1948, allowing her to study at the University College Hospital Medical School in London. Ruth received her PhD in biology in 1950.
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In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Hubbard became interested in social and political dimensions of biological issues. In her book
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280:, Ruth joined the laboratory of George Wald, where they conducted research on infrared vision. She briefly relocated to
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to bother her. She said, “I began to have the feeling that nothing I could find out was worth killing another squid.”
321:. Not only did he find that light absorption liberated vitamin A, he also found an intermediate of the visual pigment
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Kropf, Allen; Brown, Paul K.; Hubbard, Ruth (1959). "Lumi- and meta-rhodopsins of squid and octopus".
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Ruth Hubbard (2001). "Science and Science Criticism". In Muriel Lederman; Ingrid Bartsch (eds.).
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Ruth Hubbard, Deric Bownds, and TĂ´ru Yoshizawa (1965). "The Chemistry of Visual Photoreception".
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2011:, Harvard University Department of the History of Science, web content accessed July 27, 2011
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362:, she wrote that she had been a "devout scientist" from 1947 until the late 1960s, but the
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Hubbard, Ruth; Brown, Paul K.; Kropf, Allen (1959). "Action of light on visual pigments".
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1007:"Profiles in Science for Science Librarians: Ruth Hubbard, Scientist and Social Activist"
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In the late 1960s, her interests shifted from science to societal issues and activism.
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After receiving her PhD from Harvard, Ruth became a research fellow. She worked under
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2144:"Remembering Alexander Hoffmann. Category: Features from The Berkeley Daily Planet"
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1224:"Hindered cis isomers of vitamin A and retinene: The structure of the neo-B isomer"
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1944:"Ruth Hubbard, 92, first woman tenured in biology at Harvard - The Boston Globe"
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1471:"Flow of information in the light-triggered cyclic nucleotide cascade of vision"
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In her essay "Science and Science Criticism," published in 2001 as a chapter of
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Papers of Ruth Hubbard, 1920–2007 (inclusive), 1980–2005 (bulk): A Finding Aid.
1755:; Hubbard, Ruth (1957). "Visual pigment of a decapod crustacean: The lobster".
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Hubbard, Ruth; Kropf, Allen (1959). "Molecular aspects of visual excitation".
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1981:
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Kropf, Allen; Hubbard, Ruth (1958). "The mechanism of bleaching rhodopsin".
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Holloway, M (1995). "Profile: Ruth Hubbard – Turning the Inside Out".
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512:"Cis-trans Isomers of Vitamin A and Retinene in the Rhodopsin System"
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269:, where Ruth graduated Brookline High School, and then in Cambridge.
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R. Hubbard and R.C. Lewontin (1996). "Pitfalls of Genetic Testing".
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HUBBARD, R. (September 3, 1976). "Recombinant DNA: Unknown Risks".
1200:. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation via Public Radio Exchange (PRX)
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is absorbed. She also discovered retinene isomerase (now called
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Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
1141:. HowStuffWorks (Discovery Communications). October 21, 2008
1222:; Brown, Paul K.; Hubbard, Ruth; Oroshnik, William (1956).
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Ruth Hubbard, Robert I. Gregerman, and George Wald (1953).
1171:. Washington: National Academies Press. pp. 299–317.
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Profitable Promises: Essays on Women, Science & Health
1053:"Hubbard, Ruth, 1924–. Papers of Ruth Hubbard, 1920–2007"
1105:"Obituary for Ruth Wald at ANDERSON-BRYANT FUNERAL HOME"
1198:"How to Think About Science: Episode 19 – Ruth Hubbard"
207:(March 3, 1924 – September 1, 2016) was a professor of
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helped teach her of the roles of science in society.
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Matthews, Robert G.; Hubbard, Ruth; Brown, Paul K.;
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Ruth Hubbard (1988). "Science, Facts and Feminism".
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Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology
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610:Ruth Hubbard and Robert C. C. St. George (1958).
276:Out of a desire to help the Allied War effort in
1469:Fung, B.K.; Hurley, J.B.; Styer, Lubert (1981).
