49:
654:
1148:
1234:, reported as the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 with respect to a standard, has now (approximately since the year 2022) declined to levels similar to those prior to the above-ground nuclear tests of the 1950s and 1960s. Although the extra carbon-14 atoms generated during those nuclear tests have not disappeared from the atmosphere, oceans and biosphere, they are diluted because of the
629:), back to about 45,000 years before the present. A calculation or (more accurately) a direct comparison of carbon-14 levels in a sample, with tree ring or cave-deposit carbon-14 levels of a known age, then gives the wood or animal sample age-since-formation. Radiocarbon is also used to detect disturbance in natural ecosystems; for example, in
531:
is the preferred method although more recently, accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice; it counts all the carbon-14 atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual
1495:
Dating a specific sample of fossilized carbonaceous material is more complicated. Such deposits often contain trace amounts of carbon-14. These amounts can vary significantly between samples, ranging up to 1% of the ratio found in living organisms, a concentration comparable to an apparent age of
3529:
All other atmospheric carbon dioxide comes from young sources–namely land-use changes (for example, cutting down a forest in order to create a farm) and exchange with the ocean and terrestrial biosphere. This makes 14C an ideal tracer of carbon dioxide coming from the combustion of fossil fuels.
518:
As usual with beta decay, almost all the decay energy is carried away by the beta particle and the neutrino. The emitted beta particles have a maximum energy of about 156 keV, while their weighted mean energy is 49 keV. These are relatively low energies; the maximum distance traveled is
1630:
Since many sources of human food are ultimately derived from terrestrial plants, the relative concentration of carbon-14 in human bodies is nearly identical to the relative concentration in the atmosphere. The rates of disintegration of
765:
were not very successful. Production rates vary because of changes to the cosmic ray flux caused by the heliospheric modulation (solar wind and solar magnetic field), and, of great significance, due to variations in the
792:
Carbon-14 may also be produced by lightning but in amounts negligible, globally, compared to cosmic ray production. Local effects of cloud-ground discharge through sample residues are unclear, but possibly significant.
1170:. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of
3530:
Scientists can use 14C measurements to determine the age of carbon dioxide collected in air samples, and from this can calculate what proportion of the carbon dioxide in the sample comes from fossil fuels.
3441:
1197:
dramatically increased the amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere and subsequently in the biosphere; after the tests ended, the atmospheric concentration of the isotope began to decrease, as radioactive
1635:
and carbon-14 in the normal adult body are comparable (a few thousand disintegrated nuclei per second). The beta decays from external (environmental) radiocarbon contribute approximately 0.01
1559:
of a sample of carbonaceous material possibly indicates its contamination by biogenic sources or the decay of radioactive material in surrounding geologic strata. In connection with building the
1336:. The gas mixes rapidly and becomes evenly distributed throughout the atmosphere (the mixing timescale in the order of weeks). Carbon dioxide also dissolves in water and thus permeates the
573:. Libby estimated that the radioactivity of exchangeable carbon-14 would be about 14 disintegrations per minute (dpm) per gram of pure carbon, and this is still used as the activity of the
381:), which occurs in trace amounts, making up about 1 or 1.5 atoms per 10 atoms of carbon in the atmosphere. Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable, while carbon-14 is unstable and has a
2428:
Poluianov SV, Kovaltsov GA, Mishev AL, Usoskin IG (2016). "Production of cosmogenic isotopes 7Be, 10Be, 14C, 22Na, and 36Cl in the atmosphere: Altitudinal profiles of yield functions".
3408:
Otlet RL, Fulker MJ, Walker AJ (1992). "Environmental Impact of
Atmospheric Carbon-14 Emissions Resulting from the Nuclear Energy Cycle.". In Taylor RE, Long A, Kra RS (eds.).
431:: carbon-14 atoms can be used to replace nonradioactive carbon, in order to trace chemical and biochemical reactions involving carbon atoms from any given organic compound.
427:
The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties. This resemblance is used in chemical and biological research, in a technique called
3891:
162:
3614:
Alimonti G, Angloher G, Arpesella C, Balata M, Bellini G, Benziger J, et al. (1998). "Measurement of the C abundance in a low-background liquid scintillator".
3379:
3350:
1803:
Kamen MD (May 1963). "Early
History of Carbon-14: Discovery of this supremely important tracer was expected in the physical sense but not in the chemical sense".
1223:
reported that carbon-14 from nuclear bomb testing has been found in the bodies of aquatic animals found in one of the most inaccessible regions of the earth, the
48:
778:, caused by an extreme solar energetic particle event, the strongest such event to have occurred within the last ten millennia. Another "extraordinarily large"
322:
3437:
3423:
610:
in the atmosphere at that time. However, it decreases thereafter from radioactive decay, allowing the date of death or fixation to be estimated. The initial
412:. A gram of carbon containing 1 atom of carbon-14 per 10 atoms will emit ~0.2 beta particles per second. The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is
3573:
633:
landscapes, radiocarbon can indicate that carbon which was previously stored in organic soils is being released due to land clearance or climate change.
3088:
532:
plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly. The G-M counting efficiency is estimated to be 3%. The half-distance layer in water is 0.05 mm.
3074:
1359:
has been estimated to be roughly 12 to 16 years in the northern hemisphere. The transfer between the ocean shallow layer and the large reservoir of
527:; it is estimated that G-M detectors will not normally detect contamination of less than about 100,000 disintegrations per minute (0.05 μCi).
2840:
Enoto T, Wada Y, Furuta Y, Nakazawa K, Yuasa T, Okuda K, et al. (November 2017). "Photonuclear reactions triggered by lightning discharge".
2572:
2636:
Usoskin IG, Kromer B, Ludlow F, Beer J, Friedrich M, Kovaltsov GA, et al. (2013). "The AD775 cosmic event revisited: the Sun is to blame".
3587:
Jull AJ, Barker D, Donahue DJ (1985). "Carbon-14 Abundances in
Uranium Ores and Possible Spontaneous Exotic Emission from U-Series Nuclides".
3766:
3492:
2524:
2019:
1374:
was 238 Bq per kg carbon of fresh terrestrial biomatter, close to the values before atmospheric nuclear testing (226 Bq/kg C; 1950).
