Race and health - Knowledge

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adequate treatment for osteoporosis, even after risk factors have been assessed. Since the 19th century, blacks have been thought to have thicker bones than whites have and to lose bone mass more slowly with age. In a recent study, African Americans were shown to be substantially less likely to receive prescription osteoporosis medications than whites. Men were also significantly less likely to be treated compared with women. This discrepancy may be due to physicians' knowledge that, on average, African Americans are at lower risk for osteoporosis than whites. It may be possible that these physicians generalize this data to high-risk African-Americans, leading them to fail to appropriately assess and manage these individuals' osteoporosis. On the other hand, some of those who are critical of race as a biological concept see race as socially meaningful group that is important to study epidemiologically in order to reduce disparities. Black Americans also have the highest mortality rate related to cardiovascular diseases, at about 30 percent higher than white Americans, even after the American Heart Association (AHA) has attempted to lower all risks.

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provider. Spirometers in the US utilize population-specific standards or correction factors of 10% to 15% for Black persons and 4% to 6% for Asian people. Thus, equations derived from Black populations will yield a higher percentage of predicted lung function values than those derived from White populations, which may underestimate lung disease severity and delay detection. However, applying an equation developed from White populations to other racial groups may lead to overdiagnosis and limited eligibility for treatment due to the increased perception of risk. Research regarding the efficacy of race-based spirometry found that the race correction was only accurate for Black patients when their African ancestry was above the median between 81 and 100%. As a result, opponents of race correction say it may cause misdiagnosis and perpetuate racial prejudices by encouraging biological race. These race-based clinical decision support tools, such as pulmonary function testing with spirometry, were ended by a report published by the US House of Representatives Ways and Means Committee in October 2021.

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between U.S. African American and White populations and between U.S. African American and West Africans as well. The researchers hypothesized that the patterns were in response to two events. One the trans-Atlantic slave trade, which resulted in massive death totals of Africans who were forced over, those who survived and made to the United States were more likely able to withstand the harsh conditions because they retained salt and water better. The selection continued once they were in the United States. African Americans who were able to withstand hard working conditions had better survival rates due to high water and salt retention. Second, today, because of different environmental conditions and increased salt intake with diets, water and salt retention are disadvantageous, leaving U.S. African Americans at disproportional risks because of their biological descent and culture.

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health. according to published studies, many factors combine to affect the health of individuals and communities. Whether people are healthy or not, is determined by their circumstances and environment. Factors that need to be addressed when looking at health and race include income and social status, education, physical environment, social support networks, genetics, health services, targeted instruction, and gender. These determinants are often cited in public health, anthropology, and other social science disciplines. The WHO categorizes these determinants into three broader topics: the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviors. Due to the diversity of factors that often attribute to health disparities outcomes, interdisciplinary approaches are often implemented.

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are "constructed" from differing historical, political, and economic contexts, rather than corresponding to inherited, biological variations. Proponents of the constructionist view claim that biological definitions have been used to justify racism in the past and still have the potential to be used to encourage racist thinking in the future. Since race is changing and often so loosely characterized on arbitrary phenotypes, and because it has no genetic basis, the only working definition we can assign it is a social construct. This is not to say race is imaginary or non-existent. It is an important social reality. However to say that the concept of race has any scientific merit or has a scientific foundation can lead to many issues in scientific research, and it may also lead to inherent racial bias.

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Dominant racial conceptions influence how individuals label both themselves and others within society. Modern human populations are becoming more difficult to define within traditional racial boundaries due to racial admixture. Most scientific studies, applications, and government documents ask individuals to self-identify race from a limited assortment of common racial categories. The conflict between self-identification and societal ascription further complicates biomedical research and public health policies. However complex its sociological roots, race has real biological ramifications; the intersection of race, science, and society permeates everyday life and influences human health via genetics, access to medical care, diagnosis, and treatment.

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diseases specifically Diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and chronic lung disease. However, the greatest differences only occurred among people with single chronic diseases. Racial/ethnic differences were less distinct for some conditions including multiple diseases. Non-Hispanic whites trended toward a high prevalence for dyads of cardiovascular disease (CVD) with cancer or lung disease. Hispanics and African Americans had the greatest prevalence of diabetes, while non-Hispanic blacks had higher odds of having heart disease with cancer or chronic lung disease than non-Hispanic whites. Among non-Hispanic whites the prevalence of

962:, or obesity as adults, as opposed to young adults who lived in more rural areas during their early life. Therefore, early exposure to urbanized regions can encourage unhealthy eating due to widespread presence of inexpensive fast food. Different racial populations that originate from more rural areas and then immigrate to the urbanized metropolitan areas can develop a fixation for a more westernized diet; this change in lifestyle typically occurs due to loss of traditional values when adapting to a new environment. For example, a 2009 study named CYKIDS was based on children from 790:

genetic loci, if any, are linked to these diseases. "Risk is the probability that an event will occur. In epidemiology, it is most often used to express the probability that a particular outcome will occur following a particular exposure." Different populations are considered "high-risk" or "low-risk" groups for various diseases due to the probability of that particular population being more exposed to certain risk factors. Beyond genetic factors, history and culture, as well as current environmental and social conditions, influence a certain population's risk for specific diseases.

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between large groups living on different continents. Studies have found evidence of genetic differences between populations, but the distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations is impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a "population", the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome. Thus, the racialization of science and medicine can lead to controversy when the term population and race are used interchangeably.

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variation is geographically structured and that genetic differences correlate with general conceptualizations of racial groups. Others claimed that this correlation is too unstable and that the genetic differences are minimal and they are "distributed over the world in a discordant manner". Therefore, race is regarded by some as a useful tool for the assessment of genetic epidemiological risk, while others consider it can lead to an increased underdiagnosis in 'low risk' populations.

1233:, knowing the geographic origin of a patient may help a doctor doing an initial diagnosis if a patient presents with symptoms compatible with this disease. This is unreliable evidence with the disease being present in many different groups as noted above with the trait also present in some Mediterranean European populations. Definitive diagnosis comes from examining the blood of the patient. In the US, screening for sickle cell anemia is done on all newborns regardless of race. 371:, and many other indicators of health in different racial and ethnic groups are well documented. Epidemiological data indicate that racial groups are unequally affected by diseases, in terms or morbidity and mortality. Some individuals in certain racial groups receive less care, have less access to resources, and live shorter lives in general. Overall, racial health disparities appear to be rooted in social disadvantages associated with race such as 519: 502: 483: 1055:" model. It argues that for common illnesses, the genetic contribution comes from the additive or multiplicative effects of gene variants that each one is common in the population. Each such gene variant is argued to cause only a small risk of disease and no single variant is sufficient or necessary to cause the disease. An individual must have many of these common gene variants in order for the risk of disease to be substantial. 1320: 416: 7536: 629:

definition that stands, as there are many competing and interlocking ways to look at race. Due to its ambiguity, terms such as race, genetic population, ethnicity, geographic population, and ancestry are used interchangeably in everyday discourse involving race. Some researchers critique this interchangeability noting that the conceptual differences between race and ethnicity are not widely agreed upon.

