Race and society - Knowledge

1141:, an investigator showed 100 people pictures of three sisters and they were asked to identify the races of each. In only six responses were the sisters identified by the same racial term. Fourteen responses used a different term for each sister. In another experiment nine portraits were shown to a hundred people. Forty different racial types were elicited. It was found, in addition, that a given Brazilian might be called by as many as thirteen different terms by other members of the community. These terms are spread out across practically the entire spectrum of theoretical racial types. A further consequence of the absence of a descent rule was that Brazilians apparently not only disagreed about the racial identity of specific individuals, but they also seemed to be in disagreement about the abstract meaning of the racial terms as defined by words and phrases. For example, 40% of a sample ranked moreno claro as a lighter type than mulato claro, while 60% reversed this order. A further note of confusion is that one person might employ different racial terms to describe the same person over a short time span. The choice of which racial description to use may vary according to both the personal relationships and moods of the individuals involved. The 868:

human biological variations or race" (Smedley 17). The authors state using physical characteristics to define an ethnic identity is inaccurate. The variation of humans has actually decreased over time since, as the author states, "Immigration, intermating, intermarriage, and reproduction have led to increasing physical heterogeneity of peoples in many areas of the world" (Smedley 18). They referred to other experts and their research, pointing out that humans are 99% alike. That one percent is caused by natural genetic variation, and has nothing to do with the ethnic group of the subject. Racial classification in the United States started in the 1700s with three ethnically distinct groups. These groups were the white Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans. The concept of race was skewed around these times because of the social implications of belonging to one group or another. The view that one race is biologically different from another rose out of society's grasp for power and authority over other ethnic groups. This did not only happen in the United States but around the world as well. Society created race to create hierarchies in which the majority would prosper most.

883:, discusses the role of biology in the social construction of race. She examines the relationship between genes and race and the social construction of social race clusters. Morning states that everyone is assigned to a racial group because of their physical characteristics. She identifies through her research the existence of DNA population clusters. She states that society would want to characterize these clusters as races. Society characterizes race as a set of physical characteristics. The clusters though have an overlap in physical characteristics and thus cannot be counted as a race by society or by science. Morning concludes that "Not only can constructivist theory accommodate or explain the occasional alignment of social classifications and genetic estimates that Shiao et al.'s model hypothesizes, but empirical research on human genetics is far from claiming—let alone demonstrating—that statistically inferred clusters are the equivalent of races" (Morning 203). Only using ethnic groups to map a genome is entirely inaccurate, instead every individual must be viewed as having their own wholly unique genome (unique in the 1%, not the 99% all humans share). 895:

children gained their freedom. López uses this example to show the power of race in society. Human fate, he argues, still depends upon ancestry and appearance. Race is a powerful force in everyday life. These races are not determined by biology though, they are created by society to keep power with the majority. He describes that there are not any genetic characteristics that all blacks have that non-whites do not possess and vice versa. He uses the example of Mexican. It truly is a nationality, yet it has become a catch-all for all Hispanic nationalities. This simplification is wrong, López argues, for it is not only inaccurate but it tends to treat all "Mexicans" as below fervent Americans. He describes that "More recently, genetic testing has made it clear the close connections all humans share, as well as the futility of explaining those differences that do exist in terms of racially relevant gene codes" (Lopez 199–200). Those differences clearly have no basis in ethnicity, so race is completely socially constructed.

785:, "Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes." While there is a biological basis for differences in human phenotypes, most notably in skin color, the genetic variability of humans is found not amongst, but rather within racial groups – meaning the perceived level of dissimilarity amongst the species has virtually no biological basis. Genetic diversity has characterized human survival, rendering the idea of a "pure" ancestry as obsolete. Under this interpretation, race is conceptualized through a lens of artificiality, rather than through the skeleton of a scientific discovery. As a result, scholars have begun to broaden discourses of race by defining it as a social construct and exploring the historical contexts that led to its inception and persistence in contemporary society. 555:(1995) argued that even as the idea of "race" was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, the shortcomings of the concept were apparent. In the Old World, the gradual transition in appearances from one racial group to adjacent racial groups emphasized that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them," as Blumenbach observed in his writings on human variation. In parts of the Americas, the situation was somewhat different. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions of the Old World—western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia and southern and eastern Europe. In the Americas, the immigrant populations began to 876:

article they are referring to uses different methods of DNA testing between distinct ethnic groups and compares them to other groups. Small differences were found, but those were not based on race. They were from biological differences caused from the region in which the people live. They describe that the small differences cannot be fully explained because the understanding of migration, intermarriage, and ancestry is unreliable at the individual level. Race cannot be related to ancestry based on the research on which they are commenting. They conclude that the idea of "races as biologically distinct peoples with differential abilities and behaviors has long been discredited by the scientific community" (2338).

