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nutrients through other methods. They are also migratory endoparasites, meaning it enters the roots and is able to move throughout the host. Only females infect roots, as they complete egg laying inside the host. They are able to produce both sexually and asexually; and therefore, can be present in female, hermaphrodite, and male forms. Individuals in all stages of the life cycle have stylets and can therefore infect roots and migrate throughout the host, as well as infect new hosts when the current host is spent. They often inhabit the parenchyma and females lay eggs (about 3-5 per day) in the inhabited tissues. Once laid, eggs usually take about 5–10 days to hatch, 10–13 days to develop into adults, and about 2 days to become gravid. All of this equates to a 20-25 day life cycle from egg to gravid adult.
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being performed regarding resistant varieties, especially exploring hybrid genotypes and new cultivars with decreased susceptibility. Resistant hosts cause the nematodes to be unable to survive and reproduce, decreasing the population. There is also continued research regarding fungus (biological) controls for nematodes like
390:
the
Cavendish variety that is resistant to Panama Disease. The Gros Michel variety was commercialized via monoculture, which caused it to be extremely susceptible to the Panama Disease. However, this new Cavendish variety is also being monocultured, which is increasing its susceptibility to pathogens, such as
289:
that is a prominent pathogen to citrus plants. As with a plethora of root diseases, the main symptoms of an infection from burrowing nematodes are stunted growth, rotting roots, and necrotic roots. They are migratory endoparasites, and therefore can cause many localized necrotic patches throughout an
380:
There is evidence that mutualistic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi may reduce the susceptibility of plant hosts. However, there are some conflicting results regarding this technique of nematode control, so it is not currently widely used. Seasonally rotating crop varieties wipe out the nematode
294:
signs are generally only seen in the roots, but secondary symptoms such as wilting, weakened structure, and stunting can be caused by the root damage these parasites inflict. In fact, infection via these parasites is referred to as “banana toppling disease” in bananas because the plants often topple
389:
Cultivation practices such as monoculture are increasing the susceptibility of host plants. The biggest historically important example of monoculture increasing infection is in bananas. The Gros Michel variety of bananas were wiped out by a fungus (commonly known as Panama
Disease) and replaced by
375:
is prevention and control of exporting infected crops. Common ways of controlling nematode include planting resistant or less susceptible hosts, seasonal rotation of crops, biological controls, planting nematode-free individuals, environmental controls, and fallowing. There is continuing research
327:
is a burrowing nematode, meaning it burrows in its host plants roots. These parasites are endoparasites, which refers to the method of obtaining nutrients. They sit inside the plant and siphon nutrients from the cytoplasm of the surrounding cells, instead of living outside the plant and stealing
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is an obligate parasite, they cannot survive without an available host. Planting individuals grown in vitro and guaranteed nematode free prevents any presence of nematodes being inoculated into a crop field. Applying environmental controls such as hot water or increased sun exposure to saplings
260:
is found in tropical environments and is therefore common in Africa, Asia, Australia, South and
Central America, and southern areas of North America. These parasites are a great example of a disease greatly impacted by globalization. Large infection rates are fairly recent, as global trade and
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due to severe root damage by these nematodes. Prominent symptoms can also vary by host. Black pepper plants often undergo yellowing due to lack of nutrient uptake, ginger plants often become stunted and develop lesions, and tea plants also exhibit stunting and leaf loss.
335:
The nematode causes a disease condition called toppling or blackhead disease in plants. In bananas they weaken the anchor roots and the plants can fall. The roots also fail to supply the plant with water and nutrients, causing reduced growth and development.
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parasites can be found in tropical climates, and therefore infect a lot of plants native to tropical areas. Common hosts that are economically important include: banana, coconut, coffee, ginger, sugarcane, ornamentals, and tea. Although
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enclosed in a sac. The male is 500 to 600 ÎĽm in length, while the female is about 550 to 880 ÎĽm long. The female has a well-developed stylet. Both male and female have long, tapered tails with rounded or indented ends.
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populations in the “off” seasons if the crop planted is not a viable host for the parasites. Fallowing is used in a similar instance, but instead of rotating plant varieties, fields are simply only used every other year. Since
331:
The nematode completes its life cycle in about 21 days at 25 °C. Females and juveniles feed inside roots, especially near the tips. Males with their weak stylets do not feed. Females lay two to six eggs per day.
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is an obligate parasite, and therefore must have hosts to survive. Due to the inability to live without a host, they are found in environments where susceptible hosts flourish.
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today. There are some nematicides available, although the use of these to control infections continuously declines. Instead, the preferred method of control of
250:, in 1891. It is one of the most important root pathogens of banana crops, causing yield losses of up to 30 to 60% in many countries. It is known in
1076:
1128:
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782:"Relative mycorrhizal dependency and mycorrhiza-nematode interaction in banana cultivars (Musa spp.) differing in nematode susceptibility"
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Risede, Jean-Michele; Chabrier, Christian; Dorel, Marc; Rhino, Beatrice; Lakhia, Kelly; Jenny, Christophe; Quénéhervé, Patrick (2009).
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652:
617:"Studies on the Life-history and Habits of the Burrowing Nematode, Radopliolus similis, the Cause of Black-head Disease of Banana"
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686:"Recent and up-coming strategies to counter plant-parasitic nematodes in banana cropping systems of the French West Indies"
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720:"Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi for the Biocontrol of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes: A Review of the Mechanisms Involved"
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American Samoa
Community College Community & Natural Resources Cooperative Research & Extension. 2004.