2135:
1994:
1555:
ratio, measured to be on the order of 10), or other unknown secondary sources of carbon-14 production. The presence of carbon-14 in the
393:
years. Carbon-14 has a maximum specific activity of 62.4 mCi/mmol (2.31 GBq/mmol), or 164.9 GBq/g. Carbon-14 decays into
313:
and colleagues (1949) to date archaeological, geological and hydrogeological samples. Carbon-14 was discovered on
February 27, 1940, by
3508:
3787:
1262:
at PWRs. Best practice for nuclear power plant operator management of carbon-14 includes releasing it at night, when plants are not
1496:
40,000 years. This may indicate possible contamination by small amounts of bacteria, underground sources of radiation causing the
661:
3: The "equal" equation is for living organisms, and the unequal one is for dead organisms, in which the C-14 then decays (See 2).
3693:
3221:
2989:
1936:
774:
however can make such effects difficult to isolate and quantify. Occasional spikes may occur; for example, there is evidence for
3886:
2959:
2485:
1182:
728:
The highest rate of carbon-14 production takes place at altitudes of 9 to 15 kilometres (30,000 to 49,000 ft) and at high
621:
level for the calculation can either be estimated, or else directly compared with known year-by-year data from tree-ring data (
3714:
3110:
Spalding KL, Buchholz BA, Bergman LE, Druid H, Frisén J (September 2005). "Forensics: age written in teeth by nuclear tests".
1789:
2041:
528:
3455:
3351:"EPRI | Product Abstract | Impact of Nuclear Power Plant Operations on Carbon-14 Generation, Chemical Forms, and Release"
519:
estimated to be 22 cm in air and 0.27 mm in body tissue. The fraction of the radiation transmitted through the
3387:
3358:
3022:
2371:
Kovaltsov GA, Mishev A, Usoskin IG (2012). "A new model of cosmogenic production of radiocarbon 14C in the atmosphere".
625:) up to 10,000 years ago (using overlapping data from live and dead trees in a given area), or else from cave deposits (
3671:
789:
increase (2%) has been associated with a 5480 BC event, which is unlikely to be a solar energetic particle event.
775:
3881:
2063:
Arnold JR, Libby WF (December 1949). "Age determinations by radiocarbon content; checks with samples of known age".
2110:
524:
3543:
1563:
solar neutrino observatory, petroleum feedstock (for synthesizing the primary scintillant) was obtained with low
1251:
767:
3163:"Radiocarbon dating of the human eye lens crystallines reveal proteins without carbon turnover throughout life"
1705:
1533:/U in uranium-bearing ores would imply roughly 1 uranium atom for every two carbon atoms in order to cause the
927:
production by thermal neutron irradiation of targets (e.g., in a nuclear reactor) are summarized in the table.
578:
3096:
3044:
1965:
207:
2486:"Distinct roles of the Southern Ocean and North Atlantic in the deglacial atmospheric radiocarbon decline"
1270:, but most significantly from transmutation of nitrogen-14 impurities), and if the spent fuel is sent to
1247:
1194:
998:
570:
31:
1298:
After production in the upper atmosphere, the carbon-14 atoms react rapidly to form mostly (about 93%)
584:
One of the frequent uses of the technique is to date organic remains from archaeological sites. Plants
3311:"Predicted net efflux of radio- carbon from the ocean and increase in atmospheric radiocarbon content"
2619:
3623:
3596:
3555:
3322:
3275:
3174:
3119:
3056:
2859:
2814:
2759:
2702:
2655:
2587:
2500:
2447:
2386:
2337:
2286:
2227:
2172:
2072:
1812:
1271:
729:
326:
2027:
1208:
One side-effect of the change in atmospheric carbon-14 is that this has enabled some options (e.g.,
1664:
1608:
1220:
286:
2325:
1889:"Late-Stage Carbon-14 Labeling and Isotope Exchange: Emerging Opportunities and Future Challenges"
3811:
3650:
3480:
3143:
2883:
2849:
2689:
Mekhaldi F, Muscheler R, Adolphi F, Aldahan A, Beer J, McConnell JR, et al. (October 2015).
2671:
2645:
2611:
2463:
2437:
2410:
2376:
2353:
2196:
1725:
1715:
1655:
1644:
1556:
931:
637:
547:
541:
417:
306:
249:
35:
3516:
2988:
Levin I, Kromer B, Schoch-Fischer H, Bruns M, Münnich M, Berdau D, Vogel JW, Münnich KO (1994).
2931:
Yim MS, Caron F (2006). "Life cycle and management of carbon-14 from nuclear power generation".
2691:"Multiradionuclide evidence for the solar origin of the cosmic-ray events of ᴀᴅ 774/5 and 993/4"
653:
1266:. Carbon-14 is also generated inside nuclear fuels (some due to transmutation of oxygen in the
132:
3857:
3762:
3488:
3291:
3202:
3135:
2875:
2787:
2746:
Miyake F, Jull AJ, Panyushkina IP, Wacker L, Salzer M, Baisan CH, et al. (January 2017).
2728:
2603:
2516:
2402:
2255:
2188:
2088:
1961:
1918:
1869:
1847:
1828:
1720:
330:
253:
124:
117:
61:
2273:
Reimer PJ, Austin WE, Bard E, Bayliss A, Blackwell PG, Ramsey CB, et al. (August 2020).
2158:"Deep instability of deforested tropical peatlands revealed by fluvial organic carbon fluxes"
1212:) for determining the birth year of an individual, in particular, the amount of carbon-14 in
3631:
3563:
3330:
3283:
3192:
3182:
3161:
Lynnerup N, Kjeldsen H, Heegaard S, Jacobsen C, Heinemeier J (January 2008). Gazit E (ed.).
3127:
3064:
2940:
2910:
2867:
2822:
2777:
2767:
2718:
2710:
2663:
2659:
2595:
2553:
2508:
2504:
2455:
2394:
2390:
2345:
2304:
2294:
2245:
2235:
2180:
2080:
1908:
1900:
1859:
1820:
1763:
1659:
758:
622:
71:
2131:
2805:
Libby LM, Lukens HR (1973). "Production of radiocarbon in tree rings by lightning bolts".
1983:
1710:
1640:
1310:
1190:
850:
674:
585:
520:
2994:
Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center
2326:"Eleven-year solar cycles over the last millennium revealed by radiocarbon in tree rings"
2157:
2156:
Moore S, Evans CD, Page SE, Garnett MH, Jones TG, Freeman C, et al. (January 2013).
3649:
Bonvicini G, Harris N, Paolone V (2003). "The chemical history of C in deep oilfields".