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about the behavior or health of minorities. While research in this area is ongoing, some exclusions within clinical trials themselves are also present. A recent systematic review of the literature relating to hearing loss in adults demonstrated that many studies fail to include aspects of racial or ethnic diversity, resulting in studies that do not necessarily represent the US population.

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the impact of notions of "race" on patterns of mating and self-identity in the US. Our results provide empirical support that, over recent centuries, many individuals with partial African and Native American ancestry have "passed" into the white community, with multiple lines of evidence establishing African and Native American ancestry in self-reported European Americans.

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to take race into account when treating disease because diseases and treatment responses tend to cluster by geographic ancestry. The discovery that more diseases than previously thought correlate with racial identification have further sparked the interest in using race as a proxy for bio-geographical ancestry and genetic buildup.

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genetically distinct populations, describing "races as groups of people who share certain innate, inherited biological traits". In contrast, anti-essentialists have used biological evidence to demonstrate that "race groupings do not reflect patterns of human biological variation, countering essentialist claims to the contrary".

881:, a medication for congestive heart failure, was licensed specifically for use in American patients that self-identify as black. Previous studies had shown that African American patients with congestive heart failure generally respond less effectively to traditional treatments than white patients with similar conditions. 1063:) or provide some advantage in the original environment (like genes causing autoimmune diseases also providing resistance against infections). In either case varying frequencies of genes variants in different populations may be an explanation for health disparities. Genetic variants associated with Alzheimer's disease, 900:, with medical decisions, treatments, practices, or products being tailored to the individual patient. It involves identifying genetic, genomic (i.e., genomic sequencing), and clinical information—as opposed to using race as a proxy for these data—to better predict a patient's predisposition to certain diseases. 2441:

as geneticists Kenneth Weiss and Jeffrey Long put it, "multilayered, porous, ephemeral, and difficult to identify." Pure, geographically separated ancestral populations are an abstraction: "There is no reason to think that there ever were isolated, homogeneous parental populations at any time in our human past."

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and delay seeking care, yet despite this, these behaviors and attitudes are unlikely to explain the differences in health care. In addition to behaviors and attitudes, biological based racial differences have been documented, but these also seem unlikely to explain the majority of observed disparities in care.

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seen as a cause of increased instances of disease from this lack of proper, equal preventive care. One must consider these external factors when evaluating statistics on the prevalence of disease in populations, even though genetic components can play a role in predispositions to contracting some illnesses.

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is a medical test that measures how much air a person can breathe in and out of their lungs, and how quickly they can do so. Cartwright used spirometry to compare Black enslaved people's lung function to white people's. Cartwright, drawing on Thomas Jefferson's beliefs on pulmonary dysfunction, saw a

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by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors, such as genetically conditioned health factors, based on more easily ascertained characteristics such as phenotype and racial self-identification. Since medical judgment often involves decision making under uncertain conditions, many doctors consider it useful

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is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that use methods and insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools

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Public health researchers and policy makers are working to reduce health disparities. Health effects of racism are now a major area of research. In fact, these seem to be the primary research focus in biological and social sciences. Interdisciplinary methods have been used to address how race affects

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were associated with disease retardation, particularly a delayed progression to death, while for African Americans, possession of HHC haplotypes was associated with disease acceleration. In contrast, while the disease-retarding effects of the CCR2-641 allele were found in African Americans, they were

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More recent research indicates that the "common disease-rare variant" may be a better explanation for many common diseases. In this model, rare but higher-risk gene variants cause common diseases. This model may be relevant for diseases that reduces fertility. In contrast, for common genes associated

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Many diseases differ in frequency between different populations. However, complex diseases are affected by multiple factors, including genetic and environmental. There is controversy over the extent to which some of these conditions are influenced by genes, and ongoing research aims to identify which

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and typological conceptions of race are untenable, scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways. Historically, biological definitions of race have encompassed both essentialist and anti-essentialist views. Essentialists have sought to show that racial groups are

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Modern human biological variation is not structured into phylogenetic subspecies ('races'), nor are the taxa of the standard anthropological 'racial' classifications breeding populations. The 'racial taxa' do not meet the phylogenetic criteria. 'Race' denotes socially constructed units as a function

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between susceptibility alleles and genetic markers than is the case for other populations. Genetic studies can use this disequilibrium to search for disease alleles with fewer markers than would be needed otherwise. Association studies also can take advantage of the contrasting experiences of racial

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The relationship between self-reported identity and genetic African ancestry, as well as the low numbers of self-reported African Americans with minor levels of African ancestry, provide insight into the complexity of genetic and social consequences of racial categorization, assortative mating, and

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ngoing contacts, plus the fact that we were a small, genetically homogeneous species to begin with, has resulted in relatively close genetic relationships, despite our worldwide presence. The DNA differences between humans increase with geographical distance, but boundaries between populations are,

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These findings of lower lung capacity by race are present in modern medicine through the correction of race in modern spirometry machines and within most textbooks for medical school. When inputting race into the machine, patients either provide their self-identified race or it is determined by the

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There is general agreement that a goal of health-related genetics should be to move past the weak surrogate relationships of racial health disparity and get to the root causes of health and disease. This includes research which strives to analyze human genetic variation in smaller groups than races

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and discrimination in society and health services. Some of those who are critical of race as a biological concept see race as socially meaningful group that is important to study epidemiologically in order to reduce disparities. For example, some racial groups are less likely than others to receive

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This approach is useful in generating holistic viewpoints on human biological variation. There are two biocultural approach models. The first approach fuses biological, environmental, and cultural data. The second approach treats biological data as primary data and culture and environmental data as

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Critics are concerned that the trend of research on race-specific pharmaceutical treatments will result in inequitable access to pharmaceutical innovation and smaller minority groups may be ignored. This has led to a call for regulatory approaches to be put in place to ensure scientific validity of

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effective in African Americans than other similar drugs. It was also only tested in African American males, but not in any other racial groups or among women. This peculiar trial and licensing procedure has prompted suggestions that the licensing was in fact used as a race-based advertising scheme.

