782:
1160:
1826:
to monitor the effects of radiation in patients of varying proximities to the blast itself, leading to the establishment of three recorded stages of the syndrome. Within 25–30 days of the explosion, the Red Cross surgeon noticed a sharp drop in white blood cell count and established this drop, along with symptoms of fever, as prognostic standards for Acute
Radiation Syndrome. Actress
1152:
197:
High radiation dose gives rise to deterministic effects which reliably occur above a threshold, and their severity increases with dose. Deterministic effects are not necessarily more or less serious than stochastic effects; either can ultimately lead to a temporary nuisance or a fatality. Examples of
798:
The risk for developing radiation-induced cancer at some point in life is greater when exposing a fetus than an adult, both because the cells are more vulnerable when they are growing, and because there is much longer lifespan after the dose to develop cancer. If there is too much radiation exposure
1825:
resulted in a large number of incidents of radiation poisoning, allowing for greater insight into its symptoms and dangers. Red Cross
Hospital surgeon Dr. Terufumi Sasaki led intensive research into the Syndrome in the weeks and months following the Hiroshima bombings. Sasaki and his team were able
1685:
When radioactive compounds enter the human body, the effects are different from those resulting from exposure to an external radiation source. Especially in the case of alpha radiation, which normally does not penetrate the skin, the exposure can be much more damaging after ingestion or inhalation.
137:
with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly
1841:
have been monitoring the health status of the survivors and their descendants since 1946. They have found that radiation exposure increases cancer risk, but also that the average lifespan of survivors was reduced by only a few months compared to those not exposed to radiation. No health effects of
1003:
is a measure of the stochastic health risk due to an intake of radioactive material into the human body. The ICRP states "For internal exposure, committed effective doses are generally determined from an assessment of the intakes of radionuclides from bioassay measurements or other quantities. The
777:
are an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in some experiments up to 1000 times more dangerous than an equivalent activity of beta emitting or gamma emitting radioisotopes. If the radiation type is not known, it can be determined by differential measurements in the presence of electrical
1630:
where a radioisotope is used as a drug (usually a liquid or pill). A review of this topic was published in 1999. Because the radioactive material becomes intimately mixed with the affected object it is often difficult to decontaminate the object or person in a case where internal exposure is
157:
Quantitative data on the effects of ionizing radiation on human health is relatively limited compared to other medical conditions because of the low number of cases to date, and because of the stochastic nature of some of the effects. Stochastic effects can only be measured through large
1676:
both of these produce closely spaced ionizing radiation. This concept is described as a binary system using two separate components for the therapy of cancer. Each component in itself is relatively harmless to the cells, but when combined for treatment they produce a highly cytocidal
971:
The human body cannot sense ionizing radiation except in very high doses, but the effects of ionization can be used to characterize the radiation. Parameters of interest include disintegration rate, particle flux, particle type, beam energy, kerma, dose rate, and radiation dose.
1830:, who was present during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, was the first incident of radiation poisoning to be extensively studied. Her death on August 24, 1945, was the first death ever to be officially certified as a result of radiation poisoning (or "atomic bomb disease").
1595:
Internal exposure occurs when the radioactive material enters the organism, and the radioactive atoms become incorporated into the organism. This can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or injection. Below are a series of examples of internal exposure.
995:
summarises the recommendations of the ICRU and ICRP on the use of dose quantities and includes a guide to the effects of ionizing radiation as measured in sieverts, and gives examples of approximate figures of dose uptake in certain situations.
1786:
over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products had nearly vanished from the market.
100:
stochastic effects, i.e., cancer and heritable effects involving either cancer development in exposed individuals owing to mutation of somatic cells or heritable disease in their offspring owing to mutation of reproductive (germ)
1163:
A schematic diagram showing a rectangle being irradiated by radioactive contamination (shown in red) which is present on an external surface such as the skin; this emits radiation (shown in yellow), which can enter the animal's
1205:
A nuclear worker whose hands have been dirtied with radioactive dust. Assuming that his hands are cleaned before any radioactive material can be absorbed, inhaled or ingested, skin contamination is considered to be external
3943:
1101:
246:
The US National
Academy of Sciences Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Committee "has concluded that there is no compelling evidence to indicate a dose threshold below which the risk of tumor induction is zero".
158:
epidemiological studies where enough data has been collected to remove confounding factors such as smoking habits and other lifestyle factors. The richest source of high-quality data comes from the study of
Japanese
1988:- a powerful electric current produces a transient, spatially focussed magnetic field that can penetrate the scalp and skull of a subject and induce electrical activity in the neurons on the surface of the brain.
1639:
matrix might never be able to truly become part of an organism, it is normal to consider such particles in the lungs and digestive tract as a form of internal contamination which results in internal exposure.
1252:
1168:
External exposure is exposure which occurs when the radioactive source (or other radiation source) is outside (and remains outside) the organism which is exposed. Examples of external exposure include:
2446:
1698:
Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of
3923:
1095:
1073:
1681:) effect which is lethal (within a limited range of 5-9 micrometers or approximately one cell diameter). Clinical trials, with promising results, are currently carried out in Finland and Japan.
1088:(ICRP) manages the International System of Radiological Protection, which sets recommended limits for dose uptake. Dose values may represent absorbed, equivalent, effective, or committed dose.
1794:, where thousands of radium-dial painters contracted oral cancers— but no cases of acute radiation syndrome— popularized the warnings of occupational health associated with radiation hazards.