3627:
3600:
3559:
3326:
3279:
3178:
3123:
3060:
2863:
2818:
2763:
2706:
2591:
2451:
2341:
2290:
2231:
2176:
2076:
1816:
1393:), of which most is in the oceans. The following inventory of carbon-14 has been given:
685:
enter the atmosphere, they undergo various transformations, including the production of
3695:
Ionizing
Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States | NCRP Report No. 93
3197:
3162:
2782:
2747:
2723:
2690:
1913:
1888:
1748:
1693:
1485:
1333:
1263:
1255:
1224:
1147:
690:
523:
is estimated to be 0.11. Small amounts of carbon-14 are not easily detected by typical
294:
100:
3635:
3544:"Problems associated with the use of coal as a source of C14-free background material"
3380:"EPRI | Product Abstract | Carbon-14 Dose Calculation Methods at Nuclear Power Plants"
2997:
1940:
3875:
3832:
3755:
3263:
3240:
2902:
2557:
2467:
2414:
2357:
2200:
1596:
ratio of 1.94×10 was determined; probable reactions responsible for varied levels of
1267:
935:
566:
310:
200:
83:
2967:
2675:
1676:) carbon-14 is fed to a patient (i.e., 37,000 decays per second). In the event of a
761:
that can be used to backtrack, but attempts to measure the production time directly
3725:
3147:
2887:
2615:
2275:"The INTCAL20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 CAL kBP)"
2216:"The Potential Hidden Age of Dissolved Organic Carbon Exported by Peatland Streams"
1785:
1673:
1632:
1481:
1422:
1383:
1235:
1213:
913:
801:
Carbon-14 can also be produced by other neutron reactions, including in particular
771:
670:
504:
428:
421:
314:
231:
227:
3699:
2944:
2667:
507:, one of the neutrons in the carbon-14 atom decays to a proton and the carbon-14 (
3698:. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1987. Archived from
3187:
2084:
1824:
1647:. This is small compared to the doses from potassium-40 (0.39 mSv/year) and
757:
per second per square meter of the Earth's surface, which agrees with the global
3863:
3849:
3842:
2324:
Brehm N, Bayliss A, Christl M, Synal HA, Adolphi F, Beer J, et al. (2021).
2049:
1939:. National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility. Archived from
1428:
1360:
1163:
1002:
854:
666:
512:
394:
194:
3783:
3287:
2752:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2512:
2398:
2349:
1864:
1767:
3568:
3462:
3069:
2748:"Large 14C excursion in 5480 BC indicates an abnormal sun in the mid-Holocene"
1489:
1209:
1181:
in the
Northern Hemisphere. The annotated PTBT label is representative of the
682:
626:
440:
413:
409:
222:
3018:
2544:
Ramsey, C. Bronk (2008). "Radiocarbon Dating: Revolutions in
Understanding".
2520:
2406:
2259:
1873:
640:
data to characterize cosmic particle and solar activity of the distant past.
3824:
3802:
3679:
2826:
2772:
1669:
1450:
is greatly depleted because the age of fossils far exceeds the half-life of
1432:
1390:
878:
826:
802:
508:
382:
356:
341:
318:
168:
3715:"Society of Nuclear Medicine Procedure Guideline for C-14 Urea Breath Test"
3295:
3206:
3139:
2879:
2791:
2732:
2607:
2573:"A signature of cosmic-ray increase in AD 774-775 from tree rings in Japan"
2192:
2092:
1922:
1904:
1832:
17:
3838:
3335:
3310:
2459:
2240:
2215:
1560:
746:
production can be modelled, yielding values of 16,400 or 18,800 atoms of
678:
630:
500:
302:
2871:
2599:
2309:
2299:
2274:
2184:
2106:
3655:
2714:
1846:
Kondev, F.G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W.J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021-03-01).
1696:, which can be detected by low-level counting of the patient's breath.
1689:
1519:
1259:
1167:
686:
565:
materials up to about 60,000 years old. The technique was developed by
337:
298:
2250:
1363:
in the ocean depths occurs at a limited rate. In 2009 the activity of
599:
in plants and animals when they die approximately equals the level of
511:
of 5,700 ± 30 years) decays into the stable (non-radioactive) isotope
3815:
3045:"Bomb-Pulse Dating of Human Material: Modeling the Influence of Diet"
1681:
1205:
was fixed into plant and animal tissue, and dissolved in the oceans.
694:
562:
290:
3131:
2914:
2854:
2442:
1747:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
569:
and his colleagues in 1949 during his tenure as a professor at the
2650:
2381:
1969:
1648:
1398:
1337:
1282:
1254:(PWRs). It is typically released to the atmosphere in the form of
1146:
652:
1340:, but at a slower rate. The atmospheric half-life for removal of
1685:
1436:
1387:
3461:. Argonne National Laboratory, EVS. August 2005. Archived from
2132:"Class notes for Isotope Hydrology EESC W 4886: Radiocarbon C"
1636:
30:"Radiocarbon" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see
1480:
is therefore used to determine the relative contribution (or
1382:
The inventory of carbon-14 in Earth's biosphere is about 300
3440:. Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety.
2966:. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. Archived from
1412:
From nuclear testing (until 1990): 220 PBq (1.3 t)
416:
action on nitrogen in the atmosphere, and it is therefore a
3757:
Radiant
Science, Dark Politics: A Memoir of the Nuclear Age
3426:. Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety.
1848:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear physics properties *"
1622:
levels in methane, have been discussed by Bonvicini et al.
3089:"Radiation in Teeth Can Help Date, ID Bodies, Experts Say"
689:. The resulting neutrons (n) participate in the following
588:
atmospheric carbon during photosynthesis, so the level of
2020:"Appendix B: The Characteristics of Common Radioisotopes"
1216:, or the carbon-14 concentration in the lens of the eye.
1193:
that occurred in several countries between 1955 and 1980
3241:"Carbon dating hampered by rising fossil-fuel emissions"
1313:), which subsequently oxidizes at a slower rate to form
305:. Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the
3222:"'Bomb Carbon' Has Been Found in Deep-Ocean Creatures"
2571:
Miyake F, Nagaya K, Masuda K, Nakamura T (June 2012).
135:
2214:
Dean JF, Garnett MH, Spyrakos E, Billett MF (2019).
1574:content. In the Borexino Counting Test Facility, a
238:
221:
216:
206:
193:
167:
123:
116:
99:
82:
70:
60:
55:
3754:
2479:
2477:
156:
1749:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
3262:Graven, H.; Keeling, R.; Xu, X. (19 July 2022).
1397:Global inventory: ~8500 PBq (about 50
1230:The concentration of carbon-14 in atmospheric CO
424:between 1955 and 1980 contributed to this pool.