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While genetics plays a role in determining how susceptible a person is to specific diseases, environmental, structural, cultural, and communication messaging factors play a large role as well. For this reason, it is impossible to discern exactly what causes a person to acquire a disease, but it is

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checks program in the United Kingdom, which aims to increase diagnosis across demographics, noted that "the reported lower screening in specific black and minority ethnic communities... may increase inequalities in health." In this specific case, the lack of attention to certain demographics can be

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compared to the rates among whites. For example, African Americans are 2–3 times more likely to die as a result of pregnancy-related complications than white Americans. It is important to note that this pattern is not universal. Some minority groups—most notably, Hispanic immigrants—may have better

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Ancestry, then, is a more subtle and complex description of an individual's genetic makeup than is race. This is in part a consequence of the continual mixing and migration of human populations throughout history. Because of this complex and interwoven history, many loci must be examined to derive

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Three major mechanisms are suggested by the Institute of Medicine that may contribute to healthcare disparities from the provider's side: bias (or prejudice) against racial and ethnic minorities; greater clinical uncertainty when interacting with minority patients; and beliefs held by the provider

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There are many individual factors that could explain the established differences in health care between different racial and ethnic groups. First, attitudes and behaviors of minority patients are different. They are more likely to refuse recommended services, adhere poorly to treatment regimens,

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The salt sensitivity hypothesis is an example of implementing biocultural approaches in order to understand cardiovascular health disparities among African American populations. This theory, founded by Wilson and Grim, stems from the disproportional rates of salt sensitive high blood pressure seen

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Racial groups, especially when defined as minorities or ethnic groups, often face structural and cultural barriers to access healthcare services. The development of culturally and structurally competent services and research that meet the specific health care needs of racial groups is still in its

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Over the past 20 years, a consensus has emerged that, while race is partially based on physical similarities within groups, it does not have an inherent physical or biological meaning. In response, researchers and social scientists have begun examining notions of race as constructed. Racial groups

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that include diabetes was low; however, non-Hispanic whites had a very high prevalence of multimorbidities that exclude diabetes. Non-Hispanic whites had the highest prevalence of cancer only or lung disease only. Black Americans have an increased risk of death from COVID-19 compared to white

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The fact that every human has a unique genetic code is the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting. Versions of genetic markers, known as alleles, occur at different frequencies in different human populations; populations that are more geographically and ancestrally remote tend to differ

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Scientific studies have shown the lack of efficacy of adapting pharmaceutical treatment to racial categories. "Race-based medicine" is the term for medicines that are targeted at specific racial clusters which are shown to have a propensity for a certain disorder. The first example of this in the

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Health system-level factors include any aspects of health systems that can have different effects on patient outcomes. Some of these factors include different access to services, access to insurance or other means to pay for services, access to adequate language and interpretation services, and

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Race in medicine is used as an approximation for more specific genetic and environmental risk factors. Race is thus partly a surrogate for environmental factors such as differences in socioeconomic status that are known to affect health. It is also an imperfect surrogate for ancestral geographic

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For humans, there is "more genetic variation among individual people than between larger racial groups". In general, an average of 80% of genetic variation exists within local populations, around 10% is between local populations within the same continent, and approximately 8% of variation occurs

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After two trials, BiDil was licensed exclusively for use in African American patients. Critics have argued that this particular licensing was unwarranted, since the trials did not in fact show that the drug was more effective in African Americans than in other groups, but merely that it was more

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A 2023 scoping review of the literature found that in studies conducted in multiracial or multiethnic populations, the inclusion of race or ethnicity variables lacked thoughtful conceptualization and informative analysis regarding race or ethnicity as indicators of exposure to racialized social

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Racial groups may differ in how a disease progresses. Different access to healthcare services, different living and working conditions influence how a disease progresses within racial groups. However, the reasons for these differences are multiple, and should not be understood a consequence of

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Individuals who share a similar genetic makeup can also share certain propensity or resistance to specific diseases. However, there are confronted positions in relation to the utility of using 'races' to talk about populations sharing a similar genetic makeup. Some geneticists argued that human

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from health disparity by preventability. Health inequalities are often categorized as being unavoidable i.e. due to age, while preventable unfair health outcomes are categorized as health inequities. These are seen as preventable because they are usually associated with income, education, race,

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In the U.S., more than 133 million Americans (45% of the population) have one or more chronic diseases. One study has shown that between the ages of 60 and 70, racial/ethnic minorities are 1.5 to 2.0 times more likely than whites (Hispanic and non Hispanic) to have one of the four major chronic

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In the United States, the mental health of African Americans has been shown to be negatively impacted by systemic racism, contributing to increased risk of mortality from substance use disorders. This negative mental health can lead to reaching for substances to cope with the mental effects of

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On average, the scientists found, people who identified as African-American had genes that were only 73.2 percent African. European genes accounted for 24 percent of their DNA, while .8 percent came from Native Americans. Latinos, on the other hand, had genes that were on average 65.1 percent

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during the 1966–90 period, that how race was determined and defined was seldom described. At a minimum, researchers should describe if race was assessed by self-report, proxy report, extraction from records, or direct observation. Race was also often used questionable, such as an indicator of

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Similar to the biocultural approach, the bio social inheritance model also looks at biological and social methods in examining health disparities. Hoke et al. define Biosocial inheritance as "the process whereby social adversity in one generation is transmitted to the next through reinforcing

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For any trait of interest, observed differences among individuals "may be due to differences in the genes" coding for a trait and "the result of variation in environmental condition". This variability is due to gene-environment interactions that influence genetic expression patterns and trait

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are more common among European populations. Some physicians claim that race can be used as a proxy for the risk that the patient may be exposed to in relation to these diseases. However, racial self-identification only provides fragmentary information about the person's ancestry. Thus, racial

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Social views also better explain the ambiguity of racial definitions. An individual may self-identify as one race based on one set of determinants (for example, phenotype, culture, ancestry) while society may ascribe the person otherwise based on external forces and discrete racial standards.

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Better still may be individual genetic assessment of relevant genes. As genotyping and sequencing have become more accessible and affordable, avenues for determining individual genetic makeup have opened dramatically. Even when such methods become commonly available, race will continue to be

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There is a controversy regarding race as a method for classifying humans. Different sources argue it is purely social construct or a biological reality reflecting average genetic group differences. New interest in human biological variation has resulted in a resurgence of the use of race in

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Definitions of race are ambiguous due to the various paradigms used to discuss race. These definitions are a direct result of biological and social views. Definitions have changed throughout history to yield a modern understanding of race that is complex and fluid. Moreover, there is no one

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A phenotype is the "outward, physical manifestation" of an organism." For humans, phenotypic differences are most readily seen via skin color, eye color, hair color, or height; however, any observable structure, function, or behavior can be considered part of a phenotype. A genotype is the

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can produce spurious results if cases and controls have differing allele frequencies for genes that are not related to the disease being studied, although the magnitude of its problem in genetic association studies is subject to debate. Various techniques detect and account for population

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Diseases affect racial groups differently, especially when they are co-related with class disparities. As socioeconomic factors influence the access to care, the barriers to access healthcare systems can perpetuate different biological effects of diseases among racial groups that are not

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health outcomes than whites when they arrive in the United States. However this appears to diminish with time spent in the United States. For other indicators, disparities have shrunk, not because of improvements among minorities but because of declines in the health of majority groups.

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European, 18 percent Native American, and 6.2 percent African. The researchers found that European-Americans had genomes that were on average 98.6 percent European, .19 percent African, and .18 Native American. These broad estimates masked wide variation among individuals.

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regions and differences in gene frequencies between different ancestral populations and thus differences in genes that can affect health. This can give an approximation of probability for disease or for preferred treatment, although the approximation is less than perfect.