1165:. This caused a series of ironic notes on newspapers, which pointed out that he should have been proud of his African origin (which is obviously noticeable), a fact that must have made life for him (and for his ancestors) more difficult, so, being a successful personality was, in spite of that, a victory for him. What occurs in Brazil that differentiates it largely from the US or South Africa, for example, is that black or mixed-race people are, in fact, more accepted in social circles if they have more education, or have a successful life (a euphemism for "having a better salary"). As a consequence, inter-racial marriages are more common, and more accepted, among highly educated 856:

genetics. He then goes on to explain how “black” and “white” have different meanings in other cultures. People in the United States tend to label themselves black if they have ancestors that are from Africa, but when you are in Brazil, you are not black if you have European ancestry. DNA shows that the human population is a result of populations that have moved across the world, splitting up and interbreeding. Even with this science to back up this concept, society has yet to believe and accept it. No one is born with the knowledge of race, the split between races and the decision to treat others differently based on skin color is completely learned and accepted by society.

575:" implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African American ancestor as black. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those categories. In other countries in the Americas, where mixing among groups was more extensive, social non racial categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid, with people moving into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry. 77: 1219: 1060: 646: 704: 605: 36: 1399:) explained racial inequality as an inevitable consequence of biological differences. Since the mid-20th century, political and civic leaders as well as scientists have debated to what extent racial inequality is cultural in origin. Some argue that current inequalities between Blacks and Whites are primarily cultural and historical, the result of past and present racism, 820:, or to the underlying cultural significance of race within societies where racism is commonplace. Whilst the concept of race is challenged, it would be useful in medical contexts to have practical categorisation between 'individual' and 'species' because in the absence of affordable and widespread genetic tests, various race-linked gene mutations (see 124: 1133:

choose from. Over a dozen racial categories are recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.

1507:); M1 (White and black Caribbean), M2 (White and black African), M3 (White and Asian), M9 (Any other mixed background); A1 (Asian-Indian), A2 (Asian-Pakistani), A3 (Asian-Bangladeshi), A9 (Any other Asian background); B1 (Black Caribbean), B2 (Black African), B3 (Any other black background); O1 (Chinese), O9 (Any other). 1039:

The concept of race as used by the Census Bureau reflects self-identification by people according to the race or races with which they most closely identify. These categories are sociopolitical constructs and should not be interpreted as being scientific or anthropological in nature. They change from

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The notion of a biological basis for race originally emerged through speculations surrounding the "blood purity" of Jews during the Spanish Inquisition, eventually translating to a general association of one's biology with their social and personal characteristics. In the 19th century, this recurring

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Studies in racial taxonomy based on DNA cluster analysis has led law enforcement to pursue suspects based on their racial classification as derived from their DNA evidence left at the crime scene. DNA analysis has been successful in helping police determine the race of both victims and perpetrators.

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of those deemed to be of "inferior", non-White races, and thus supposedly best fitted for lives of toil under White supervision. These classifications made the distance between races seem nearly as broad as that between species, easing unsettling questions about the appropriateness of such treatment

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case. A slave woman sued for her freedom and the freedom of her two children on the basis that her grandmother was Native American. The race of the Wright had to be socially proven, and neither side could present enough evidence. Since the slave owner Hudgins bore the burden of proof, Wright and her

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was recognized as the difference between ancestry (which determines genotype) and phenotypic differences. Racial identity was not governed by a rigid descent rule. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to

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of Virginia Commonwealth University Institute of Medicine discuss the anthropological and historical perspectives on ethnicity, culture, and race. They define culture as the habits acquired by a society. Smedley states "Ethnicity and culture are related phenomena and bear no intrinsic connection to