2220:Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
1960:(1 per 10) × (1 gram / (12 grams per mole)) × (
1274:then the carbon-14 is released, for example as
776:an unusually high production rate in AD 774–775
355:), which makes up 99% of all carbon on Earth;
2964:Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change
1964:) / ((5,730 years) × (31,557,600 seconds per
323:University of California Radiation Laboratory
8:
3761:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
3672:"The Radioactivity of the Normal Adult Body"
2909:(Report). TN (USA): Oak Ridge National Lab.
2430:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
2024:Radiation Safety Manual for Laboratory Users
1742:
1740:
1522:decay (although reported measured ratios of
41:
3309:Caldeira, K.; Rau, G.H.; Duffy, PB (1998).
1658:in medicine. In the initial variant of the
1427:Many human-made chemicals are derived from
971:). However, this origin is extremely rare.
3795:
1984:"14C Comments on evaluation of decay data"
1668:, urea labeled with approximately 37
1639:/year (1 mrem/year) to each person's
47:
3654:
3567:
3334:
3196:
3186:
3068:
3043:Stenstrom K, Georgiadou E (August 2010).
2853:
2781:
2771:
2722:
2649:
2539:
2537:
2441:
2380:
2308:
2298:
2249:
2239:
1912:
1887:Babin V, Taran F, Audisio D (June 2022).
1863:
999:Cross section for thermal neutron capture
148:
139:
134:
3892:Radionuclides used in radiometric dating
3264:"Radiocarbon dating: going back in time"
2903:Carbon-14 production in nuclear reactors
2048:. University of Michigan. Archived from
1484:) of fossil fuel oxidation to the total
1277:
1201:
973:
3487:(3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
2960:"Atmospheric δC record from Wellington"
2134:. Martin Stute's homepage at Columbia.
1736:
2926:
2924:
2026:. Princeton University. Archived from
1404:Atmosphere: 140 PBq (840 kg)
329:. Its existence had been suggested by
40:
3456:"Human Health Fact Sheet – Carbon 14"
1779:
1777:
636:Cosmogenic nuclides are also used as
370:), which makes up 1%; and carbon-14 (
7:
3513:NOAA ESRL GMD Education and Outreach
3485:Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry
2484:Hain MP, Sigman DM, Haug GH (2014).
1246:Carbon-14 is produced in coolant at
649:Natural production in the atmosphere
336:There are three naturally occurring
2493:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2373:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1242:Emissions from nuclear power plants
665:Carbon-14 is produced in the upper
439:Carbon-14 goes through radioactive
3788:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
3509:"The Basics: 14C and Fossil Fuels"
2907:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1407:Terrestrial materials: the balance
25:
1786:"AME atomic mass evaluation 2003"
1784:Waptstra AH, Audi G, Thibault C.
1488:in a given region of the Earth's
577:. In 1960, Libby was awarded the
3576:from the original on 2013-07-24.
3444:from the original on 2015-04-18.
3077:from the original on 2014-10-20.
2958:Manning MR, Melhuish WH (1994).
2558:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00394.x
2530:from the original on 2015-12-22.
1792:from the original on 5 May 2023.
34:. For the dating technique, see
3438:"Carbon-14 and the environment"
3424:"Carbon-14 and the environment"
3025:from the original on 2007-12-09
2807:Journal of Geophysical Research
2138:from the original on 2006-09-24
2113:from the original on 2007-06-10
2000:from the original on 2011-08-15
1183:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
435:Radioactive decay and detection
3410:Radiocarbon After Four Decades
3239:Jones, Nicola (27 July 2022).
1143:Formation during nuclear tests
916:. The most notable routes for
1:
3636:10.1016/S0370-2693(97)01565-7
2945:10.1016/j.pnucene.2005.04.002
1294:Dispersion in the environment
529:Liquid scintillation counting
525:Geiger–Müller (G-M) detectors
3724:. 2001-06-23. Archived from
3315:Geophysical Research Letters
3188:10.1371/journal.pone.0001529
3095:. 2005-09-22. Archived from
2085:10.1126/science.110.2869.678
1825:10.1126/science.140.3567.584
2901:Davis Jr W (January 1977).
2668:10.1051/0004-6361/201321080
2107:"Carbon 14:age calculation"
1654:Carbon-14 can be used as a
575:modern radiocarbon standard
3908:
3288:10.1038/d41586-022-01954-y
2933:Progress in Nuclear Energy
2513:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.03.020
2399:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.05.036
2350:10.1038/s41561-020-00674-0
2046:Material Safety Data Sheet
1692:and radioactively-labeled
1461:. The relative absence of
1420:
1252:pressurized water reactors
657:1: Formation of carbon-14
561:) to determine the age of
539:
254:Complete table of nuclides
29:
3569:10.1017/S0033822200044775
3412:. New York, NY: Springer.
3070:10.1017/S0033822200045811
3021:. University of Utrecht.
1680:infection, the bacterial
995:Natural abundance, %
248:
157:{\displaystyle 1/10^{12}}
46:
3093:National Geographic News
2990:"δC record from Vermunt"
1937:"What is carbon dating?"
1865:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
1768:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
1706:Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
1662:, a diagnostic test for
579:Nobel Prize in chemistry
546:Radiocarbon dating is a
2827:10.1029/JB078i026p05902
2773:10.1073/pnas.1613144114
2660:2013A&A...552L...3U
2505:2014E&PSL.394..198H
2391:2012E&PSL.337..114K
1684:enzyme breaks down the
1195:(see nuclear test list)
797:Other carbon-14 sources
3887:Environmental isotopes
3784:What is Carbon Dating?
3220:Levy A (15 May 2019).
1905:10.1021/jacsau.2c00030
1248:boiling water reactors
1227:in the Pacific Ocean.
1186:
930:Carbon-14 may also be
768:Earth's magnetic field
662:
659:2: Decay of carbon-14
158:
129:1 part per trillion =
2695:Nature Communications
1150:
730:geomagnetic latitudes
656:
571:University of Chicago
505:electron antineutrino
159:
76:carbon-14, 14C, C-14,
32:Radiocarbon (journal)
3519:on 25 September 2015
3483:, Rydberg J (2002).
3336:10.1029/1998GL900010
3019:"Radiocarbon dating"
2460:10.1002/2016JD025034
2241:10.1029/2018JG004650
1609:petroleum reservoirs
1272:nuclear reprocessing
420:. However, open-air
340:of carbon on Earth:
327:Berkeley, California
309:method pioneered by
133:
3628:1998PhLB..422..349B
3601:1985Metic..20..676J
3560:1989Radcb..31..117L
3327:1998GeoRL..25.3811C
3280:2022Natur.607R.449G
3226:Scientific American
3179:2008PLoSO...3.1529L
3124:2005Natur.437..333S
3061:2010Radcb..52..800G
2872:10.1038/nature24630
2864:2017Natur.551..481E
2819:1973JGR....78.5902L
2764:2017PNAS..114..881M
2707:2015NatCo...6.8611M
2600:10.1038/nature11123
2592:2012Natur.486..240M
2452:2016JGRD..121.8125P
2375:. 337–338: 114–20.