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The NIH (National institutes of health) and The WHO are organizations that provide useful links and support research that is targeted at the development of initiatives around minority communities and the health disparities they face. Similarly, In the United Kingdom, the

1170:"research on questions of human biology and medical ecology that specifically includes social, cultural, or behavioral variables in the research design, offer valuable models for studying the interface between biological and cultural factors affecting human well-being" 1090:

can also have an effect on relationships between race and race-linked disorders. Multiple sclerosis, for example, is typically associated with people of European descent, but due to admixture African Americans have elevated levels of the disorder relative to Africans.

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Although individuals from different environmental, continental, socioeconomic, and racial groups etc. have different levels of health, yet not all of these differences are always categorized or defined as health disparities. Some researchers separate definitions

935:) to impoverished areas, the more likely these groups are to purchase inexpensive fast food or just follow an unhealthy diet. As a result, because food deserts are more prevalent in low income communities, minorities that reside in these areas are more prone to 926:. Income status, diet, and education all construct a higher burden for low-income minorities, to be conscious about their health. Research conducted by medical departments at universities in San Diego, Miami, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina suggested that 1021:

tend to have higher resistance to malaria. Most Africans are duffy negative and most non-Africans are duffy positive due to endemic transmission of malaria in Africa. A number of genetic diseases more prevalent in malaria-affected areas may provide some

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argue that using self-identified race as a proxy for ancestry is necessary to be able to get a sufficiently broad sample of different ancestral populations, and in turn to be able to provide health care that is tailored to the needs of minority groups.

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is a complex concept that has changed across chronological eras and depends on both self-identification and social recognition. In the study of race and health, scientists organize people in racial categories depending on different factors such as:

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disadvantage, the systemic and structural barriers, discrimination, and social exclusion faced by individuals and communities based on their race or ethnicity, leading to disparities in access to resources, opportunities, and health outcomes.

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The same gene variant, or group of gene variants, may produce different effects in different populations depending on differences in the gene variants, or groups of gene variants, they interact with. One example is the rate of progression to

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geographic availability of different services. Many studies assert that these factors explain portions of the existing disparities in health of racial and ethnic minorities in the United States when compared to their white counterparts.

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Between 1960 and 2005 the percentage of children with a chronic disease in the United States quadrupled with minority having higher likelihood for these disease. The most common major chronic biases of youth in the United States are

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One such method is called ethnogenetic layering. It works by focusing on geographically identified microethnic groups. For example, in the Mississippi Delta region ethnogenetic layering might include such microethnic groups as the

4809:, MIT press. Page 188. "Far from waning in the age of molecular genetics, race has been resurgent in biomedical discourse, especially in relation to a torrent of new interest in human biological variation and its quantification." 4692:

Grim CE, Wilson TW (1993). "Salt, Slavery, and Survival: Physiological Principles Underlying the Evolutionary Hypothesis of Salt-Sensitive Hypertension in Western Hemisphere Blacks". In John C. S. Fray, Janice G. Douglas (eds.).

1267:(as a subset of European Americans), the Creole and Black groups (as a subset of African Americans), and Choctaw, Houmas, Chickasaw, Coushatta, Caddo, Atakapa, Karankawa and Chitimacha peoples (as subsets of Native Americans). 1236:

The continued use of racial categories has been criticized. Apart from the general controversy regarding race, some argue that the continued use of racial categories in health care and as risk factors could result in increased

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is geographically structured" and that different geographic regions correlate with different races. Meanwhile, others have claimed that the human genome is characterized by clinal changes across the globe, in relation with the

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Historically, race has been utilized in medicine in various ways, which continue to have enduring impacts today. The imposition of race on pulmonary function and the machinery used to conduct testing is a noteworthy example.

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Health disparities are defined as "preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged populations". According to the

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defines health disparities as "population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, or access to health care". Health is measured through variables such as life expectancy and incidence of diseases.

2815: 958:. A study completed in Thailand focused on urbanized metropolitan areas: students who participated were diagnosed as "non-obese" in their early life according to their BMI, however were increasingly at risk of developing 1385:

called Unequal Treatment, three major source categories are put forth as potential explanations for disparities in health care: patient-level variables, healthcare system-level factors, and care process-level variables.

709:, most prevalent in populations with sub-Saharan African ancestry but also common among Latin-American, Middle Eastern populations, as well as those people of South European regions such as Turkey, Greece, and Italy 1293:

One area in which population categories can be important considerations in genetics research is in controlling for confounding between population genetic substructure, environmental exposures, and health outcomes.

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Genetics has been proven to be a strong predictor for common diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes, autoimmune disorders, and psychiatric illnesses. Some geneticists have determined that

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in regions where lower socioeconomic status is common, there was a direct relationship with unhealthy diets and greater distance of supermarkets. Therefore, in areas where supermarkets are less accessible

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Lohmueller KE, Pearce CL, Pike M, Lander ES, Hirschhorn JN (February 2003). "Meta-analysis of genetic association studies supports a contribution of common variants to susceptibility to common disease".

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adult patients facing a disproportionate amount of health concerns, such as asthma, with treatment and management guidelines not developed with studies based on their populations and healthcare needs.

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of being low-income in industrialized and rural regions of the U.S. depict how low-income communities tend to include more individuals that have a lower educational background, most importantly in

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Some diseases are more prevalent in some populations identified as races due to their common ancestry. Thus, people of African and Mediterranean descent are found to be more susceptible to

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Cree BA, Khan O, Bourdette D, Goodin DS, Cohen JA, Marrie RA, et al. (December 2004). "Clinical characteristics of African Americans vs Caucasian Americans with multiple sclerosis".

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Population genetic substructure also can aid genetic association studies. For example, populations that represent recent mixtures of separated ancestral groups can exhibit longer-range

862: 6311:"Racial medicine: here to stay? The success of the International HapMap Project and other initiatives may help to overcome racial profiling in medicine, but old habits die hard" 3196: 7341: 4026:

Hinds DA, Stuve LL, Nilsen GB, Halperin E, Eskin E, Ballinger DG, et al. (February 2005). "Whole-genome patterns of common DNA variation in three human populations".

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important to observe how many inter-related factors relate to each other. Each person's health is unique, as they have different genetic compositions and life histories.

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Some researchers advocate for the use of self-reported race as a way to trace socioeconomic disparities and its effects in health. For instance, a study conducted by the

7331: 5373:"Counterpoint: bias from population stratification is not a major threat to the validity of conclusions from epidemiological studies of common polymorphisms and cancer" 170: 2178:

Parpia AS, Pandey A, Martinez I, El-Sayed AM, Wells CR, Myers L, et al. (2020-12-02). "Racial disparities in COVID-19 mortality across Michigan, United States".

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was introduced and first used in the 1970s. Biocultural methods focus on the interactions between humans and their environment to understand human biological

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For racial and ethnic minorities in the United States, health disparities take on many forms, including higher rates of chronic disease, premature death, and

2095: 1946: 540: 2333: 2292: 7381: 3803:"Early life urban exposure as a risk factor for developing obesity and impaired fasting glucose in later adulthood: results from two cohorts in Thailand" 1307:

or ethnic groups, including migrant groups, to search for interactions between particular alleles and environmental factors that might influence health.