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has not been found to infect citrus plants, it is closely related to another variety of burrowing nematodes,
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Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Entomology and Nematology
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867:"A unique genetic code change in the mitochondrial genome of the parasitic nematode
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364:, can be sown. Disease-free sprouts raised from clean tissue cultures can be used.
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32:
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Joachim EM Jacob; Bartel
Vanholme; Thomas Van Leeuwen; Godelieve Gheysen (2009).
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Schouteden, Nele; De Waele, Dirk; Panis, Bart; Vos, Christine M. (2015).
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The nematode was first described from necrotic tissue in a species of
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2nd Ed. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI Publishing. 2005. pg 616.
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of many agricultural crops. It is an especially important pest of
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Plant
Parasitic Nematodes in Subtropical and Tropical Agriculture
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Banana
Nematodes: Pests and Diseases of American Samoa. Number 9.
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The nematode load in the soil can be reduced with fumigation and
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1016:
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Elsen, A.; Baimey, H.; Swennen, R.; De Waele, D. (2003-10-01).
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There are a few notable management strategies used to control
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prefers warmer environments, hence the tropical habitats.
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Adults and juveniles are vermiform in shape. Adults are
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Sekora, Nicholas S.; Crow, William (November 2018).
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before planting to desiccate any nematodes present.
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352:that are not susceptible to the nematode, such as
402:It is notable as an early exemplar, along with
261:commercialization of crops gained popularity.
8:
852:"Taxonomy browser (Radopholus arabocoffeae)"
436:EENY-542. University of Florida IFAS. 2012.
933:
624:The Helminthological Society of Washington
31:
20:
896:
886:
753:
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605:American Phytopathological Society. 2013.
521:"Radopholus similis (burrowing nematode)"
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444:
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828:"Nematode Management Guidelines--UC IPM"
597:
595:
558:"Featured Creatures; Radopholus similis"
311:, a knob-like head, and a sharp, curved
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410:alternative flatworm mitochondrial code
455:and its importance in crop production"
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519:CAB International (November 2019).
307:. The male has a poorly developed
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665:The Burrowing Nematode of Bananas
630:: 43–52 – via bionames.org.
525:CABI; Invasive Species Compendium
44:
702:10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.828.11
615:Loos, Clive A. (January 1962).
428:Sekora, N. S. and W. T. Crow.
1:
228:. Infected plants experience
451:"Worldwide dissemination of
1219:Agricultural pest nematodes
1214:Nematodes described in 1949
603:Burrowing nematode disease.
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704:– via Research Gate.
724:Frontiers in Microbiology
320:Biology and disease cycle
188:, and it can be found on
156:(Cobb, 1893) Thorne, 1949
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41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
737:10.3389/fmicb.2015.01280
236:History and distribution
888:10.1186/1756-0500-2-192
798:10.1023/A:1026150917522
449:O'Bannon J. H. (1977).
405:Radopholus arabocoffeae
287:Radopholus citrophilus,
180:of plants, and it is a
290:infected root system.
172:known commonly as the
667:, Radopholus similis
663:Sarah, J. L., et al.
459:Journal of Nematology
1064:Fauna Europaea (new)
580:nemaplex.ucdavis.edu
576:"Radopholus similis"
430:Burrowing nematode,
212:. It is a migratory
16:Species of roundworm
254:regions worldwide.
991:Radopholus_similis
977:Radopholus similis
947:Radopholus similis
925:Radopholus similis
869:Radopholus similis
690:Acta Horticulturae
453:Radopholus similis
432:Radopholus similis
305:sexually dimorphic
278:Radopholus similis
273:Hosts and symptoms
258:Radopholus similis
174:burrowing nematode
165:Radopholus similis
150:Radopholus similis
25:Radopholus similis
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1090:iNaturalist
971:Wikispecies
669:Cobb, 1913.
530:December 9,
378:R. similis.
350:Cover crops
210:ornamentals
88:Secernentea
1209:Tylenchida
1203:Categories
929:Musapedia.
837:2020-12-09
585:2020-12-09
416:References
392:R. similis
383:R. similis
373:R. similis
369:R. similis
355:Crotalaria
340:Management
325:R. similis
299:Morphology
292:R. similis
283:R. similis
267:R. similis
263:R. similis
224:that form
220:, causing
176:. It is a
119:Radopholus
98:Tylenchida
1147:2.1094742
806:1573-5036
746:1664-302X
408:, of the
252:temperate
202:sugarcane
126:Species:
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
1108:10767690
962:Q3417118
956:Wikidata
907:19778425
814:10544152
764:26635750
730:: 1280.
481:19305565
398:Genetics
204:, other
178:parasite
170:nematode
104:Family:
78:Nematoda
74:Phylum:
68:Animalia
54:Domain:
1082:2284101
898:2761399
881:: 192.
755:4646980
472:2620210
361:Tagetes
313:spicule
226:cankers
222:lesions
206:grasses
194:avocado
190:coconut
186:bananas
114:Genus:
94:Order:
84:Class:
1186:186666
1095:687128
1056:225042
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1004:300726
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309:stylet
208:, and
198:coffee
1173:46012
1134:63744
1121:46685
1103:IRMNG
1038:EUNIS
810:S2CID
620:(PDF)
248:genus
218:roots
1168:NCBI
1129:ITIS
1077:GBIF
1025:EPPO
999:BOLD
903:PMID
802:ISSN
760:PMID
742:ISSN
649:ISBN
532:2020
477:PMID
243:Musa
182:pest
1155:NBN
1116:ISC
1012:EoL
986:AFD
893:PMC
883:doi
794:doi
790:256
750:PMC
732:doi
698:doi
694:828
467:PMC
358:or
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