2342:2021NatGe..14...10B
2300:10.1017/RDC.2020.41
2291:2020Radcb..62..725R
2232:2019JGRG..124..328D
2185:10.1038/nature11818
2177:2013Natur.493..660M
2077:1949Sci...110..678A
1817:1963Sci...140..584K
1665:Helicobacter pylori
1221:Scientific American
988:
287:radioactive isotope
43:
3882:Isotopes of carbon
2715:10.1038/ncomms9611
1726:Radiocarbon dating
1716:Isotopes of carbon
1656:radioactive tracer
1645:ionizing radiation
1557:isotopic signature
1187:
974:
663:
550:method that uses (
548:radiometric dating
542:Radiocarbon dating
536:Radiocarbon dating
418:cosmogenic nuclide
307:radiocarbon dating
250:Isotopes of carbon
154:
36:Radiocarbon dating
3870:
3869:
3768:978-0-520-04929-1
3753:Kamen MD (1985).
3616:Physics Letters B
3494:978-0-7506-7463-8
3321:(20): 3811–3814.
3118:(7057): 333–334.
2848:(7681): 481–484.
2813:(26): 5902–5903.
2638:Astron. Astrophys
2586:(7402): 240–242.
2330:Nature Geoscience
2171:(7434): 660–663.
2109:. C14dating.com.
2071:(2869): 678–680.
1962:Avogadro constant
1852:Chinese Physics C
1811:(3567): 584–590.
1756:Chinese Physics C
1721:Isotopic labeling
1626:In the human body
1518:reaction, direct
1264:photosynthesizing
1210:bomb-pulse dating
1189:The above-ground
1140:
1139:
986:production routes
770:. Changes in the
259:
258:
125:Natural abundance
42:Carbon-14, C
27:Isotope of carbon
16:(Redirected from
3899:
3808:Carbon-14 is an
3796:
3772:
3760:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3736:
3730:
3719:
3711:
3705:
3703:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3678:. Archived from
3667:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3622:(1–4): 349–358.
3611:
3605:
3604:
3584:
3578:
3577:
3571:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3526:
3524:
3515:. Archived from
3505:
3499:
3498:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3460:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3386:. Archived from
3376:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3357:. Archived from
3347:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3306:
3300:
3299:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3248:
3236:
3230:
3229:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3200:
3190:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3072:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3030:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3006:
3005:
2996:. Archived from
2985:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2955:
2949:
2948:
2928:
2919:
2918:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2857:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2785:
2775:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2726:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2653:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2618:. Archived from
2577:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2541:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2490:
2481:
2472:
2471:
2445:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2384:
2368:
2362:
2361:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2302:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2253:
2243:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2162:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1999:
1991:www.nucleide.org
1988:
1979:
1973:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1916:
1899:(6): 1234–1251.
1884:
1878:
1877:
1867:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1781:
1772:
1771:
1753:
1744:
1660:urea breath test
1621:
1619:
1618:
1611:, and the lower
1606:
1604:
1603:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1570:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1469:
1468:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1449:
1447:
1446:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1348:
1347:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1321:
1320:
1308:
1306:
1305:
1280:
1204:
1180:
1178:
1177:
1161:
1159:
1158:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1125:
1123:
1122:
1107:
1105:
1104:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1039:
1037:
1036:
1021:
1019:
1018:
989:
985:
983:
982:
970:
968:
967:
959:
957:
956:
948:
946:
945:
926:
924:
923:
911:
909:
908:
900:
898:
897:
888:
886:
885:
876:
874:
873:
864:
862:
861:
851:thermal neutrons
848:
846:
845:
836:
834:
833:
824:
822:
821:
812:
810:
809:
788:
786:
785:
756:
754:
753:
745:
743:
742:
723:
721:
720:
711:
709:
708:
675:thermal neutrons
623:dendrochronology
620:
618:
617:
609:
607:
606:
598:
596:
595:
560:
558:
557:
494:
493:
492:
485:
482:
481:
473:
469:
467:
466:
457:
455:
454:
407:
405:
404:
392:
390:
380:
378:
377:
369:
367:
366:
354:
352:
351:
279:
277:
276:
241:
189:
187:
180:
163:
161:
160:
155:
153:
152:
143:
109:
92:
51:
44:
21:
3907:
3906:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3872:
3871:
3861:
3853:
3836:
3822:
3809:
3800:
3793:
3780:
3775:
3769:
3752:
3748:
3746:Further reading
3743:
3734:
3732:
3728:
3717:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3692:
3691:
3687:
3669:
3668:
3664:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3613:
3612:
3608:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3542:Lowe D (1989).
3541:
3540:
3536:
3522:
3520:
3507:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3465:
3458:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3422:
3421:
3417:
3407:
3406:
3402:
3393:
3391:
3378:
3377:
3373:
3364:
3362:
3349:
3348:
3344:
3308:
3307:
3303:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3132:10.1038/437333a
3109:
3108:
3104:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3042:
3041:
3037:
3028:
3026:
3017:
3016:
3012:
3003:
3001:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2973:
2971:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2930:
2929:
2922:
2915:10.2172/7114972
2900:
2899:
2895:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2622:
2575:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2543:
2542:
2535:
2527:
2488:
2483:
2482:
2475:
2436:(13): 8125–36.
2427:
2426:
2422:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2160:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2141:
2139:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2116:
2114:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1986:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1959:
1955:
1946:
1944:
1943:on July 5, 2007
1935:
1934:
1930:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1802:
1801:
1797:
1783:
1782:
1775:
1751:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1734:
1711:Diamond battery
1702:
1628:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1613:
1612:
1602:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1550:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1539:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1528:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1513:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1456:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1451:
1445:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1425:
1419:
1417:In fossil fuels
1380:
1378:Total inventory
1369:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1341:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1311:carbon monoxide
1304:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1296:
1291:
1279:
1275:
1244:
1233:
1203:
1199:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1157:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1145:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1121:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1089:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1078:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1017:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1012:
981:
979:
978:
977:
976:
966:
964:
963:
962:
961:
955:
953:
952:
951:
950:
944:
942:
941:
940:
939:
922:
920:
919:
918:
917:
907:
905:
904:
903:
902:
896:
894:
893:
892:
891:
884:
882:
881:
880:
879:
872:
870:
869:
868:
867:
860:
858:
857:
856:
855:
844:
842:
841:
840:
839:
832:
830:
829:
828:
827:
820:
818:
817:
816:
815:
808:
806:
805:
804:
803:
799:
784:
782:
781:
780:
779:
752:
750:
749:
748:
747:
741:
739:
738:
737:
736:
719:
716:
715:
714:
713:
707:
704:
703:
702:
701:
693:reaction (p is
660:
658:
651:
646:
616:
614:
613:
612:
611:
605:
603:
602:
601:
600:
594:
592:
591:
590:
589:
581:for this work.