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found that in Travis County, Texas, despite black people comprising only around 9 percent of the population, they made up about 30 percent of police arrests for possessing less than a gram of illicit drugs, even though surveys consistently show that black and white people use illicit drugs at the

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employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend. From the perspective of law enforcement officers, a description needs to capture the features that

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Because of the identification of the concept of race with political oppression, many natural and social scientists today are wary of using the word "race" to refer to human variation, but instead use less emotive words such as "population" and "ethnicity". Some, however, argue that the concept of

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argument. He argues "racial recognition is not actually based on a single trait (like skin color) but rather on a number of characteristics that are to a certain extent concordant and that jointly make the classification not only possible but fairly reliable as well". Forensic anthropologists can

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in general, the worldwide distribution of human phenotypes exhibits gradual trends of difference across geographic zones, not the categorical differences of race; in particular, there are many peoples (like the San of S. W. Africa, or the people of northern India) who have phenotypes that do not

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knowing someone's "race" does not provide comprehensive predictive information about biological characteristics, and only absolutely predicts those traits that have been selected to define the racial categories, e.g. knowing a person's skin color, which is generally acknowledged to be one of the

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of the University of North Carolina department of sociology as well as Hedwig Lee (University of Washington Seattle), Tianji Cai (University of Macau) comment on remarks made by one expert. The debate is over DNA differences, or lack thereof, between different races. The research in the original

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So, although the identification of a person by race is far more fluid and flexible in Brazil than in the U.S., there still are racial stereotypes and prejudices. African features have been considered less desirable; Blacks have been considered socially inferior, and Whites superior. These white

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In the United States since its early history, Native Americans, African-Americans and European-Americans were classified as belonging to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria for membership in these groups were similar, comprising a person's appearance, his fraction of known

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suggests that race is not determined biographically or genetically, but that it is socially constructed. He explains that nearly all scientists in the field of race, nationality, and ethnicity will confirm that race is a social construct. It has more to do with how people identify rather than

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inhabitants of the continent. In the United States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors—in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of

1786: 1415:. Others work to reduce tax funding of remedial programs for minorities. They have based their advocacy on aptitude test data that, according to them, shows that racial ability differences are biological in origin and cannot be leveled even by intensive educational efforts. In 2868: 1145:

lists one's race according to the preference of the person being interviewed. As a consequence, hundreds of races appeared in the census results, ranging from blue (which is blacker than the usual black) to pink (which is whiter than the usual white).

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published in May 2020 of 95 million traffic stops between 2011 and 2018 shows that it was more common for black people to be pulled over and searched after a stop than whites even though white people were more likely to be found with illicit drugs.

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This view does not deny that there are physical differences among peoples; it simply claims that the historical conceptions of "race" are not particularly useful in accounting for these differences scientifically. In particular, it is claimed that:

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Efforts to sort the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete racial categories generated many difficulties. Additionally, efforts to track mixing between census racial groups led to a proliferation of categories (such as

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ideology was intensified in the development of the racial sciences, eugenics and ethnology, which meant to further categorize groups of humans in terms of biological superiority or inferiority. While the field of racial sciences, also known as

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There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of

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same rate. Despite statistics and data that show that black people do not actually possess drugs more than white people, they are still targeted more by the police than white people which is largely due to the social construction of race.

229:. This means, in simple terms, that it is a human invention and not a biological fact. The concept of 'race' has developed over time in order to accommodate different societies' needs of organising themselves as separate from the 'other' ( 905:

These developments had important consequences. For example, some scientists developed the notion of "population" to take the place of race. It is argued that this substitution is not simply a matter of exchanging one word for another.

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Collins-Schramm, HE; et al. (2004). "Mexican American ancestry-informative markers: examination of population structure and marker characteristics in European Americans, Mexican Americans, Amerindians and Asian".