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1810:(1960). "Visual pigment of the horseshoe crab,
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1697:"Bleaching of rhodopsin by light and by heat"
8:
740:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
601:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
257:In 1924, Hubbard was born Ruth Hoffmann in
2228:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
2190:, in "How to Think About Science" series,
1645:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1332:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
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1059:. President and Fellows of Harvard College
215:, where she was the first woman to hold a
143: 1958–1997)
121: 1942–1951)
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1970:"Scholars Face a Challenge by Feminists"
923:. Harvard Square Library. Archived from
354:Social commentary and political activity
2248:Austrian emigrants to the United States
1865:Sperling, Linda; Hubbard, Ruth (1975).
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393:She became known as a strong critic of
1968:Fiske, Edward B. (November 23, 1981).
1532:"The mechanism of rhodopsin synthesis"
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1919:, Rutgers University Press. pp. 1–2.
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850:Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald (1993),
653:Ruth Hubbard and Allen Kropf (1958).
510:Ruth Hubbard and George Wald (1952).
328:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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2094:. Psychology Press. pp. 49–51.
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1420:"Tautomeric forms of metarhodopsin"
612:"The Rhodopsin System of the Squid"
219:professorship position in biology.
1666:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1958.tb39550.x
1353:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49321.x
1087:The lives they lives: Ruth Hubbard
1011:Science & Technology Libraries
921:Cambridge Forum Speakers 1970–1990
763:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1988.tb00053.x
655:"The Action of Light on Rhodopsin"
370:led her to change her priorities.
14:
2192:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
1872:The Journal of General Physiology
1598:The Journal of General Physiology
1425:The Journal of General Physiology
1005:Barr, Dorothy (January 2, 2018).
983:10.1038/scientificamerican0695-49
616:The Journal of General Physiology
559:The Journal of General Physiology
555:"Geometrical Isomers of Retinene"
516:The Journal of General Physiology
2174:A Conversation with Ruth Hubbard
415:Commentary on gender and science
31:
2184:Science Luminaries series, 2007
1917:The Politics of Women's Biology
1169:Biographical Memoirs. Volume 78
830:The Politics of Women's Biology
816:Social Science Research Council
814:, a web forum sponsored by the
780:New England Journal of Medicine
468:. The couple divorced in 1951.
360:The Politics of Women's Biology
140:
118:
2056:10.1126/science.193.4256.834-a
487:, and multiple members of the
1:
2092:The Gender and Science Reader
2020:Ruth Hubbard (June 7, 2006),
1023:10.1080/0194262X.2017.1395722
421:The Gender and Science Reader
246:for their work in this area.
832:, Rutgers University Press.
425:women's liberation movements
16:Austrian-American biochemist
2278:21st-century American women
2148:www.berkeleydailyplanet.com
1942:Reporter, Bryan Marquard-.
792:10.1056/nejm199605023341812
720:10.1101/sqb.1965.030.01.032
368:women's liberation movement
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2273:21st-century American Jews
2263:American women biochemists
2243:Carlsberg Laboratory staff
2238:Harvard University faculty
2233:Jewish American scientists
2024:. raceandgenomics.ssrc.org
1109:www.meaningfulfunerals.net
287:U.S. Public Health Service
2188:Episode 19 – Ruth Hubbard
1163:Dowling, John E. (2000).
198:
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39:Woods Hole, Massachusetts
30:
2268:American women academics
2253:Radcliffe College alumni
878:, Common Courage Press.
460:Hubbard and Wald in 1967
267:Brookline, Massachusetts
253:Early life and education
83:Cambridge, Massachusetts
2172:Exploding the Gene Myth
2007:March 18, 2012, at the
476:, with her son Elijah.
474:Exploding the Gene Myth
2258:Scientists from Vienna
2178:Ruth Hubbard interview
1695:Hubbard, Ruth (1958).
1591:Hubbard, Ruth (1956).
1530:Hubbard, Ruth (1951).