384: 869:. Similarly, there are growing numbers of resource and research centers which are seeking to provide this service for other national settings, such as 1505: 1478: 590: 7414: 7386: 6426: 387:, they are intrinsically related to the "historical and current unequal distribution of social, political, economic and environmental resources". 232: 4726:

McDade T, Hoke MK (2014-01-01). "Biosocial inheritance: A framework for the study of the intergenerational transmission of health disparities".

1583:"Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Disease Burden and Costs Related to Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in the US: an Exploratory Analysis" 7391: 6707: 6295: 3557:"Lesser response to angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor therapy in black as compared with white patients with left ventricular dysfunction" 3244: 3028:

Rosenberg NA, Pritchard JK, Weber JL, Cann HM, Kidd KK, Zhivotovsky LA, et al. (December 2002). "Genetic structure of human populations".

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The relationship between race and health has been studied from multidisciplinary perspectives, with increasing focus on how

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Some diseases and physiological variables vary depending upon their admixture ratios. Examples include measures of

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of thought, professions, or technologies—along with their specific perspectives—in the pursuit of a common task.

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with common disease to persist they must either have little effect during the reproductive period of life (like

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The main impetus for this development is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of certain

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genetic differences between races, but rather as effects of social and environmental factors affecting.

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biological and social mechanisms that impair health, exacerbating social and health disparities."

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important when looking at groups instead of individuals such as in epidemiologic research.

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and how migration to new environments cause changes in populations' genetics over time.

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Furthermore, this can also occur when minorities living in rural areas undergoing

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David Williams (1994) argued, after an examination of articles in the journal

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profiling in medical services would also lead to the risk of underdiagnosis.

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Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care

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substructure, but these methods can be difficult to apply in practice.