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by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics. The most well-known examples of genetically determined disorders that vary in incidence between ethnic groups would be

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non-White ancestry, and his social circle. But the criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During Reconstruction, increasing numbers of Americans began to consider anyone with "

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focusing on race has historically led not only to seemingly insoluble disputes about classification (e.g. are the Japanese a distinct race, a mixture of races, or part of the East Asian race? and what about the

587:) and "blood quantum" distinctions that became increasingly untethered from self-reported ancestry. A person's racial identity can change over time. One study found differences between self-ascribed race and 1436:

History is the long and tragic story of the fact that privileged groups seldom give up their privileges voluntarily. Individuals may see the moral light and voluntarily give up their unjust posture; but as

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Contrary to popular belief that the division of the human species based on physical variations is natural, there exists no clear, reliable distinctions that bind people to such groupings. According to the

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Through this system of racial identification, parents and children and even brothers and sisters were frequently accepted as representatives of opposite racial types. In a fishing village in the state of

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However, Brazilians are not so naïve to ignore one's racial origins just because of his (or her) better social status. An interesting example of this phenomenon has occurred recently, when the famous

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descent. Some fear that the use of racial labels in biomedical research runs the risk of unintentionally exacerbating health disparities, so they suggest alternatives to the use of racial taxonomies.

3030: 800:, such as David Roediger, Jennifer K. Wagner, Tanya Golash-Boza and Ann Morning, describe human races as a social construct. They argue that it would be more accurate to use the terms ' 848:

in North America are not only or primarily Ashkenazi Jews, despite stereotypes to contrary; French Canadians, Louisiana Cajuns, and Irish-Americans also see high rates of the disease.

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have caused conceptions of race to be generally consolidated). The 'other' was usually viewed as inferior and, as such, was assigned worse qualities. Our current idea of race was

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Condit, CM; Parrott, R; Harris, TM (2002). "Lay understandings of the relationship between race and genetics: development of a collectivized knowledge through shared discourse".

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databases become available, identifiers of race should diminish. Also, increasing interracial marriage is reducing the predictive power of race. For example, babies born with

2120:"In the nineteenth century, race and racial differences were the preeminent concerns of the racial sciences, eugenics and ethnology, better known today as scientific racism. 1011:" of "Black blood" to be Black. By the early 20th century, this notion of invisible blackness was made statutory in many states and widely adopted nationwide. In contrast, 1419:, many more ethnic minorities have won important offices in Western nations than in earlier times, although the highest offices tend to remain in the hands of Whites. 571:

In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time that forced individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories. An example is the "

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Racial inequality has been a concern of United States politicians and legislators since the country's founding. In the 19th century most White Americans (including

1357:. They posited the historical existence of national races such as German and French, branching from basal races supposed to have existed for millennia, such as the 1034: 944: 934:

has argued that such arguments are unsupported by empirical evidence and politically motivated. Arguing that races are not completely discrete biologically is a

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Some argue it is preferable when considering biological relations to think in terms of populations, and when considering cultural relations to think in terms of

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classify a person's race with an accuracy close to 100% using only skeletal remains if they take into consideration several characteristics at the same time.

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explains ways race is a social construct. He uses examples from history of how race was socially constructed and interpreted. One such example was of the

2497:"Recognizing a Small Amount of Superficial Genetic Differences across African, European and Asian Americans Helps Understand Social Construction of Race" 730: 714: 445: 225:

or facial features. This rigid definition of race is no longer accepted by scientific communities. Instead, the concept of 'race' is viewed as a

3044: 1535: 1368:'s favorite sayings was, "Politics is applied biology". Hitler's ideas of racial purity led to unprecedented atrocities in Europe. Since then, 329: 1193:

along color lines. Henceforth, Brazil's desired image as a perfect "post-racist" country, composed of the "cosmic race" celebrated in 1925 by

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struggle would one day produce a society where people were not "judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character".

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Goldenberg DM (2003) The curse of ham: race and slavery in early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton University Press, Princeton

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One more expert in the field has given her opinion. Ann Morning of the New York University Department of Sociology, and member of the

560: 2826:"Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face Controversial crime-scene test smacks of racial profiling, critics say - workopolis.com" 915:

markers of race (or taken as a defining characteristic of race), does not allow good predictions of a person's blood type to be made.

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was characterized by a relative absence of sharply defined racial groups. This pattern reflects a different history and different

2747: 927:?) but has also exposed disagreement about the criteria for making decisions—the selection of phenotypic traits seemed arbitrary. 497: 3070: 1476: 718: 134: 2829: 2285:

Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (2017).