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244:Paul Karrer Gold Medal
168:Paul Karrer Gold Medal
2180:(multimedia stream),
1915:Ruth Hubbard (1990),
1498:10.1073/pnas.78.1.152
1251:10.1073/pnas.41.7.438
1057:oasis.lib.harvard.edu
874:Ruth Hubbard (1995),
828:Ruth Hubbard (1990),
806:Ruth Hubbard (2006),
680:10.1073/pnas.44.2.130
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1885:10.1085/jgp.65.2.235
1867:"Squid retinochrome"
1611:10.1085/jgp.39.6.935
1593:"Retinene isomerase"
1559:10.1073/pnas.37.2.69
1438:10.1085/jgp.47.2.215
628:10.1085/jgp.41.3.501
571:10.1085/jgp.36.3.415
528:10.1085/jgp.36.2.269
499:Partial bibliography
301:, investigating the
2119:"Ruth Hubbard Wald"
2048:1976Sci...193..834H
1828:1960Natur.186..212H
1769:1957Natur.180..278W
1713:1958Natur.181.1126H
1658:1959NYASA..74..266K
1550:1951PNAS...37...69H
1489:1981PNAS...78..152F
1345:1959NYASA..81..388H
1300:1959Natur.183..442H
1242:1955PNAS...41..438W
1094:, December 21, 2016
975:1995SciAm.272f..49H
962:Scientific American
671:1958PNAS...44..130H
489:Black Panther Party
238:. In 1967, she and
159:Deborah Hannah Wald
1974:The New York Times
1812:Limulus polyphemus
462:
213:Harvard University
193:Harvard University
2042:(4256): 834–836.
1822:(4720): 212–215.
1763:(4580): 278–280.
1722:10.1038/1811126a0
1294:(4659): 442–446.
892:978-1-56751-041-6
870:978-0-8070-0431-9
846:978-0-8135-1490-1
786:(18): 1192–1194.
504:Selected articles
293:Scientific career
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175:Scientific career
95:Radcliffe College
75:September 1, 2016
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60:March 3, 1924
50:Ruth Hoffmann
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19:
2151:. Retrieved
2147:
2138:
2126:. Retrieved
2122:
2091:
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2016:
2002:Ruth Hubbard
1997:
1985:. Retrieved
1973:
1963:
1951:. Retrieved
1947:
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1911:
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1808:Wald, George
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1544:(2): 69–79.
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1220:Wald, George
1214:
1202:. Retrieved
1168:
1143:. Retrieved
1112:. Retrieved
1108:
1099:
1085:
1061:. Retrieved
1056:
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1017:(1): 63–70.
1014:
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969:(6): 49–50.
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931:November 29,
929:. Retrieved
925:the original
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189:Institutions
174:
77:(2016-09-01)
25:Ruth Hubbard
18:
2218:2016 deaths
2213:1924 births
2153:December 6,
2128:December 6,
2123:www.mbl.edu
1204:January 27,
1145:January 27,
1063:January 26,
757:(1): 5–17.
714:: 301–315.
485:Lenny Bruce
364:Vietnam War
348:chromophore
299:George Wald
282:Chattanooga
242:shared the
240:George Wald
232:vertebrates
156:Elijah Wald
132:George Wald
37:Hubbard in
2207:Categories
898:References
56:1924-03-03
2064:0036-8075
1987:March 16,
1982:0362-4331
1953:March 16,
1114:March 16,
1031:0194-262X
771:143910426
441:prejudice
323:rhodopsin
315:vitamin A
66:, Austria
2072:17753611
2005:Archived
1844:13852541
1785:13464816
1731:13541381
1682:45830716
1674:13627857
1629:13346046
1578:14808167
1456:14080814
1418:(1963).
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1316:26585321
1270:16589696
1039:64720881
699:16590155
646:13491819
589:13022935
546:13011282
436:feminist
366:and the
152:Children
2044:Bibcode
2036:Science
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1852:1620108
1824:Bibcode
1793:4163928
1765:Bibcode
1739:4297572
1709:Bibcode
1654:Bibcode
1620:2147571
1569:1063306
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1485:Bibcode
1447:2195338
1341:Bibcode
1296:Bibcode
1238:Bibcode
971:Bibcode
800:8602190
751:Hypatia
728:5219484
667:Bibcode
637:2194838
580:2147351
537:2147363
311:retinol
307:retinal
263:Austria
217:tenured
209:biology
184:Biology
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101:Spouses
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319:vision
259:Vienna
228:vision
181:Fields
164:Awards
85:, U.S.
64:Vienna
1848:S2CID
1789:S2CID
1735:S2CID
1678:S2CID
1365:S2CID
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1035:S2CID
823:Books
810:, in
767:S2CID
344:RPE65
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2130:2019
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2068:PMID
2060:ISSN
1989:2019
1978:ISSN
1955:2019
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1899:PMID
1840:PMID
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1266:PMID
1206:2011
1173:ISBN
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880:ISBN
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