1128:
1108:
1657:
to the neutron energy spectrum suitable for BNCT treatment. The tumor is selectively bombarded with these neutrons. The neutrons quickly slow down in the body to become low energy
1060:
are used, and appropriate dose factors and coefficients are used to calculate these from the absorbed dose. Equivalent and effective dose quantities are expressed in units of the
2451:
3928:
1994:- a very powerful magnetic field is used to obtain a 3D image of the density of water molecules of the brain, revealing different anatomical structures. A related technique,
1085:
2290:
2092:
1033:
1238:
1706:
intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1895. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he misattributed them to ozone, a
3933:
3650:
799:
there could be harmful effects on the unborn child or reproductive organs. Research shows that scanning more than once in nine months can harm the unborn child.
3809:
3557:
1384:
3061:
3542:
765:
When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more dangerous than their half-life or decay rate would suggest. This is due to the high
2658:"Image Quality and Radiation Dose of Lower Extremity CT Angiography Using 70 kVp, High Pitch Acquisition and Sinogram-Affirmed Iterative Reconstruction"
1822:
819:
2943:
769:
of alpha radiation to cause biological damage after alpha-emitting radioisotopes enter living cells. Ingested alpha emitter radioisotopes such as
1774:
spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died of
3511:
3974:
3018:
2577:
2267:
1995:
1838:
1710:
produced in air by X-rays. Other free radicals produced within the body are now understood to be more important. His injuries healed later.
3537:
3506:
3451:
1955:
1888:
1134:
1245:
3938:
3170:
2656:
Zhang, Zhuoli; Qi, Li; Meinel, Felix G.; Zhou, Chang Sheng; Zhao, Yan E.; Schoepf, U. Joseph; Zhang, Long Jiang; Lu, Guang Ming (2014).
123:
1782:, a famous American socialite, died of multiple cancers (but not acute radiation syndrome) in 1932 after consuming large quantities of
3918:
3643:
3486:
1758:
Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as
4049:
2876:
2772:
1985:
1729:
concluded that these newly discovered rays not only photograph, but also "affect the living function". At the same time, Pierre and
1068:
which implies that biological effects have been taken into account. These are usually in accordance with the recommendations of the
766:
97:
deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) due in large part to the killing or malfunction of cells following high doses; and
1198:. While in brachytherapy the source is inside the person it is still considered external exposure because it does not result in a
3552:
1548:
3959:
2837:
2107:
1850:
The interactions between organisms and electromagnetic fields (EMF) and ionizing radiation can be studied in a number of ways:
1834:
1282:
888:
811:
3741:
2102:
4024:
3969:
3964:
3636:
3618:
1642:
1461:
1448:
1214:
to estimate, and the irradiated organism does not become radioactive, except for a case where the radiation is an intense
1076:(ICRU). The coherent system of radiological protection quantities developed by them is shown in the accompanying diagram.
229:
214:
1998:, reveals the pattern of blood flow in the brain and can show which parts of the brain are involved in a particular task.
1121:
942:
832:
3374:
1795:
1155:
A schematic diagram showing a rectangle being irradiated by an external source (in red) of radiation (shown in yellow)
4012:
3751:
3606:
3461:
3434:
1991:
1054:
988:
223:
154:
is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second.
82:
In general, ionizing radiation is harmful and potentially lethal to living beings but can have health benefits in
42:. Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in
3698:
3491:
3344:
3100:
1726:
1722:
1115:
147:
4054:
4008:
3995:
3990:
3429:
3203:
2112:
1893:
1508:
1479:
1368:
957:
946:
202:
182:
139:
134:
115:
114:, meaning that their probability of occurrence increases with dose, while the severity is independent of dose.
63:
51:
3339:
3786:
3369:
3163:
1943:
1740:
The genetic effects of radiation, including the effects on cancer risk, were recognized much later. In 1927
1355:
922:
905:
815:
652:
4016:
3913:
3846:
3610:
3521:
3195:
2218:
2165:
511:
1818:
in the 1940s, heightened scientific attention was given to the study of all manner of radiation effects.
4044:
4020:
3829:
3614:
3349:
2029:
2021:
2009:
1741:
1435:
935:
673:
159:
3841:
3834:
3673:
3659:
3471:
3359:
3316:
3266:
2905:
2669:
2071:
or charged ions. Biological samples can be irradiated using either a broad, uniform beam, or using a
2060:
1763:
1751:
More generally, the 1930s saw attempts to develop a general model for radiobiology. Notable here was
1275:
770:
151:
3856:
3766:
3588:
3547:
3466:
3379:
2097:
2045:
1964:
1960:
1918:
1899:
1859:
1627:
1422:
677:
2970:
3703:
3693:
3688:
3583:
3404:
3384:
3364:
3248:
3156:
3092:
3034:
2816:
2291:"Radiation Exposure and Contamination - Injuries; Poisoning - Merck Manuals Professional Edition"
1904:
1873:
1535:
1219:
1174:
1028:. In the SI system of units, the unit of measure is joules per kilogram, and its special name is
1025:
35:
2787:
1703:
3746:
3476:
3354:
3291:
3256:
3084:
3014:
2984:
2872:
2808:
2768:
2746:
2705:
2687:
2638:
2620:
2573:
2508:
2490:
2415:
2397:
2356:
2338:
2263:
2248:
2186:
1975:
1933:
1908:
1864:
1718:
1654:
823:
588:
233:
83:
55:
43:
1755:, whose presentation also included an exhaustive review of some 400 supporting publications.