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Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. 1636:The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 692:. Some examples of these disorders include: 541:Health Resources and Services Administration 6188:JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery 4840:. The New York Times, published May 5, 2002 7382:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 7308: 6427: 6413: 6405: 4536: 4534: 4150:. Harvard University. 2002. Archived from 3666:Winichoff, D. E., Obasagie, O. K. (2008). 316: 302: 42: 7342:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 7332:Center for Disease Control and Prevention 6334: 6270: 6106: 6065: 6008: 5948: 5813: 5764: 5723: 5674: 5625: 5576: 5527: 5486: 5437: 5427: 5320: 5186: 5098: 5049: 4961: 4909: 4695:Pathophysiology of Hypertension in Blacks 4635: 4617: 4514: 4504: 4455: 4414: 4286: 4242: 4185: 4115: 4047: 4002: 3828: 3818: 3753: 3572: 3523: 3355: 3290: 3004: 2963: 2953: 2909: 2899: 2858: 2780: 2634: 2387: 2268: 2183: 2154: 2016: 1852: 1740: 1655: 1606: 1557: 1506:Environmental Racism in the United States 896:model that proposes the customization of 461:Learn how and when to remove this message 4849:Ian Whitmarsh and David S. Jones, 2010, 4821:Ian Whitmarsh and David S. Jones, 2010, 4803:Ian Whitmarsh and David S. Jones, 2010, 4170:"Genetic heterogeneity in human disease" 3216:10.1002/j.0022-0337.2001.65.10.tb03442.x 2459:. 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American Sociological Association. 1527: 1525: 1511:Race and health in the United States 1474:List of countries by life expectancy 1432:Dark skin § Health implications 914:Race and health in the United States 7559: 6708:Workers' right to access the toilet 6549:Human right to water and sanitation 4668:"Biocultural Evolution–An Overview" 4168:McClellan J, King MC (April 2010). 3706:"2. What is personalized medicine?" 3561:The New England Journal of Medicine 3512:The New England Journal of Medicine 2664:"Taking race out of human genetics" 2650:of the incorrect usage of the term. 852:infancy. 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For the 2021 film, see 7455:Schools of public health 7247:Diffusion of innovations 6946:Health impact assessment 6658:Public health laboratory 6554:Management of depression 6327:10.1038/sj.embor.7400654 5429:10.1073/pnas.95.19.11389 5175:British Medical Bulletin 5038:Health Services Research 4579:10.1177/0268580908099155 4506:10.1073/pnas.96.21.12004 3283:10.2105/AJPH.2006.087551 3195:Burt BA (October 2001). 2546:raceandgenomics.ssrc.org 2100:www.commonwealthfund.org 2066:10.1177/1073110520958875 1489:Cystic fibrosis and race 1247:Health Services Research 506:How racism makes us sick 7518:Social hygiene movement 7445:Doctor of Public Health 7277:Social cognitive theory 7079:Infectious and epidemic 6861:Fecal–oral transmission 5128:Annals of Human Biology 5091:10.2105/AJPH.90.11.1699 4855:, MIT press. Chapter 5. 4827:, MIT press. Chapter 9. 4567:International Sociology 4058:10.1126/science.1105436 3170:Genetics Home Reference 3050:10.1126/science.1078311 2688:10.1126/science.aac4951 1484:Ethnopsychopharmacology 1390:Patient-level variables 1038:, and possibly others. 859:National Health Service 810:human genetic variation 735:Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean 659:National Health Service 7513:Germ theory of disease 7292:Transtheoretical model 5848:Braun L (April 2021). 1787:Annals of Epidemiology 1327:This section is empty. 1304:linkage disequilibrium 1225:Taking the example of 1065:deep venous thrombosis 1046:heterozygote advantage 1014: 1006: 997:Heterozygote advantage 941:chronic kidney disease 815:"Out of Africa" theory 34:Ethnicity & Health 7397:Public Health Service 7282:Social norms approach 7272:PRECEDE–PROCEED model 6718:Preventive healthcare 6611:Pharmaceutical policy 6460:Chief Medical Officer 5993:10.1056/NEJMms2029562 5231:10.1038/clpt.2008.114 4898:Public Health Reports 4619:10.1056/NEJMoa2118813 3251:on December 15, 2003. 3197:"Definitions of risk" 2847:Public Health Reports 2382:(11 Suppl): S28–S33. 1383:Institute of Medicine 1311:Human genome projects 1157:Biocultural evolution 1124:not found in whites. 1012: 1004: 904:Environmental factors 670:Single-gene disorders 373:implicit stereotyping 269:Social stratification 7473:Sara Josephine Baker 7372:Public Health Agency 7257:Health communication 7122:Disease surveillance 7088:Asymptomatic carrier 7070:Statistical software 6758:Preventive nutrition 6586:Medical anthropology 6475:Environmental health 5766:10.1093/ije/30.5.925 4457:10.1038/oby.2003.124 3938:Evolutionary Biology 3525:10.1056/NEJMoa042934 3350:(11 Suppl): S28–33. 3233:on October 31, 2004. 2338:Psychology Today.com 2261:10.3402/gha.v8.27106 2249:Global Health Action 2139:10.5888/pcd14.160241 1442:Environmental racism 1152:Biocultural approach 1141:academic disciplines 991:Evolutionary factors 920:socioeconomic status 910:Environmental racism 841:Race-based treatment 768:, most common among 443:create a new article 435:improve this article 425:may not represent a 377:socioeconomic status 7592:Health care quality 7483:Carl Rogers Darnall 7478:Samuel Jay Crumbine 7252:Health belief model 7105:Notifiable diseases 7041:Regression analysis 6876:Waterborne diseases 6465:Cultural competence 6155:Smedley BD (2002). 5815:10.1038/nature01626 5806:2003Natur.422..835C 5420:1998PNAS...9511389M 5169:Jackson FL (2004). 5122:Jackson FL (2008). 4497:1999PNAS...9612004G 4288:10.1530/REP-15-0261 4040:2005Sci...307.1072H 3940:. pp. 381–98. 3317:Genetics and Health 3166:"Tay–Sachs disease" 3136:"Tay Sachs Disease" 3093:2003SciAm.289f..78B 3081:Scientific American 3042:2002Sci...298.2381R 2680:2016Sci...351..564Y 2579:10.1525/j.ctt1pnrht 2512:Lewontin R (1972). 2336:, Agustín Fuentes, 2293:"Web Login Service" 2011:(11 Suppl): S13–5. 1951:Healthy People 2010 1381:In a report by the 1296:Association studies 1289:Genetic association 1283:Association studies 1227:sickle-cell disease 1137:Interdisciplinarity 1061:Alzheimer's disease 1028:sickle cell disease 822:sickle-cell disease 794:Disease progression 701:autosomal recessive 682:autosomal recessive 61:Historical concepts 7081:disease prevention 7016:Case–control study 6688:Security of person 6537:Health care reform 5188:10.1093/bmb/ldh012 4740:10.1111/napa.12052 2948:(7): comment2007. 2488:The New York Times 2205:Psychiatric Annals 2102:. 27 December 2018 2048:Taylor JK (2020). 1259:across the world. 1015: 1007: 954:are introduced to 707:Sickle-cell anemia 549:maternal mortality 535:across racial and 7574: 7573: 7526: 7525: 7436:Higher education 7267:Positive deviance 7262:Health psychology 7238:Health behavioral 7165:safety management 7139:Social distancing 6913:Population health 6893:Smoking cessation 6841:Pharmacovigilance 6812:Injury prevention 6780:Infection control 6698:Social psychology 6648:Prisoners' rights 6591:Medical sociology 6559:Public health law 6455:Biological hazard 6243:JAMA Network Open 6168:978-0-309-50911-4 6095:Annals of Surgery 5268:(9357): 598–604. 4997:(24): e454–e468. 4712:978-1-4614-7577-4 4612:(16): 1505–1518. 3955:978-1-4684-9065-7 3807:BMC Public Health 3464:978-0-19-852083-2 3006:10.1111/tan.12165 2769:Academic Medicine 2674:(6273): 564–565. 2603:978-1-4522-6586-5 2570:978-0-520-27031-2 2355:. 16 March 2016. 1887:978-0-7879-6733-8 1827:(December 2013). 1693:978-1-118-23317-7 1362:Samuel Cartwright 1347: 1346: 1201:Race and genetics 1167:. These studies: 1145:interdisciplinary 1106:Gene interactions 723:Tay–Sachs disease 686:genetic disorders 611:health inequality 575:diabetes mellitus 565:systemic racism. 529: 528: 492:Knowable Magazine 471: 470: 463: 445:, as appropriate. 326: 325: 117:Sociology of race 101:scientific racism 82:Color terminology 16:(Redirected from 7619: 7562: 7561: 7550: 7549: 7538: 7537: 7432:Health education 7309: 7163:Food hygiene and 7144:Tropical disease 6956:Infant mortality 6931:Community health 6807:Controlled Drugs 6743:Health promotion 6673:Right to housing 6517:Health economics 6429: 6422: 6415: 6406: 6373:News-Medical.net 6349: 6348: 6338: 6306: 6300: 6299: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6274: 6234: 6228: 6227: 6179: 6173: 6172: 6152: 6137: 6136: 6110: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6069: 6029: 6023: 6022: 6012: 5972: 5963: 5962: 5952: 5923:Braun L (2015). 5920: 5911: 5910: 5908: 5907: 5900:Brown University 5892: 5886: 5885: 5860:(4): 1670–1675. 5845: 5836: 5835: 5817: 5800:(6934): 835–47. 5785: 5779: 5778: 5768: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5727: 5695: 5689: 5688: 5678: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5629: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5580: 5548: 5542: 5541: 5531: 5507: 5501: 5500: 5490: 5473:(6): 1492–1504. 5458: 5452: 5451: 5441: 5431: 5414:(19): 11389–93. 5399: 5393: 5392: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5324: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5257: 5251: 5250: 5216: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5190: 5166: 5160: 5159: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5102: 5085:(11): 1699–702. 5070: 5064: 5063: 5053: 5029: 5023: 5022: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4965: 4933: 4924: 4923: 4913: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4862: 4856: 4847: 4841: 4834: 4828: 4819: 4810: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4758: 4752: 4751: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4680: 4679: 4664: 4658: 4657: 4639: 4621: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4552: 4538: 4529: 4528: 4518: 4508: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4459: 4444:Obesity Research 4435: 4429: 4428: 4418: 4394: 4388: 4387: 4351: 4345: 4344: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4290: 4272: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4246: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4189: 4165: 4156: 4155: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4119: 4093: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4051: 4034:(5712): 1072–9. 