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Jamaicans to ~23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans. In a survey of college students who self-identified as

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Cornell S, Hartmann D (1998) Ethnicity and race: making identities in a changing world. Pine Forge Press, Thousand Oaks, CA

2133: 1763: 278: 3065: 430: 145: 1424: 774: 773:, has expired in history, these antiquated conceptions of race have persisted throughout the 21st century. (See also: 259: 202: 3075: 2710: 2678: 2646: 294: 2891:

Bernstein, David E. (2022) Classified: The untold story of racial classification in America. Bombardier Books, NY.

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regarding the disproportional representation of certain minorities in all stages of the criminal justice system.

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in a northeastern U.S. university, the west African and Native American genetic contribution were 0.7% and 3.2%.

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race, whatever the term used, is nevertheless of continuing utility and validity in scientific research.

980: 845: 829: 2468: 2425:"Tay–sachs Disease – National Tay–Sachs & Allied Diseases Association of Delaware Valley (NTSAD-DV)" 2189:

http://homepage.smc.edu/delpiccolo_guido/Soc34/Soc34readings/HOW%20OUR%20SKINS%20GOT%20THEIR%20COLOR.pdf

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Isaac B (2004) The invention of racism in classical antiquity. Princeton University Press, Princeton

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of humans. The practice was at the time generally accepted by both scientific and lay communities.

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Guo, Guang; Yilan, Fu; Hedwig, Lee; Tianji, Cai; Li, Yi; Harris, Kathleen Mullan (December 2014).

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is another name for the tribal warfare and mass murder that has afflicted human society for ages.

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one census to another, and the racial categories include both racial and national-origin groups.

1017: 852: 836:) are difficult to address. As genetic tests for such conditions become cheaper, and as detailed 833: 521: 394: 221:, etc) in which people can be classified based on biological markers or physical traits such as 1897:

Shriver, Mark D. (2003). "Skin Pigmentation, Biogeographical Ancestry, and Admixture Mapping".

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Another group of experts in sociology has written on this topic. Guang Guo, Yilan Fu, Yi Li,

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Dikötter F (1992) The discourse of race in modern China. Stanford University Press, Stanford

2942: 2905: 2844: 2797: 2781: 2605: 2545: 2508: 2396: 2355: 2314: 2298: 2073: 2065: 2018: 1906: 1869: 1861: 1727: 1719: 1686: 1515: 1511: 1438: 1385: 1369: 1142: 1125: 864: 476: 214: 3037: 1290:'s end of reign. In Foucault's view, this discourse developed in two different directions: 2734: 2714: 2682: 2650: 2481: 2211: 1618: 1583: 1492: 1381: 1325: 1271: 1198: 1008: 872: 821: 486: 404: 364: 324: 319: 1850:"Estimating African American Admixture Proportions by Use of Population-Specific Alleles" 76: 2802: 2769: 2726: 2319: 2286: 2078: 2053: 1874: 1849: 1653: 1613: 1466: 1446: 1295: 1166: 1162: 1049: 940: 931: 345: 299: 3038:

A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States.

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We Are Repeating The Discrimination Experiment Every Day, Says Educator Jane Elliott

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See "Chapter 9. How the Law Decided if You Were Black or White: The Early 1800s" in

2557: 2054:"Agreement between administrative data and patients' self-reports of race/ethnicity" 1530: 1181:. The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil is reflective of the extent of 3014: 2954: 2617: 1926: 1573: 1519: 1450: 1365: 1307: 1275: 1158: 565: 471: 234: 218: 210: 206: 1707: 2536:

Morning, Ann (2014). "Does Genomics Challenge the Social Construction of Race?".

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P.R. Spickard, "The illogic of American racial categories," in M.P.P. Root, ed.,

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Sesardic, Neven (2010). "Race: a social destruction of a biological concept".

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In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of

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Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule

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Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule

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Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule

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The wages of whiteness: race and the making of the American working class

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There are many studies that have proved the reality of racial profiling.

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continue to be defined by a certain percentage of "Indian blood" (called

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Smedley, Audrey; Takezawa, Yasuko I.; Wade, Peter (21 September 2021).