3887:
3882:
3481:
3076:
2976:
2921:
2913:
2800:
2738:
2695:
2677:
2628:
2612:
2498:
2480:
2405:
2387:
2346:
2328:
2255:
2178:
2127:
1807:
1474:
1339:
93:
Most adverse health effects of radiation exposure may be grouped in two general categories:
31:
3120:
2568:
781:
3781:
3756:
3593:
3578:
3394:
3306:
3296:
3035:"Long-term health effects of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs not as dire as perceived"
1811:
1775:
1759:
1650:
1636:
1632:
1044:
218:
163:
67:
59:
1665:
are captured by the injected boron-10, forming excited (boron-11) which breaks down into
2909:
2673:
3872:
3819:
3736:
3683:
3441:
3399:
3389:
3311:
3301:
3271:
3080:
2926:
2893:
2700:
2657:
2633:
2600:
2503:
2468:
2410:
2375:
2351:
2316:
1970:
1951:
1927:
1923:
1815:
1714:
1687:
1673:
1522:
1503:
1199:
1000:
980:
644:
549:
208:
191:
87:
47:
4038:
3726:
3516:
3276:
3261:
3143:
The
Institute for Radiation Biology at the Helmholtz-Center for Environmental Health
2820:
2804:
2015:
2001:
1980:
1409:
1299:
1195:
1013:
960:
837:
260:
187:
127:
119:
1936:- the scientific study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues.
3851:
3771:
3456:
3321:
3121:
The 2007 Recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
3096:
1939:
1868:
1791:
1707:
1612:
1601:
1159:
1004:
radiation dose is determined from the intake using recommended dose coefficients".
878:
807:
71:
2040:
Radiobiology experiments typically make use of a radiation source which could be:
802:
Possible deterministic effects include of radiation exposure in pregnancy include
3148:
2866:
2682:
3892:
3824:
3761:
3238:
2862:
2834:
2250:
Health Risks from
Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2
2122:
2049:
1827:
1771:
1752:
1745:
1730:
1576:
1191:
1029:
860:
846:
803:
648:
618:
297:
291:
285:
279:
273:
264:
169:
The added lifetime risk of developing cancer by a single abdominal CT of 8
1942:- the magnetic properties of living systems (see, for example, the research of
3776:
3286:
3233:
3062:"Experimental Simulation of A-bomb Gamma-ray Spectra for Radiobiology Studies"
2467:
Ronckers, Cécile M; Erdmann, Christine A; Land, Charles E (23 November 2004).
2182:
1878:
1779:
1725:
called X-rays. After irradiating frogs and insects with X-rays in early 1896,
1181:
1137:(ECRR) the stage of radiation depends on the stage the body parts are affected
1065:
1037:
818:. The deterministic effects have been studied at for example survivors of the
624:
610:
606:
598:
584:
111:
2788:"Radiation and the single cell: the physicist's contribution to radiobiology"
2725:
2691:
2624:
2494:
2401:
2342:
3814:
3731:
3678:
3573:
3446:
3281:
3228:
3218:
3179:
2616:
2117:
2072:
2068:
2053:
2025:
1882:
1854:
1678:
1666:
1151:
984:
976:
975:
The monitoring and calculation of doses to safeguard human health is called
774:
640:
614:
3088:
2750:
2709:
2642:
2512:
2419:
2360:
2190:
58:
of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic
3144:
1649:
tagged chemical that preferentially binds to tumor cells. Neutrons from a
1611:
The exposure to the ingestion of a soluble radioactive substance, such as
3877:
3223:
3208:
2812:
2374:
Ratnapalan, Savithiri; Bentur, Yedidia; Koren, Gideon (2 December 2008).
2315:
Ratnapalan, Savithiri; Bentur, Yedidia; Koren, Gideon (2 December 2008).
2005:
1670:
1646:
665:
661:
636:
632:
592:
541:
529:
423:
379:
313:
239:
2392:
2333:
2018:- the study of energy exchange on the molecular level of living systems.
1744:
published research showing genetic effects, and in 1946 was awarded the
3908:
3791:
3628:
3501:
2079:
2064:
1315:
1215:
1061:
992:
950:
786:
602:
575:
170:
143:
2742:
1967:- the study of the effect of electromagnetic fields on living systems.
1102:
United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
991:
uptake and the use of bio-assay for ingested dose. The article on the
785:
External dose quantities used in radiation protection. See article on
2988:
2917:
2012:- a discipline that has given rise to many scientific field theories.
1912:
1803:
1783:
1734:
1562:
1187:
1021:
657:
537:
533:
309:
963:
seems to be particularly high for radiation doses during pregnancy.
3140:
G.Gordon Steel, "Basic
Clinical Radiobiology". 2002. Hodder Arnold.
2980:
2485:
2259:
1842:
any sort have thus far been detected in children of the survivors.
1733:
discovered the radioactive polonium and radium later used to treat
3326:
3213:
2447:"Guidelines for Diagnostic Imaging During Pregnancy and Lactation"
1947:
1767:
1699:
1158:
1150:
669:
628:
467:
2599:
Brisbane, Wayne; Bailey, Michael R.; Sorensen, Mathew D. (2016).
1770:
treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics.
1620:
1069:
3632:
3152:
1954:- the study of effect of magnets upon living systems. See also
778:
fields, magnetic fields, or with varying amounts of shielding.
1802:, developed the first standard for permissible body burden of
1799:
1717:'s 1896 demonstration of the therapeutic treatment of a hairy
1616:
1713:
As a field of medical sciences, radiobiology originated from
1096:
International
Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
1074:
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
2469:"Radiation and breast cancer: a review of current evidence"
934:
The intellectual deficit has been estimated to be about 25
217:, a potential side effect from radiation treatment against
3060:
Pattison JE, Hugtenburg RP, Beddoe AH, Charles MW (2001).