556:
554:
553:
552:
551:
544:
538:
521:dead skin layer
499:By emitting an
491:
488:
487:
486:
483:
480:
478:
477:
476:
475:
471:
465:
462:
461:
460:
459:
453:
450:
449:
448:
447:
437:
429:carbon labeling
422:nuclear testing
403:
401:
400:
399:
398:
388:
386:
376:
374:
373:
372:
371:
365:
363:
362:
361:
360:
350:
348:
347:
346:
345:
275:
273:
272:
271:
270:
252:
239:
185:
183:
178:
171:
144:
131:
130:
103:
86:
77:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3905:
3903:
3895:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3874:
3873:
3868:
3867:
3855:
3846:
3829:
3828:
3819:
3806:
3791:
3790:
3779:
3778:External links
3776:
3774:
3773:
3767:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3706:
3702:on 2007-07-11.
3685:
3682:on 2011-02-05.
3662:
3656:hep-ex/0308025
3641:
3606:
3579:
3554:(2): 117–120.
3534:
3500:
3493:
3471:
3468:on 2011-07-16.
3447:
3429:
3415:
3400:
3371:
3342:
3301:
3254:
3231:
3212:
3153:
3102:
3099:on 2007-04-25.
3080:
3035:
3010:
2980:
2950:
2920:
2893:
2832:
2797:
2758:(5): 881–884.
2738:
2681:
2628:
2625:on 2015-07-06.
2563:
2533:
2473:
2420:
2363:
2316:
2285:(4): 725–757.
2265:
2226:(2): 328–341.
2206:
2148:
2123:
2098:
2055:
2052:on 2013-03-12.
2033:
2030:on 2013-10-02.
2011:
1974:
1953:
1928:
1879:
1838:
1795:
1773:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1701:
1698:
1694:carbon dioxide
1627:
1624:
1616:
1601:
1590:
1579:
1568:
1549:
1538:
1527:
1512:
1501:
1486:carbon dioxide
1474:
1466:
1455:
1444:
1421:Main article:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1379:
1376:
1368:
1353:
1345:
1334:carbon dioxide
1332:, radioactive
1326:
1318:
1303:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1256:carbon dioxide
1243:
1240:
1231:
1225:Mariana Trench
1175:
1156:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1131:
1120:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1102:
1095:
1094:
1088:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1052:
1051:
1045:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1016:
1009:
1008:
1005:
996:
993:
992:Parent isotope
980:
965:
954:
943:
921:
906:
895:
883:
871:
859:
843:
831:
819:
807:
798:
795:
783:
751:
740:
726:
725:
717:
705:
650:
647:
645:
642:
615:
604:
593:
555:
540:Main article:
537:
534:
497:
496:
489:
479:
463:
451:
436:
433:
402:
375:
364:
349:
295:atomic nucleus
274:
257:
256:
246:
245:
242:
236:
235:
225:
219:
218:
214:
213:
210:
204:
203:
197:
191:
190:
181:
176:
165:
164:
151:
147:
142:
138:
127:
121:
120:
114:
113:
110:
97:
96:
93:
80:
79:
74:
68:
67:
64:
58:
57:
53:
52:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3904:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3877:
3866:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3854:of carbon-14
3852:
3851:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3833:Decay product
3831:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3794:
3789:
3785:
3782:
3781:
3777:
3770:
3764:
3759:
3758:
3751:
3750:
3745:
3731:on 2007-09-26
3727:
3723:
3716:
3710:
3707:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3689:
3686:
3681:
3677:
3676:rerowland.com
3673:
3666:
3663:
3657:
3652:
3645:
3642:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3610:
3607:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3583:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3538:
3535:
3531:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3496:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3475:
3472:
3464:
3457:
3451:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3425:
3419:
3416:
3411:
3404:
3401:
3390:on 2016-08-18
3389:
3385:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3361:on 2016-08-18
3360:
3356:
3352:
3346:
3343:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3305:
3302:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3274:(7919): 449.
3273:
3269:
3265:
3258:
3255:
3243:. Nature News
3242:
3235:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3216:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3055:(2): 800–07.
3054:
3050:
3046:
3039:
3036:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3011:
3000:on 2008-09-23
2999:
2995:
2991:
2984:
2981:
2970:on 2014-02-01
2969:
2965:
2961:
2954:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2801:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2739:
2734:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2682:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2552:(2): 249–75.
2551:
2547:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2487:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2364:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2317:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2152:
2149:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2124:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2059:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2012:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1858:(3): 030001.
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1762:(3): 030001.
1761:
1757:
1750:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1625:
1623:
1610:
1607:in different
1562:
1558:
1521:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1377:
1375:
1362:
1339:
1335:
1312:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1273:
1269:
1268:uranium oxide
1265:
1261:
1258:at BWRs, and
1257:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1196:
1192:
1191:nuclear tests
1184:
1169:
1165:
1149:
1142:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1097:
1096:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1054:
1053:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1011:
1010:
1006:
1004:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
990:
987:
972:
937:
936:cluster decay
933:
928:
915:
914:fast neutrons
889:
865:
852:
837:
813:
796:
794:
790:
777:
773:
769:
764:
760:
759:carbon budget
733:
731:
700:
699:
698:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
655:
648:
643:
641:
639:
634:
632:
628:
624:
587:
582:
580:
576:
572:
568:
567:Willard Libby
564:
549:
543:
535:
533:
530:
526:
522:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
446:
445:
444:
442:
434:
432:
430:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
396:
384:
358:
343:
339:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
311:Willard Libby
308:
304:
300:
297:containing 6
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
267:
263:
255:
251:
247:
243:
237:
233:
229:
226:
224:
220:
215:
211:
209:
205:
202:
198:
196:
192:
188:30 years
182:
175:
170:
166:
149:
145:
140:
136:
128:
126:
122:
119:
115:
111:
107:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
81:
75:
73:
69:
65:
63:
59:
54:
50:
45:
37:
33:
19:
3862:
3848:
3837:
3823:
3810:
3801:
3792:
3756:
3733:. Retrieved
3726:the original
3721:
3709:
3700:the original
3694:
3688:
3680:the original
3675:
3670:Rowland RE.