1723: 1691: 1674: 1400: 1377: 1318: 1291: 1243: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 963: 789: 670: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 580: 245:, in which scientists attempted to define racial boundaries, but their 2706:. Summaries of these chapters, with endnotes, are available online at 2674:. Summaries of these chapters, with endnotes, are available online at 2344:"A Critical and Comprehensive Sociological Theory of Race and Racism" 1335: 1299: 309: 27:

Social construct of race; different understandings of race in society

2770:"Does Biology Justify Ideology? The Politics of Genetic Attribution" 2642:. A summary of this chapter, with endnotes, is available online at 2256:. Haymarket series (Rev. ed.). London ; New York: Verso. 1865: 1480:

stand out most clearly in the perception within the given society.

3017:(1936) We Europeans: a survey of racial problems. Harper, New York 1177:

values were a legacy of European colonization and the slave-based

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How the Law Decided if You Were Black or White: The Early 1800s

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have offered their opinions on the subject. Audrey Smedley and

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in day-to-day language. This continuation could be credited to

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Gallagher, Charles A. (2011). "Defining Race and Ethnicity".

1967:

Shades of Citizenship: Race and the Census in Modern Politics

1956:(University Park PA: State University of Pennsylvania, 1991). 2571:

Haney Lopez, Ian (1994). "The Social Construction of Race".

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Our Kind: Who We Are, Where We Came From, Where We Are Going

2187:. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 112–114 – via 1522:. There also an ongoing debate on the relationship between 886:

Ian Haney López, the John H. Boalt Professor of Law at the

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Letter From Birmingham City Jail (Excerpts) (1963-04-16).

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Omi, Michael; Winant, Howard (1986). "Racial Formations".

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This classification is called "biogeographical ancestry".

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has reminded us, groups are more immoral than individuals.

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Rethinking the Color Line: Readings in Race and Ethnicity

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argued the popular historical and political use of a non-

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National Museum of African American History and Culture

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has argued similarly regarding genetic differences in "

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ultimately impacted their findings and reproduced the

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The Invention of the One-Drop Rule in the 1830s North

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Compared to 19th-century United States, 20th-century