130:
are all stochastic effects induced by ionizing radiation.
1109:
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
1091:
Other important organizations studying the topic include
941:
These effects are sometimes relevant when deciding about
938:
per 1,000 mGy at 10 to 17 weeks of gestational age.
2163:
Christensen DM, Iddins CJ, Sugarman SL (February 2014).
2871:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1963:- the electromagnetic properties of living systems and
1631:
occurring. While some very insoluble materials such as
1626:
A person who is being treated for cancer by means of a
162:. In vitro and animal experiments are informative, but
110:
Some effects of ionizing radiation on human health are
2944:"A Glow in the Dark, and a Lesson in Scientific Peril"
1790:
In the United States, the experience of the so-called
3013:. New York: Harkavy Publishing Service. p. 376.
2452:
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
3983:
3952:
3901:
3865:
3800:
3717:
3666:
3566:
3530:
3417:
3247:
3194:
3187:
1086:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
2942:
2786:
2724:
2564:Unless otherwise specified in boxes, reference is:
2247:
2217:
2164:
1686:The radiation exposure is normally expressed as a
1129:Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire
1040:is sometimes also used, predominantly in the USA.
2376:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?""
2317:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?""
2158:
2156:
2154:
956:Also, the risk for the mother of later acquiring
2601:"An overview of kidney stone imaging techniques"
2093:Biological effects of radiation on the epigenome
2075:, focused down to cellular or subcellular sizes.
2036:Radiation sources for experimental radiobiology
1328:CT of the chest, lung cancer screening protocol
1070:International Committee on Radiation Protection
190:effects are those that reliably occur above a
16:Study of effects of radiation on living things
3644:
3164:
1810:as a field of study. With the development of
1246:
211:, from radiation to a particular body surface
8:
3810:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring
3123:. ICRP Publication 103. Ann. ICRP 37 (2-4).
2254:. National Academy of Science. p. 10.
2166:"Ionizing radiation injuries and illnesses"
1397:CT of abdomen and pelvis, low dose protocol
3651:
3637:
3629:
3191:
3171:
3157:
3149:
3011:Medicine: A Treasury of Art and Literature
2972:Radium in Humans: A Review of U.S. Studies
1253:
1239:
194:, and their severity increases with dose.
34:that involves the study of the effects of
2925:
2699:
2681:
2632:
2552:, pp. 61–62, paragraphs 104 and 105.
2502:
2484:
2409:
2391:
2350:
2332:
1823:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1408:CT of abdomen and pelvis, with + without
1020:representing the mean energy imparted to
820:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
173:is estimated to be 0.05%, or 1 in 2,000.
133:Its most common impact is the stochastic
2723:Wynn, Volkert; Hoffman, Timothy (1999).
1229:
979:and is undertaken within the science of
828:
780:
751:
249:
2894:"Actions of Radiations on Living Cells"
2560:
2558:
2195:Note: first page available free at URL.
2138:
1180:A space traveller who is irradiated by
1008:Absorbed, equivalent and effective dose
983:. Key measurement tools are the use of
3512:Wireless electronic devices and health
2569:"Radiation Dose in X-Ray and CT Exams"
2441:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2429:
1234:Effective dose by medical imaging type
3975:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960
2868:Actions of Radiations on Living Cells
2578:Radiological Society of North America
1996:functional magnetic resonance imaging
1839:Radiation Effects Research Foundation
1806:, a key step in the establishment of
826:has been necessary during pregnancy:
789:on how these are calculated and used.
7:
3538:List of civilian radiation accidents
3507:Wireless device radiation and health
3502:Biological dose units and quantities
3452:Electromagnetic radiation and health
2549:
2537:
2525:
2236:Note: First paragraph provided free.
2204:
2145:
1956:Electromagnetic radiation and health
1889:electromagnetic radiation and health
1135:European Committee on Radiation Risk
523:Cognitive impairment > 24 h
2892:Mitchell, J. S. (2 November 1946).
2479:(1). BMC (Springer Nature): 21–32.
1721:using the newly discovered form of
374:— (patients die in < 48 h)
30:) is a field of clinical and basic
3487:Radioactivity in the life sciences
3081:10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a006532
2726:"Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals"
2295:Merck Manuals Professional Edition
2246:National Research Council (2006).
14:
1986:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
1043:To represent stochastic risk the
767:relative biological effectiveness
520:Cognitive impairment 6–20 h
3135:Radiobiology for the Radiologist
2941:Grady, Denise (6 October 1998).
2737:(9). ACS Publications: 2269–92.
2611:(11). Springer Nature: 654–662.
2226:. Harvard University. March 2013
1210:External exposure is relatively
953:exposes the fetus to radiation.
86:for the treatment of cancer and
66:. Controlled doses are used for
62:, and/or rapid fatality through
50:. Its most common impact is the
46:for the treatment of cancer and
38:on living things, in particular
3075:(2). Oxford Academic: 125–136.
2975:. Argonne National Laboratory.
2793:Physics in Medicine and Biology
2108:NASA Space Radiation Laboratory
1835:Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission
1778:caused by radiation poisoning.
205:, by acute whole-body radiation
166:varies greatly across species.