3665:
3644:
3619:
3615:
3609:
3592:
3588:
3582:
3551:
3547:
3537:
3528:
3521:. Retrieved
3517:the original
3512:
3503:
3484:
3481:Liljenzin JO
3479:Choppin GR,
3474:
3463:the original
3450:
3432:
3418:
3409:
3403:
3392:. Retrieved
3388:the original
3384:www.epri.com
3383:
3374:
3363:. Retrieved
3359:the original
3355:www.epri.com
3354:
3345:
3318:
3314:
3304:
3271:
3267:
3257:
3245:. Retrieved
3234:
3225:
3215:
3173:(1): e1529.
3170:
3166:
3156:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3097:the original
3092:
3083:
3052:
3048:
3038:
3027:. Retrieved
3013:
3002:. Retrieved
2998:the original
2993:
2983:
2972:. Retrieved
2968:the original
2963:
2953:
2936:
2932:
2906:
2896:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2755:
2751:
2741:
2698:
2694:
2684:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2620:the original
2583:
2579:
2566:
2549:
2546:Archaeometry
2545:
2496:
2492:
2433:
2429:
2423:
2372:
2366:
2336:(1): 10–15.
2333:
2329:
2319:
2310:11585/770531
2282:
2278:
2268:
2223:
2219:
2209:
2168:
2164:
2151:
2140:. Retrieved
2126:
2115:. Retrieved
2101:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2050:the original
2045:
2036:
2028:the original
2023:
2014:
2002:. Retrieved
1990:
1977:
1956:
1945:. Retrieved
1941:the original
1931:
1896:
1892:
1882:
1855:
1851:
1841:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1788:. IAEA.org.
1759:
1755:
1677:
1663:
1653:
1651:(variable).
1633:potassium-40
1629:
1494:
1482:mixing ratio
1429:fossil fuels
1426:
1423:Suess effect
1381:
1361:bicarbonates
1297:
1245:
1236:Suess effect
1229:
1218:
1214:tooth enamel
1207:
1188:
1151:Atmospheric
975:
929:
800:
791:
772:carbon cycle
762:
735:The rate of
734:
727:
681:atoms. When
677:absorbed by
671:stratosphere
664:
635:
583:
574:
563:carbonaceous
545:
517:
498:
438:
426:
335:
315:Martin Kamen
282:
269:
265:
261:
260:
228:Decay energy
195:Isotope mass
173:
118:Nuclide data
105:
88:
3864:nitrogen-14
3850:Decay chain
3843:nitrogen-18
3589:Meteoritics
3548:Radiocarbon
3049:Radiocarbon
2499:: 198–208.
2279:Radiocarbon
2042:"Carbon-14"
1982:Nicols AL.
1966:Julian year
1439:) in which
1250:(BWRs) and
1164:New Zealand
683:cosmic rays
667:troposphere
627:speleothems
513:nitrogen-14
495:+ 156.5 keV
395:nitrogen-14
331:Franz Kurie
283:radiocarbon
217:Decay modes
199:14.0032420
78:radiocarbon
18:Radiocarbon
3876:Categories
3735:2007-07-04
3394:2016-07-07
3365:2016-07-07
3247:5 November
3029:2008-02-19
3004:2009-03-25
2974:2007-06-11
2855:1711.08044
2443:1606.05899
2251:1893/28684
2142:2007-06-11
2117:2007-06-11
2004:30 October
1947:2007-06-11
1732:References
1672:(1.0
1490:atmosphere
1384:megacuries
1289:Occurrence
932:radiogenic
441:beta decay
414:cosmic ray
410:beta decay
408:) through
223:Decay mode
3825:carbon-15
3821:Heavier:
3803:carbon-13
3799:Lighter:
2651:1302.6897
2521:0012-821X
2468:119301845
2415:118602346
2407:0012-821X
2382:1206.6974
2358:230508539
2260:2169-8953
2201:205232299
1874:1674-1137
1678:H. pylori
1433:petroleum
1431:(such as
1386:(11
1219:In 2019,
1007:Reaction
509:half-life
383:half-life
357:carbon-13
342:carbon-12
333:in 1934.
319:Sam Ruben
262:Carbon-14
169:Half-life
3839:boron-14
3574:Archived
3442:Archived
3296:35854150
3207:18231610
3167:PLOS ONE
3140:16163340
3075:Archived
3023:Archived
2939:: 2–36.
2880:29168803
2792:28100493
2733:26497389
2701:: 8611.
2676:55137950
2608:22699615
2525:Archived
2193:23364745
2136:Archived
2111:Archived
2093:15407879
1995:Archived
1993:. LNHB.
1923:35783167
1833:17737092
1790:Archived
1700:See also
1561:Borexino
687:neutrons
679:nitrogen
669:and the
631:peatland
501:electron
338:isotopes
303:neutrons
293:with an
244:0.156476
101:Neutrons
3812:isotope
3722:snm.org
3624:Bibcode
3597:Bibcode
3595:: 676.
3556:Bibcode
3323:Bibcode
3276:Bibcode
3198:2211393
3175:Bibcode
3148:4407447
3120:Bibcode
3057:Bibcode
2888:4388159
2860:Bibcode
2815:Bibcode
2783:5293056
2760:Bibcode
2724:4639793
2703:Bibcode
2656:Bibcode
2616:4368820
2588:Bibcode
2501:Bibcode
2448:Bibcode
2387:Bibcode
2338:Bibcode
2287:Bibcode
2228:Bibcode
2173:Bibcode
2073:Bibcode
2065:Science
1914:9241029
1893:JACS Au
1813:Bibcode
1805:Science
1690:ammonia
1520:uranium
1281:during
1260:methane
1168:Austria
763:in situ
503:and an
321:at the
299:protons
285:, is a
84:Protons
56:General
3858:Decays
3816:carbon
3765:
3491:
3294:
3268:Nature
3205:
3195:
3146:
3138:
3112:Nature
2886:
2878:
2842:Nature
2790:
2780:
2731:
2721:
2674:
2644:: L3.