4023: 4017: 4016: 4006: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3923: 3917:userwww.sfsu.edu 3909: 3903: 3902: 3895: 3886: 3885: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3832: 3822: 3798: 3792: 3791: 3789: 3788: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3757: 3725: 3714: 3713: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3593: 3587: 3586: 3576: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3527: 3503: 3497: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3480:. 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6357: 6352: 6308: 6307: 6303: 6293: 6292: 6288: 6249:(1): e2250654. 6236: 6235: 6231: 6181: 6180: 6176: 6169: 6154: 6153: 6140: 6088: 6087: 6083: 6031: 6030: 6026: 5974: 5973: 5966: 5922: 5921: 5914: 5905: 5903: 5894: 5893: 5889: 5847: 5846: 5839: 5787: 5786: 5782: 5746: 5745: 5741: 5697: 5696: 5692: 5648: 5647: 5643: 5612:(5): 979–1000. 5599: 5598: 5594: 5550: 5549: 5545: 5516:Nature Genetics 5509: 5508: 5504: 5460: 5459: 5455: 5401: 5400: 5396: 5370: 5369: 5365: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5309:Nature Genetics 5302: 5301: 5297: 5259: 5258: 5254: 5214: 5209: 5208: 5204: 5168: 5167: 5163: 5121: 5120: 5116: 5072: 5071: 5067: 5031: 5030: 5026: 4984: 4983: 4979: 4935: 4934: 4927: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4864: 4863: 4859: 4848: 4844: 4835: 4831: 4820: 4813: 4802: 4798: 4760: 4759: 4755: 4725: 4724: 4720: 4713: 4691: 4690: 4686: 4677: 4675: 4666: 4665: 4661: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4550: 4548: 4540: 4539: 4532: 4491:(21): 12004–9. 4478: 4477: 4473: 4437: 4436: 4432: 4396: 4395: 4391: 4362:(11): 2039–45. 4353: 4352: 4348: 4313:Nature Genetics 4309: 4308: 4304: 4270: 4265: 4264: 4260: 4216: 4215: 4211: 4167: 4166: 4159: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4091: 4086: 4085: 4081: 4049:10.1.1.115.3580 4025: 4024: 4020: 3976: 3975: 3971: 3956: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3921: 3919: 3911: 3910: 3906: 3897: 3896: 3889: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3786: 3784: 3776: 3775: 3771: 3727: 3726: 3717: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3630: 3629: 3625: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3518:(20): 2049–57. 3505: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3489: 3476: 3475: 3471: 3465: 3450: 3449: 3445: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3378: 3377: 3373: 3344:Nature Genetics 3337: 3336: 3325: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3264: 3263: 3256: 3243: 3242: 3238: 3230: 3199: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3177: 3164: 3163: 3159: 3149: 3147: 3134: 3133: 3129: 3121:Bloom, Miriam. 3120: 3116: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3027: 3026: 3022: 2993:Tissue Antigens 2986: 2985: 2981: 2935: 2934: 2927: 2881: 2880: 2876: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2826: 2818: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2802: 2798: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2727: 2726: 2719: 2661: 2660: 2656: 2623:Nature Genetics 2616: 2615: 2611: 2604: 2591: 2590: 2586: 2571: 2558: 2557: 2553: 2540: 2539: 2532: 2516: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2492: 2490: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2451: 2447: 2433: 2431: 2423:Michael White. 2422: 2421: 2417: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2349: 2348: 2344: 2332: 2328: 2319: 2317: 2309: 2308: 2304: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2242: 2241: 2232: 2211:(11): 494–498. 2198: 2197: 2193: 2177: 2176: 2172: 2120: 2119: 2115: 2105: 2103: 2094: 2093: 2089: 2047: 2046: 2042: 2005:Nature Genetics 1998: 1997: 1984: 1976: 1969: 1962: 1961: 1957: 1945: 1941: 1927: 1923: 1914: 1912: 1903: 1902: 1895: 1888: 1875: 1874: 1870: 1822: 1821: 1814: 1784: 1783: 1776: 1768: 1763: 1762: 1758: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1694: 1681: 1680: 1673: 1629: 1628: 1624: 1580: 1579: 1575: 1531: 1530: 1523: 1519: 1462:Mexican paradox 1423: 1410: 1401: 1392: 1379: 1357: 1352: 1343: 1337: 1334: 1313: 1291: 1285: 1256: 1207: 1205:Objectification 1193: 1184: 1154: 1130: 1108: 1081: 1073:type 2 diabetes 999: 993: 972: 970:Genetic factors 960:Type 2 Diabetes 947:, or diabetes. 916: 906: 849: 843: 830:hemochromatosis 826:cystic fibrosis 805: 796: 787: 747:Old Order Amish 697:Cystic fibrosis 680:There are many 678: 672: 651: 626: 620: 518: 512:, November 2016 501: 482: 476:External videos 467: 456: 450: 447: 432: 419: 415: 408: 369:life expectancy 365:health outcomes 359:Differences in 346:social identity 329:Race and health 322: 274:White supremacy 112:Racial politics 107:Racial equality 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7625: 7623: 7615: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7579: 7578: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7568: 7556: 7544: 7531: 7528: 7527: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7469: 7467: 7463: 7462: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7434: 7428: 7426: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7418: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7400: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7376: 7375: 7374: 7369: 7361: 7360: 7359: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7344: 7336: 7335: 7334: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7315: 7313: 7306: 7301:Organizations, 7298: 7297: 7295: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7243: 7241: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7229: 7224: 7214: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7168: 7166: 7160: 7159: 7157: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7125: 7124: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7090: 7084: 7082: 7076: 7075: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7066: 7065: 7057: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7012: 7010: 7007:Biological and 7004: 7003: 7001: 7000: 6995: 6994: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6973: 6968: 6966:Multimorbidity 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6917: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6905: 6903:Vector control 6900: 6895: 6890: 6888:School hygiene 6885: 6884: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6871:Sanitary sewer 6868: 6863: 6858: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6829:Patient safety 6826: 6825: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6762: 6761: 6760: 6755: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6734: 6733: 6722: 6720: 6714: 6713: 6711: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6644: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6567: 6566: 6561: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6540: 6539: 6534: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6512:Harm reduction 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6487: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6432: 6431: 6424: 6417: 6409: 6403: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6364: 6356: 6355:External links 6353: 6351: 6350: 6301: 6286: 6229: 6194:(7): 656–662. 6174: 6167: 6138: 6081: 6044:(1): 184–195. 6024: 5987:(5): 474–480. 5964: 5912: 5887: 5837: 5780: 5739: 5716:10.1086/426949 5690: 5667:10.1086/420856 5661:(5): 1001–13. 5641: 5618:10.1086/420871 5592: 5569:10.1086/420855 5543: 5529:10.1038/ng1333 5502: 5479:10.1086/375613 5453: 5394: 5363: 5336: 5322:10.1038/ng1337 5295: 5252: 5202: 5161: 5114: 5065: 5024: 4977: 4925: 4884: 4857: 4842: 4836:Satel, Sally. 4829: 4811: 4796: 4753: 4734:(2): 187–213. 4718: 4711: 4684: 4659: 4592: 4557: 4530: 4471: 4430: 4409:(4): 1047–51. 4389: 4346: 4325:10.1038/ng1071 4302: 4281:(5): R159–74. 4258: 4209: 4157: 4154:on 2011-11-27. 4139: 4096:Human Genetics 4079: 4018: 3995:10.1086/302825 3969: 3954: 3928: 3904: 3887: 3844: 3793: 3769: 3715: 3697: 3658: 3623: 3588: 3567:(18): 1351–7. 3547: 3498: 3487: 3484:on 2007-03-24. 3469: 3463: 3443: 3388: 3371: 3357:10.1038/ng1435 3323: 3306: 3254: 3236: 3210:(10): 1007–8. 3187: 3157: 3127: 3114: 3071: 3020: 2979: 2942:Genome Biology 2925: 2874: 2833: 2824: 2807: 2796: 2755: 2717: 2654: 2636:10.1038/ng1455 2609: 2602: 2584: 2569: 2551: 2530: 2504: 2474: 2445: 2415: 2389:10.1038/ng1435 2362: 2342: 2340:, 9 April 2012 2326: 2302: 2284: 2230: 2191: 2170: 2113: 2087: 2060:(3): 506–517. 2040: 2018:10.1038/ng1436 1982: 1979:on 2007-09-27. 1955: 1939: 1921: 1893: 1886: 1868: 1812: 1774: 1756: 1727:(3): 189–205. 1707: 1692: 1671: 1622: 1573: 1544:(1): 259–284. 1520: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1495:United States: 1492: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1465: 1464: 1454: 1449: 1447:French paradox 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1422: 1419: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1397: 1391: 1388: 1378: 1375: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1325: 1323: 1312: 1309: 1284: 1281: 1255: 1252: 1231:emergency room 1192: 1189: 1183: 1180: 1153: 1150: 1129: 1126: 1107: 1104: 1080: 1077: 1019:duffy negative 992: 989: 983:heritability. 