3742:Computed tomography dose index
3069:Radiation Protection Dosimetry
2842:British Institute of Radiology
2103:Health threat from cosmic rays
1124:(NAS through the BEIR studies)
1:
1643:Boron neutron capture therapy
1462:Lower gastrointestinal series
1449:Upper gastrointestinal series
1173:A person who places a sealed
682:— (patients die in < 48h)
230:Radiation-induced lung injury
215:Radiation-induced thyroiditis
2683:10.1371/journal.pone.0099112
2528:, p. 73, paragraph 144.
1645:(BNCT) involves injecting a
1186:A person who is treated for
1122:National Academy of Sciences
1016:is a physical dose quantity
943:medical imaging in pregnancy
387:None to mild (< 10%)
3375:Cosmic background radiation
3009:Carmichael, Ann G. (1991).
2838:"Radiobiology in the 1940s"
2219:"Do CT scans cause cancer?"
2207:, p. 55, Paragraph 83.
2148:, p. 49, paragraph 55.
475:Moderate increase (10–100%)
226:, from long-term radiation.
198:deterministic effects are:
40:health effects of radiation
4071:
4006:
3604:
3462:Lasers and aviation safety
2805:10.1088/0031-9155/21/3/001
1992:Magnetic resonance imaging
1226:By type of medical imaging
845:Estimated threshold dose (
744:2 days – 2 weeks
303:
224:Chronic radiation syndrome
180:
4004:
3699:Radioactive contamination
3602:
3492:Radioactive contamination
3345:Electromagnetic radiation
3335:
2224:Harvard Health Publishing
2183:10.1016/j.emc.2013.10.002
1894:Specific absorption rates
1727:Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov
1723:electromagnetic radiation
1575:
1561:
1547:
1534:
1502:
1473:
1380:
1351:
1311:
1281:
1232:
1116:UK Health Security Agency
873:
870:
686:
478:Moderate to severe (100%)
258:
255:
252:
150:is correct, then natural
4050:Radiation health effects
4007:See also the categories
3996:Radiation-induced cancer
3991:Acute radiation syndrome
3605:See also the categories
3543:1996 Costa Rica accident
3204:Acoustic radiation force
2785:Hall, E J (1 May 1976).
2113:Radioactivity in biology
1385:CT of abdomen and pelvis
1369:Coronary CT calcium scan
1271:Effective dose in adults
947:projectional radiography
863:or none (all or nothing)
203:Acute radiation syndrome
183:Acute radiation syndrome
140:effective radiation dose
116:Radiation-induced cancer
64:acute radiation syndrome
3517:Radiation heat-transfer
3370:Gravitational radiation
2617:10.1038/nrurol.2016.154
2540:, p. 24, glossary.
2177:(1). Elsevier: 245–65.
2171:Emerg Med Clin North Am
2063:generating high energy
1930:- their general nature.
1766:. Examples were radium
1600:The exposure caused by
1356:Coronary CT angiography
923:intellectual disability
906:intellectual disability
816:intellectual disability
674:Electrolyte disturbance
653:Electrolyte disturbance
3847:Semiconductor detector
3803:measurement techniques
3558:1990 Zaragoza accident
3553:1984 Moroccan accident
3522:Linear energy transfer
3196:Non-ionizing radiation
2969:Rowland, R.E. (1994).
2605:Nature Reviews Urology
2473:Breast Cancer Research
1702:when German physicist
1165:
1156:
790:
431:Mild to moderate (50%)
142:at a rate of 5.5% per
3866:Protection techniques
3830:Scintillation counter
3548:1987 Goiânia accident
3350:Synchrotron radiation
3340:Earth's energy budget
3322:Radioactive materials
3317:Particle accelerators
2030:Psychoneuroimmunology
2022:Biological psychiatry
2010:Developmental biology
1742:Hermann Joseph Muller
1436:Intravenous pyelogram
1162:
1154:
987:to give the external
784:
526:Rapid incapacitation
393:Heavy (> 95%)
390:Heavy (> 10%)
181:Further information:
160:atomic bomb survivors
4025:Radiation protection
3842:Radiation monitoring
3835:Proportional counter
3720:quantities and units
3674:Background radiation
3660:Radiation protection
3619:Radiation protection
3472:Radiation protection
3360:Black-body radiation
3267:Background radiation
3182:(physics and health)
2765:Radiation Biophysics
2061:particle accelerator
1764:radioactive quackery
1276:background radiation
761:By type of radiation
152:background radiation
26:, and uncommonly as
3857:Whole-body counting
3767:Mean glandular dose
3704:Radioactive sources
3589:Radiation hardening
3531:Radiation incidents
3467:Medical radiography
3426:Radiation syndrome
3380:Cherenkov radiation
2910:1946Natur.158..601M
2799:(3). IOP: 347–359.
2674:2014PLoSO...999112Q
2475:(Review article.).
2393:10.1503/cmaj.080247
2334:10.1503/cmaj.080247
2098:Cell survival curve
1965:Bioelectromagnetics
1961:Bioelectromagnetism
1919:Bioelectromagnetics
1900:Radiation poisoning
1887:High and low-level
1860:Radiation chemistry
1628:radiopharmaceutical
1530:5 weeks - 6 months
1274:Equivalent time of
597:Moderate to severe
232:, from for example
135:induction of cancer
52:induction of cancer
3694:Internal dosimetry
3689:Ionizing radiation
3584:Radioactive source
3405:Radiation exposure
3385:Askaryan radiation
3365:Particle radiation
3249:Ionizing radiation
3137:. 2006. Lippincott
2949:The New York Times
2763:Y. B. Kudriashov.
2733:(Review article).
2607:(Review article).