2614:
2606:
2580:Nature
2519:
2466:
2413:
2405:
2356:
2258:
2199:
2191:
2165:Nature
2091:
1921:
1911:
1872:
1831:
1682:urease
1338:oceans
1110:0.0383
1070:0.0009
1024:99.634
853:, and
712:+ n →
695:proton
644:Origin
484:ν
301:and 8
291:carbon
62:Symbol
3729:(PDF)
3718:(PDF)
3651:arXiv
3523:9 Dec
3466:(PDF)
3459:(PDF)
3144:S2CID
2884:S2CID
2850:arXiv
2672:S2CID
2646:arXiv
2623:(PDF)
2612:S2CID
2576:(PDF)
2528:(PDF)
2489:(PDF)
2464:S2CID
2438:arXiv
2411:S2CID
2377:arXiv
2354:S2CID
2197:S2CID
2161:(PDF)
1998:(PDF)
1987:(PDF)
1970:ln(2)
1752:(PDF)
1688:into
1649:radon
1507:(n,p)
1283:PUREX
1126:(n,α)
1113:0.235
1083:(n,γ)
1067:1.103
1040:(n,p)
912:with
866:(n,d)
849:with
838:(n,α)
814:(n,γ)
638:proxy
72:Names
3860:to:
3835:of:
3763:ISBN
3525:2015
3489:ISBN
3292:PMID
3249:2023
3203:PMID
3136:PMID
2876:PMID
2788:PMID
2729:PMID
2604:PMID
2517:ISSN
2403:ISSN
2256:ISSN
2189:PMID
2089:PMID
2006:2021
1968:) /
1919:PMID
1870:ISSN
1829:PMID
1686:urea
1641:dose
1437:coal
1166:and
1027:1.81
877:and
825:and
387:5700
317:and
266:C-14
240:Beta
208:Spin
184:5700
3814:of
3632:doi
3620:422
3564:doi
3331:doi
3284:doi
3272:607
3193:PMC
3183:doi
3128:doi
3116:437
3065:doi
2941:doi
2911:doi
2868:doi
2846:551
2823:doi
2778:PMC
2768:doi
2756:114
2719:PMC
2711:doi
2664:doi
2642:552
2596:doi
2584:486
2554:doi
2509:doi
2497:394
2456:doi
2434:121
2395:doi
2346:doi
2305:hdl
2295:doi
2246:hdl
2236:doi
2224:124
2181:doi
2169:493
2081:doi
2069:110
1909:PMC
1901:doi
1860:doi
1821:doi
1809:140
1764:doi
1674:μCi
1670:kBq
1643:of
1637:mSv
1435:or
938:of
890:(n,
724:+ p
697:):
691:n-p
673:by
586:fix
385:of
325:in
289:of
281:or
232:MeV
177:1/2
3878::
3841:,
3786:,
3720:.
3674:.
3630:.
3618:.
3593:20
3591:.
3572:.
3562:.
3552:31
3550:.
3546:.
3527:.
3511:.
3382:.
3353:.
3329:.
3319:25
3317:.
3313:.
3290:.
3282:.
3270:.
3266:.
3224:.
3201:.
3191:.
3181:.
3169:.
3165:.
3142:.
3134:.
3126:.
3114:.
3091:.
3073:.
3063:.
3053:52
3051:.
3047:.
2992:.
2962:.
2937:48
2935:.
2923:^
2905:.
2882:.
2874:.
2866:.
2858:.
2844:.
2821:.
2811:78
2809:.
2786:.
2776:.
2766:.
2754:.
2750:.
2727:.
2717:.
2709:.
2697:.
2693:.
2670:.
2662:.
2654:.
2640:.
2610:.
2602:.
2594:.
2582:.
2578:.
2550:50
2548:.
2536:^
2523:.
2515:.
2507:.
2495:.
2491:.
2476:^
2462:.
2454:.
2446:.
2432:.
2409:.
2401:.
2393:.
2385:.
2352:.
2344:.
2334:14
2332:.
2328:.
2303:.
2293:.
2283:62
2281:.
2277:.
2254:.
2244:.
2234:.
2222:.
2218:.
2195:.
2187:.
2179:.
2167:.
2163:.
2087:.
2079:.
2067:.
2044:.
2022:.
1989:.
1917:.
1907:.
1895:.
1891:.
1868:.
1856:45
1854:.
1850:.
1827:.
1819:.
1807:.
1776:^
1760:45
1758:.
1754:.
1739:^
1492:.
1470:CO
1401:)
1391:Bq
1349:CO
1322:CO
1307:CO
1285:.
1276:CO
1238:.
1200:CO
1162:,
1001:,
969:Ra
960:,
958:Ra
949:,
947:Ra
899:He
732:.
515:.
474:+
470:+
458:→
443::
391:30
268:,
264:,
212:0+
201:Da
150:12
146:10
3771:.
3738:.
3704:)
3659:.
3653::
3638:.
3634::
3626::
3603:.
3599::
3566::
3558::
3497:.
3397:.
3368:.
3339:.
3333::
3325::
3298:.
3286::
3278::
3251:.
3228:.
3209:.
3185::
3177::
3171:3
3150:.
3130::
3122::
3067::
3059::
3032:.
3007:.
2977:.
2947:.
2943::
2917:.
2913::
2890:.
2870::
2862::
2852::
2829:.
2825::
2817::
2794:.
2770::
2762::
2735:.
2713::
2705::
2699:6
2678:.
2666::
2658::
2648::
2598::
2590::
2560:.
2556::
2511::
2503::
2470:.
2458::
2450::
2440::
2417:.
2397::
2389::
2379::
2360:.
2348::
2340::
2313:.
2307::
2297::
2289::
2262:.
2248::
2238::
2230::
2203:.
2183::
2175::
2145:.
2120:.
2095:.
2083::
2075::
2008:.
1972:)
1950:.
1925:.
1903::
1897:2
1876:.
1862::
1835:.
1823::
1815::
1770:.
1766::
1620:C
1605:C
1594:C
1585:/
1583:C
1572:C
1553:C
1544:/
1542:C
1531:C
1516:C
1505:N
1475:2
1459:C
1448:C
1399:t
1388:E
1372:C
1354:2
1327:2
1309:(
1278:2
1232:2
1202:2
1185:.
1179:C
1160:C
1135:C
1124:O
1106:O
1092:C
1081:C
1063:C
1049:C
1038:N
1020:N
1003:b
984:C
934:(
925:C
910:C
901:)
887:O
875:C
863:N
847:C
835:O
823:C
811:C
787:C
755:C
744:C
722:C
718:6
710:N
706:7
619:C
608:C
597:C
559:C
490:e
472:e
468:N
464:7
456:C
452:6
406:N
397:(
389:±
379:C
368:C
359:(
353:C
344:(
278:C
234:)
230:(
186:±
179:)
174:t
172:(
141:/
137:1
112:8
108:)
106:N
104:(
95:6
91:)
89:Z
87:(
66:C
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