1294:, which seized the notion and transformed it into " 2768:Suhay, Elizabeth; Jayaratne, Toby Epstein (2013). 1407:, and could be redressed through such programs as 1475:seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States 1334:(1853–1855) was one of the milestones in the new 3026:. (June 2019). “The Race Delusion” NewStatesman. 2005:Powell, Brenna; Hochschild, Jennifer L. (2008). 1157:declared publicly that he considered himself as 251:prejudices that still exist in our society today 991:Case studies in the social construction of race 3036:Pierson, E., Simoiu, C., Overgoor, J. et al. “ 2869:"United States Patent Application: 0040229231" 2134:"Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue" 1943:, New ed. (New York: Oxford University, 1997). 1764:"Race Is a Social Construct, Scientists Argue" 1706:Serre, David; Pääbo, Svante (September 2004). 1675:"Racial realism I: Are biological races real?" 1317:, racial classifications were used to justify 1161:, thus linking racism to a form or another of 1035:Race and ethnicity in the United States Census 203:categorizations of people into different races 3047:”. February 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2020. 2748:"Letter From Birmingham City Jail (Excerpts)" 1331:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races 919:neatly fit into the standard race categories. 522: 8: 1980:Race Mixture in the History of Latin America 1836:Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History 859:Experts in the fields of genetics, law, and 595:Race as a social construct and populationism 3033:”. 8 July 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2020. 2448:Smedley, Audrey; Smedley, Brian D. (1994). 1197:, must be met with caution, as sociologist 1088:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 945:Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy 775:Historical origins of racial classification 633:Learn how and when to remove these messages 542:Social interpretation of physical variation 64:Learn how and when to remove these messages 1189:, which remains highly, but not strictly, 529: 515: 255: 2993: 2801: 2599: 2512: 2318: 2291:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2077: 2011:Studies in American Political Development 1873: 1731: 1690: 1259:Learn how and when to remove this message 1108:Learn how and when to remove this message 756:Learn how and when to remove this message 686:Learn how and when to remove this message 186:Learn how and when to remove this message 168:Learn how and when to remove this message 3045:Ending the War on Drugs in Travis County 1838:(New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995), 54. 717:: vague phrasing that often accompanies 2970:"Identity and genetic ancestry tracing" 2052:Kressin, N.R.; et al. (Oct 2003). 1941:Race: The History of an Idea in America 1665: 547:Incongruities of racial classifications 453: 417: 337: 286: 265: 258: 2477: 2466: 2206: 2205: 2194: 1969:(Stanford: Stanford University, 2000). 1954:Who is Black?: One Nation's Definition 1518:and also to constitute a violation of 1510:In the United States, the practice of 1306:, who paved the way for 20th century " 2708:Jim Crow Triumph of the One-Drop Rule 2227:Racial Formation in the United States 2099: 2097: 1995:(Newbury Park CA: Sage, 1992), 12–23. 1029:Race definitions in the United States 7: 2163:American Anthropological Association 1241:adding citations to reliable sources 1086:adding citations to reliable sources 783:American Anthropological Association 668:adding citations to reliable sources 135:research paper or scientific journal 3040:” Nat Hum Behav 4, 736–745 (2020). 2395:. University of California Press. 1854:American Journal of Human Genetics 1487:use a classification based on the 888:University of California, Berkeley 25: 2342:Golash-Boza, Tanya (2016-02-23). 2058:American Journal of Public Health 1814:"The history of the idea of race" 1762:Gannon, Megan (5 February 2016). 1349:(1744–1803), who applied race to 881:American Sociological Association 614:This section has multiple issues. 45:This article has multiple issues. 2157:Smedley, Audrey (May 17, 1998). 1993:Racially mixed people in America 1787:"Historical Foundations of Race" 1217: 1058: 702: 644: 603: 122: 75: 34: 2968:Elliott, C; Brodwin, P (2002). 2935:Public Understanding of Science 2843:Willing, Richard (2005-08-16). 2348:Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1228:needs additional citations for 851:Michael Brooks, the author of “ 655:needs additional citations for 622:or discuss these issues on the 53:or discuss these issues on the 1445:King's hope, expressed in his 1278:notion of "race" used in the " 559:among themselves and with the 551:The biological anthropologist 426:Race and ethnicity in censuses 199:Social interpretations of race 1: 1982:(Boston: Little Brown, 1967). 979:populations respectively and 808:, which can be given a clear 279:Biblical terminology for race 2750:. Teaching American History 2389:Morning, Ann (2011-06-24). 2250:Roediger, David R. (2007). 2132:Gannon,LiveScience, Megan. 1673:Spencer, Quayshawn (2018). 1425:Letter from Birmingham Jail 1353:theory to develop militant 1345:'s "anthroposociology" and 1209:Race in politics and ethics 88:to comply with Knowledge's 3092: 2947:10.1088/0963-6625/11/4/305 1848:Parra, Esteban J. (1998). 