1905:Radiation oncology
1874:Molecular genetics
1748:for his findings.
1509:X-ray of extremity
1218:beam which causes
1175:radioactive source
1166:
1157:
1026:ionizing radiation
889:Growth restriction
812:growth restriction
791:
36:ionizing radiation
4032:
4031:
4013:Radiation effects
3984:Radiation effects
3747:Counts per minute
3626:
3625:
3607:Radiation effects
3477:Radiation therapy
3413:
3412:
3355:Thermal radiation
3292:Neutron radiation
3257:Radioactive decay
3020:978-0-88363-991-7
2904:(4018): 601–602.
2743:10.1021/cr9804386
2574:RadiologyInfo.org
2386:(12): 1293–1296.
2327:(12): 1293–1296.
2269:978-0-309-09156-5
1976:Radiation therapy
1934:Electrophysiology
1909:radiation therapy
1855:Radiation physics
1846:Areas of interest
1655:neutron moderator
1604:present within a
1588:
1587:
1142:Exposure pathways
1032:(Gy). The non-SI
1024:per unit mass by
958:radiation-induced
932:
931:
824:radiation therapy
758:
757:
583:Mild to moderate
234:radiation therapy
124:cognitive decline
84:radiation therapy
44:radiation therapy
24:radiation biology
4062:
3888:Radon mitigation
3883:Potassium iodide
3801:Instruments and
3653:
3646:
3639:
3630:
3567:Related articles
3482:Radiation damage
3307:Nuclear reactors
3192:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3150:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3099:. Archived from
3066:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3041:. 11 August 2016
3031:
3025:
3024:
3006:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2955:
2946:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2918:10.1038/158601a0
2889:
2883:
2882:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2790:
2782:
2776:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2731:Chemical Reviews
2728:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2703:
2685:
2653:
2647:
2646:
2636:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2562:
2553:
2547:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2506:
2488:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2443:
2424:
2423:
2413:
2395:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2354:
2336:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2253:
2243:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2221:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2194:
2168:
2160:
2149:
2143:
2128:Radiosensitivity
1812:nuclear reactors
1808:nuclear medicine
1663:thermal neutrons
1659:thermal neutrons
1653:are shaped by a
1633:fission products
1521:Lower extremity
1255:
1248:
1241:
1230:
829:
822:and cases where
563:< 7 days
349:< 10 min
250:
242:and infertility.
32:medical sciences
4070:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4055:Medical physics
4035:
4034:
4033:
4028:
4027:
4009:Medical physics
4000:
3979:
3948:
3897:
3861:
3802:
3796:
3757:Equivalent dose
3719:
3713:
3662:
3657:
3627:
3622:
3621:
3598:
3594:Havana syndrome
3579:Nuclear physics
3562:
3526:
3419:
3409:
3395:Unruh radiation
3331:
3312:Nuclear weapons
3297:Nuclear fission
3243:
3183:
3177:
3130:
3128:Further reading
3116:
3111:
3106:on 16 Jul 2020.
3103:
3064:
3059:
3058:
3054:
3044:
3042:
3033:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3008:
3007:
3003:
2993:
2991:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2953:
2951:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2900:(Book review).
2891:
2890:
2886:
2879:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2846:
2844:
2835:Lea, Douglas E.
2833:
2832:
2828:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2762:
2758:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2655:
2654:
2650:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2583:
2581:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2556:
2548:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2524:
2520:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2445:
2444:
2427:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2299:
2297:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2229:
2227:
2216:
2215:
2211:
2203:
2199:
2162:
2161:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2089:
2046:isotopic source
2038:
1848:
1816:nuclear weapons
1796:Robley D. Evans
1776:aplastic anemia
1760:patent medicine
1704:Wilhelm Röntgen
1696:
1651:nuclear reactor
1637:uranium dioxide
1593:
1492:CT of the spine
1423:CT Colonography
1316:CT of the chest
1298:With + without
1260:
1259:
1228:
1149:
1144:
1082:
1052:
1045:equivalent dose
1010:
969:
833:Gestational age
796:
763:
676:
672:
668:
666:Severe diarrhea
664:
660:
651:
647:
639:
635:
631:
627:
613:
609:
605:
601:
591:
587:
557:28–31 days
437:Severe (80–90%)
219:hyperthyroidism
209:Radiation burns
185:
179:
164:radioresistance
108:
80:
68:medical imaging
60:radiation burns
22:(also known as
17:
12:
11:
5:
4068:
4066:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4037:
4036:
4030:
4029:
4005:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3998:
3993:
3987:
3985:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3956:
3954:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3873:Lead shielding
3869:
3867:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3820:Geiger counter
3817:
3812:
3806:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3752:Effective dose
3749:
3744:
3739:
3737:Committed dose
3734:
3729:
3723:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3684:Health physics
3681:
3676:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3663:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3648:
3641:
3633:
3624:
3623:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3442:Health physics
3439:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3423:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3407:
3402:
3400:Dark radiation
3397:
3392:
3390:Bremsstrahlung
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3302:Nuclear fusion
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3272:Alpha particle
3269:
3264:
3259:
3253:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3189:
3185:
3184:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3168:
3161:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3141:
3138:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3052:
3026:
3019:
3001:
2981:10.2172/751062
2961:
2933:
2884:
2877:
2854:
2826:
2777:
2756:
2715:
2648:
2591:
2554:
2542:
2530:
2518:
2486:10.1186/bcr970
2459:
2457:February 2016
2425:
2366:
2307:
2282:
2268:
2260:10.17226/11340
2238:
2209:
2197:
2150:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2057:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2032:
2019:
2013:
1999:
1989:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1971:Electrotherapy
1968:
1958:
1952:Magnetobiology
1937:
1931:
1928:Magnetic field
1924:Electric field
1921:
1916:
1902:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1876:
1871:
1862:
1857:
1847:
1844:
1715:Leopold Freund
1695:
1692:
1688:committed dose
1683:
1682:
1674:alpha particle
1640:
1624:
1609:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1559:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1551:(bone density)
1545:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1523:CT angiography
1518:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1283:CT of the head
1279:
1278:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1250:
1243:
1235:
1233:
1227:
1224:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1200:committed dose
1184:
1178:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1138:
1132:
1125:
1118:
1112:
1105:
1099:
1081:
1078:
1055:effective dose
1050:
1009:
1006:
1001:committed dose
989:effective dose
981:health physics
968:
965:
930:
929:
926:
919:
918:16 to 25 weeks
916:
915:18 to 27 weeks
912:
911:
908:
902:
899:
898:10 to 17 weeks
895:
894:
891:
885:
884:
881:
875:
872:
868:
867:
864:
858:
855:
851:
850:
843:
840:
835:
795:
792:
762:
759:
756:
755:
749:
748:
747:1–2 days
745:
742:
741:2–4 weeks
739:
738:4–6 weeks
736:
735:6–8 weeks
733:
729:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
709:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
693:
690:
684:
683:
680:
655:
645:disorientation
621:
595:
581:
579:
571:
570:
567:
564:
561:
560:7–28 days
558:
555:
553:
545:
544:
527:
524:
521:
518:
517:No impairment
515:
508:
507:
506:< 1 h
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
486:
485:
484:Severe (100%)
482:
479:
476:
473:
470:
464:
463:
462:< 1 h
460:
457:
454:
451:
448:
442:
441:
440:Severe (100%)
438:
435:
434:Moderate (80%)
432:
429:
426:
420:
419:
418:< 1 h
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
398:
397:
394:
391:
388:
385:
382:
376:
375:
372:
371:< 48 h
369:
368:< 48 h
366:
363:
362:< 24 h
360:
354:
353:
350:
347:
346:10–60 min
344:
341:
338:
332:
331:
328:
325:
322:
319:
316:
307:
301:
300:
294:
288:
282:
276:
269:
268:
257:
254:
244:
243:
237:
227:
221:
212:
206:
192:threshold dose
178:
175:
107:
104:
103:
102:
98:
88:thyrotoxicosis
79:
78:Health effects
76:
48:thyrotoxicosis
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4067:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4017:Radioactivity
4014:
4010:
4003:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3951:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3902:Organisations
3900:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3864:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3727:Absorbed dose
3725:
3724:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3667:Main articles
3665:
3661:
3654:
3649:
3647:
3642:
3640:
3635:
3634:
3631:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3611:Radioactivity
3608:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3533:
3529:
3523:
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3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
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3443:
3440:
3436:
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3428:
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3406:
3403:
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3334:
3328:
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3323:
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3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3277:Beta particle
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3262:Cluster decay
3260:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3188:Main articles
3186:
3181:
3174:
3169:
3167:
3162:
3160:
3155:
3154:
3151:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3113:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3053:
3040:
3039:Science Daily
3036:
3030:
3027:
3022:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3002:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2973:
2965:
2962:
2950:
2945:
2937:
2934:
2928:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2888:
2885:
2880:
2878:9781001281377
2874:
2870:
2869:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2781:
2778:
2774:
2773:9781600212802
2770:
2766:
2760:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2719:
2716:
2711:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2668:(6): e99112.
2667:
2663:
2659:
2652:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2561:
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2543:
2539:
2534:
2531:
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2522:
2519:
2514:
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2496:
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2487:
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2470:
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2381:
2377:
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2326:
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2265:
2261:
2257:
2252:
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2239:
2225:
2220:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2198:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2139:
2133:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2016:Bioenergetics
2014:
2011:
2007:
2003:
2002:Embryogenesis
2000:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1981:Radiogenomics
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1950:imaging) and
1949:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1680:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1590:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1527:0.3 - 1.6 mSv
1526:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1410:radiocontrast
1407:
1406:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1300:radiocontrast
1297:
1296:
1292:
1289:
1287:Single series
1286:
1284:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1265:Target organs
1264:
1263:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1244:
1242:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1204:
1201:
1197:
1196:brachytherapy
1193:
1189:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1177:in his pocket
1176:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1161:
1153:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1080:Organizations
1079:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1049:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1014:absorbed dose
1007:
1005:
1002:
997:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
973:
966:
964:
962:
961:breast cancer
959:
954:
952:
948:
944:
939:
937:
927:
924:
920:
917:
914:
913:
909:
907:
903:
901:8 to 15 weeks
900:
897:
896:
892:
890:
887:
886:
882:
880:
879:birth defects
876:
871:4 to 10 weeks
869:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
852:
848:
844:
841:
839:
838:Embryonic age
836:
834:
831:
830:
827:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:birth defects
806:, structural
805:
800:
793:
788:
783:
779:
776:
772:
768:
760:
754:
750:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:
730:
726:
723:
720:
717:
714:
711:
710:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
691:
689:
685:
681:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
620:
617:after 3
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
580:
578:
577:
573:
572:
568:
565:
562:
559:
556:
554:
552:
551:
550:Latent period
547:
546:
543:
539:
535:
531:
528:
525:
522:
519:
516:
513:
510:
509:
505:
503:< 1 h
502:
500:< 1 h
499:
496:
493:
491:
490:Time of onset
488:
487:
483:
481:Severe (100%)
480:
477:
474:
471:
469:
466:
465:
461:
458:
455:
452:
449:
447:
446:Time of onset
444:
443:
439:
436:
433:
430:
427:
425:
422:
421:
417:
415:< 1 h
414:
411:
408:
405:
403:
402:Time of onset
400:
399:
396:Heavy (100%)
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
381:
378:
377:
373:
370:
367:
364:
361:
359:
356:
355:
351:
348:
345:
342:
339:
337:
336:Time of onset
334:
333:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
315:
311:
308:
306:
302:
299:
296:> 30
295:
293:
289:
287:
283:
281:
277:
275:
271:
270:
266:
262:
261:absorbed dose
251:
248:
241:
238:
235:
231:
228:
225:
222:
220:
216:
213:
210:
207:
204:
201:
200:
199:
195:
193:
189:
188:Deterministic
184:
177:Deterministic
176:
174:
172:
167:
165:
161:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
136:
131:
129:
128:heart disease
125:
121:
120:teratogenesis
117:
113:
105:
99:
96:
95:
94:
91:
89:
85:
77:
75:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
56:latent period
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
28:actinobiology
25:
21:
4045:Radiobiology
4021:Radiobiology
3852:Survey meter
3772:Monitor unit
3718:Measurement
3709:Radiobiology
3708:
3615:Radiobiology
3497:Radiobiology
3496:
3457:Laser safety
3134:
3119:ICRP, 2007.