971: 968: 905: 902: 877:U.S. was when 842: 839: 804: 801: 795: 792: 786: 783: 782: 781: 772: 763: 753: 727:Ashkenazi Jews 720: 710: 704: 690:founder effect 671: 668: 650: 647: 622:Main article: 619: 616: 595:mental illness 587:dental disease 527: 526: 514: 513: 497: 496: 478: 477: 469: 468: 429:of the subject 427:worldwide view 422: 420: 413: 407: 404: 350:genetic makeup 324: 323: 321: 320: 313: 306: 298: 295: 294: 293: 292: 287: 279: 278: 277: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 243: 242: 241:Related topics 238: 237: 236: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 207: 206: 202: 201: 200: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 164: 159: 149: 144: 137:United Kingdom 127: 126: 122: 121: 120: 119: 114: 109: 104: 94: 89: 87:Race relations 84: 76: 75: 71: 70: 69: 68: 63: 55: 54: 50: 49: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7624: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7584: 7582: 7567: 7566: 7557: 7555: 7554: 7545: 7543: 7542: 7533: 7532: 7529: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7488:Joseph Lister 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7464: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7437: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7423: 7416: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7367:Health Canada 7365: 7364: 7362: 7358: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7333: 7330: 7329: 7327: 7323: 7320: 7319: 7317: 7316: 7314: 7312:Organizations 7310: 7307: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7244: 7242: 7236: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7172: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7161: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7149:Vaccine trial 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7123: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7115: 7111: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7103: 7099: 7096: 7095: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7077: 7071: 7068: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7056: 7054: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7033: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7026:Relative risk 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7013: 7011: 7005: 6999: 6996: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6986:Health equity 6984: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6951:Health system 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6941:Global health 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6921:Biostatistics 6919: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6910: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6835: 6832: 6831: 6830: 6827: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6793: 6790: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6763: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6750: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6732: 6729: 6728: 6727: 6724: 6723: 6721: 6719: 6715: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6663:Right to food 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6601: 6597: 6596:Mental health 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6556: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6544:Housing First 6542: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6532:Health system 6530: 6529: 6528: 6527:Health policy 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6482: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6436:Public health 6430: 6425: 6423: 6418: 6416: 6411: 6410: 6407: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6368: 6365: 6362: 6359: 6358: 6354: 6346: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6305: 6302: 6297: 6290: 6287: 6282: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6233: 6230: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6178: 6175: 6170: 6164: 6160: 6159: 6151: 6149: 6147: 6145: 6143: 6139: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6085: 6082: 6077: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6028: 6025: 6020: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5971: 5969: 5965: 5960: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5935:(4): 99–101. 5934: 5930: 5926: 5919: 5917: 5913: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5888: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5844: 5842: 5838: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5784: 5781: 5776: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5743: 5740: 5735: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5694: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5645: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5596: 5593: 5588: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5563:(5): 965–78. 5562: 5558: 5554: 5547: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5522:(4): 388–93. 5521: 5517: 5513: 5506: 5503: 5498: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5457: 5454: 5449: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5398: 5395: 5390: 5386: 5383:(6): 513–20. 5382: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5364: 5359: 5355: 5352:(6): 505–12. 5351: 5347: 5340: 5337: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5299: 5296: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5256: 5253: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5206: 5203: 5198: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5165: 5162: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5134:(2): 121–44. 5133: 5129: 5125: 5118: 5115: 5110: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5069: 5066: 5061: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5044:(3): 261–74. 5043: 5039: 5035: 5028: 5025: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4978: 4973: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4948:(8): 956–62. 4947: 4943: 4939: 4932: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4888: 4885: 4880: 4876: 4873:(2): 104–10. 4872: 4868: 4861: 4858: 4854: 4853: 4846: 4843: 4839: 4833: 4830: 4826: 4825: 4818: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4807: 4800: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4757: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4719: 4714: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4688: 4685: 4673: 4669: 4663: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4593: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4573:(1): 93–113. 4572: 4568: 4561: 4558: 4547: 4543: 4537: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4475: 4472: 4467: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4450:(7): 904–11. 4449: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4347: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4319:(2): 177–82. 4318: 4314: 4306: 4303: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4262: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4213: 4210: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4162: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4143: 4140: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4117:2027.42/47592 4113: 4109: 4105: 4102:(4): 325–36. 4101: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4019: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3989:(3): 979–88. 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3932: 3929: 3918: 3914: 3908: 3905: 3900: 3894: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3797: 3794: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3740:(6): 912–20. 3739: 3735: 3731: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3711: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3659: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3624: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3604:(3): 118–21. 3603: 3599: 3592: 3589: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3551: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3502: 3499: 3496: 3491: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3460: 3456: 3455: 3447: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3389: 3384: 3383: 3375: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3318: 3310: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3277:(6): 1060–6. 3276: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3259: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3240: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3118: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3024: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3002: 2999:(3): 155–64. 2998: 2994: 2990: 2983: 2980: 2975: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2878: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2834: 2828: 2825: 2817: 2811: 2808: 2805: 2800: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2775:(7): 916–20. 2774: 2770: 2766: 2759: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2724: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2613: 2610: 2605: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2562: 2555: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2508: 2505: 2501: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2475: 2471: 2455: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2430: 2426: 2419: 2416: 2412: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2381: 2377: 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The US 439:talk page 338:phenotype 182:Sexuality 7541:Category 7240:sciences 7175:Additive 6846:Safe sex 6817:Medicine 6731:Theories 6502:Genomics 6480:Eugenics 6470:Deviance 6450:Auxology 6345:16607392 6281:36656582 6216:33885733 6125:35816652 6076:35033507 6019:33406325 5959:26566381 5874:33263290 5824:12695777 5775:11689494 5734:15540159 5685:15088270 5636:15088269 5587:15088268 5538:15052270 5497:12817591 5389:12050091 5358:12050090 5331:15052271 5290:14255234 5282:12598158 5239:18714319 5197:15226208 5156:52802335 5148:18428008 5109:11076233 5019:33170755 4972:19551449 4791:41786914 4646:35213105 4637:10367430 4525:10518566 4466:12855761 4425:12663479 4403:Diabetes 4376:15596747 4333:12524541 4297:26447148 4253:19481926 4196:20403315 4134:11171929 4126:12884000 4074:27107073 4066:15718463 4013:10712212 3964:21095796 3874:19234670 3839:26376960 3764:26590940 3692:18453000 3653:18453000 3618:71997594 3583:11333991 3542:12012042 3534:15533851 3430:35927547 3366:15508000 3301:17463370 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