1816:. Encyclopaedia Britannica 1514:has been ruled to be both 1464: 1169:than lower-educated ones. 1047: 1032: 999: 954: 729:Such statements should be 2986:10.1136/bmj.325.7378.1469 2910:10.1007/s00439-003-1058-6 2733:February 7, 2006, at the 2610:10.1007/s10539-009-9193-7 2514:10.1007/s13524-014-0349-y 2108:. McGraw-Hill Education. 2023:10.1017/S0898588X08000047 1911:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y 1624:Passing (racial identity) 1002:Race in the United States 996:Race in the United States 467:Nakedness and colonialism 2774:Public Opinion Quarterly 2588:Biology & Philosophy 2550:10.1177/0735275114550881 2360:10.1177/2332649216632242 1644:Self-fulfilling prophecy 1609:Intercultural competence 1473:law enforcement officers 1280:race struggle" discourse 1201:demonstrated in 1933 in 788:A significant number of 150:overly technical phrases 142:help improve the article 101:may contain suggestions. 86:may need to be rewritten 2845:"DNA tests detect race" 2713:April 22, 2006, at the 2681:April 29, 2006, at the 2649:April 22, 2006, at the 2183:Harris, Marvin (1989). 2159:"AAA Statement on Race" 2070:10.2105/ajph.93.10.1734 1461:Race in law enforcement 1347:Johann Gottfried Herder 1023:American slavery ethics 1021:) due in large part to 902:, rather than of race. 3071:Social constructionism 2694:See chapters 21–20 of 2662:See chapters 15–20 of 2476:Cite journal requires 1430:Martin Luther King Jr. 873:Kathleen Mullan Harris 810:operational definition 2401:10.1525/9780520950146 1766:. Scientific American 1579:Cultural assimilation 1465:Further information: 1449:speech, was that the 1203:Casa Grande e Senzala 591:administrative data. 482:Social stratification 2832:on 15 November 2005. 2573:Critical Race Theory 1237:improve this article 1082:improve this section 731:clarified or removed 664:improve this article 3066:Kinship and descent 2980:(7378): 1469–1471. 2698:by Frank W. Sweet, 2666:by Frank W. Sweet, 2634:by Frank W. Sweet, 2538:Sociological Theory 2138:Scientific American 1939:Thomas F. Gossett, 1785:Roediger, David R. 1284:Glorious Revolution 969:sickle cell disease 957:Race in biomedicine 951:Race in biomedicine 826:Lactose intolerance 274:Historical concepts 239:developed primarily 144:by rewriting it in 2871:. Appft1.uspto.gov 2786:10.1093/poq/nfs049 2392:The Nature of Race 2303:10.1002/ajpa.23120 1724:10.1101/gr.2529604 1692:10.1111/phc3.12468 1679:Philosophy Compass 1629:Race of the future 1559:Colonial mentality 1489:ethnic composition 1417:electoral politics 1409:affirmative action 1355:ethnic nationalism 853:The Race Delusion” 834:Sickle cell anemia 201:regard the common 146:encyclopedic style 133:is written like a 3076:Social inequality 2429:www.tay-sachs.org 2410:978-0-520-95014-6 2263:978-1-84467-126-7 2204:External link in 1589:Cultural identity 1483:Thus, in the UK, 1343:Vacher de Lapouge 1315:the Enlightenment 1302:, biologists and 1298:" discourse, and 1269: 1268: 1261: 1187:Brazilian society 1179:plantation system 1151:football (soccer) 1118: 1117: 1110: 981:Tay–Sachs disease 892:Hudgins v. Wright 846:Tay–Sachs disease 830:Tay–Sachs disease 771:scientific racism 766: 765: 758: 748: 747: 696: 695: 688: 637: 539: 538: 330:Sociology of race 314:scientific racism 295:Color terminology 243:the Enlightenment 196: 195: 188: 178: 177: 170: 116: 115: 90:quality standards 68: 16:(Redirected from 3083: 3061:Race and society 3007: 2997: 2958: 2929: 2886:Other references 2880: 2879: 2877: 2876: 2865: 2859: 2858: 2856: 2855: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2828:. 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Edwards 932:Neven Sesardic 929: 928: 920: 916: 764: 763: 746: 745: 710: 708: 701: 694: 693: 652: 650: 643: 638: 612: 611: 609: 602: 596: 593: 553:Jonathan Marks 548: 545: 543: 540: 537: 536: 534: 533: 526: 519: 511: 508: 507: 506: 505: 500: 492: 491: 490: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 456: 455: 454:Related topics 451: 450: 449: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 420: 419: 415: 414: 413: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 377: 372: 362: 357: 350:United Kingdom 340: 339: 335: 334: 333: 332: 327: 322: 317: 307: 302: 300:Race relations 297: 289: 288: 284: 283: 282: 281: 276: 268: 267: 263: 262: 194: 193: 176: 175: 130: 128: 121: 114: 113: 83: 81: 74: 69: 43: 42: 40: 33: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3088: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3058: 3056: 3046: 3042: 3039: 3035: 3032: 3028: 3025: 3022: 3019: 3016: 3012: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2904:(3): 263–71. 2903: 2899: 2893: 2890: 2889: 2885: 2870: 2864: 2861: 2850: 2846: 2839: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2821: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2764: 2761: 2749: 2742: 2739: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2709: 2705: 2704:0-939479-23-0 2701: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2677: 2673: 2672:0-939479-23-0 2669: 2665: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2640:0-939479-23-0 2637: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2582: 2579: 2574: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2532: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2491: 2488: 2483: 2470: 2451: 2444: 2441: 2430: 2426: 2420: 2417: 2412: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2385: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2338: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2281: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2259: 2255: 2254: 2246: 2243: 2238: 2232: 2229:. 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