3101:the original
3072:
3068:
3055:
3043:. Retrieved
3038:
3029:
3010:
3004:
2992:. Retrieved
2971:
2964:
2952:. Retrieved
2948:
2936:
2901:
2897:
2887:
2867:
2863:Lea, Douglas
2857:
2845:. Retrieved
2841:
2829:
2796:
2792:
2780:
2764:
2759:
2734:
2730:
2718:
2665:
2661:
2651:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2582:. Retrieved
2572:
2545:
2533:
2521:
2476:
2472:
2462:
2450:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2324:
2320:
2310:
2298:. Retrieved
2294:
2285:
2273:. Retrieved
2249:
2241:
2228:. Retrieved
2223:
2212:
2200:
2174:
2170:
2141:
2048:, typically
2039:
1940:Biomagnetism
1896:of organisms
1869:cell biology
1849:
1832:
1820:
1792:Radium Girls
1789:
1757:
1750:
1739:
1712:
1708:free radical
1697:
1684:
1662:
1658:
1605:
1602:potassium-40
1594:
1536:Dental X-ray
1211:
1209:
1167:
1090:
1083:
1057:
1047:
1042:
1017:
1011:
998:
974:
970:
955:
940:
933:
925:(lower risk)
874:2 to 8 weeks
857:0 to 2 weeks
854:2 to 4 weeks
801:
797:
794:In pregnancy
771:transuranics
764:
753:Table source
752:
692:Without care
687:
574:
548:
489:
445:
401:
365:24–48 h
357:
335:
304:
245:
236:to the lungs
196:
186:
168:
156:
148:linear model
132:
109:
92:
81:
72:radiotherapy
39:
27:
23:
20:Radiobiology
19:
18:
3893:Respirators
3825:Ion chamber
3239:Ultraviolet
3234:Radio waves
3133:Eric Hall,
2795:(Lecture).
2775:. Page xxi.
2123:Radiophobia
1944:David Cohen
1828:Midori Naka
1772:Marie Curie
1753:Douglas Lea
1746:Nobel prize
1731:Marie Curie
1577:Mammography
1565:combination
1504:Extremities
1480:Spine X-ray
1340:Chest X-ray
1192:teletherapy
1182:cosmic rays
1072:(ICRP) and
967:Measurement
951:CT scanning
877:Structural
861:Miscarriage
804:miscarriage
649:Hypotension
453:4–24 h
259:Whole-body
4039:Categories
3953:Regulation
3420:and health
3418:Radiation
3287:Cosmic ray
2134:References
1879:Cell death
1780:Eben Byers
1307:16 months
1220:activation
1190:by either
985:dosimeters
928:250 - 280
893:200 - 250
670:High fever
629:High fever
625:leukopenia
611:Infections
607:Hemorrhage
599:Leukopenia
585:Leukopenia
497:1–3 h
459:1–2 h
456:3–4 h
412:1–3 h
409:3–8 h
343:1–2 h
340:2–6 h
290:8–30
146:. If this
112:stochastic
106:Stochastic
3965:NRC (USA)
3914:HPS (USA)
3815:Dosimeter
3732:Becquerel
3679:Dosimetry
3574:Half-life
3447:Dosimetry
3282:Gamma ray
3229:Microwave
3219:Starlight
3180:Radiation
2821:250827449
2692:1932-6203
2625:1759-4812
2550:ICRP 2007
2538:ICRP 2007
2526:ICRP 2007
2495:1465-542X
2402:0820-3946
2343:0820-3946
2205:ICRP 2007
2146:ICRP 2007
2118:Radiology
2073:microbeam
2069:electrons
2026:Neurology
1883:apoptosis
1865:Molecular
1679:cytotoxic
1667:lithium-7
1635:within a
1554:0.001 mSv
1540:0.005 mSv
1513:0.001 mSv
1487:6 months
1381:Abdominal
1334:6 months
1293:8 months
1268:Exam type
1206:exposure.
1104:(UNSCEAR)
977:dosimetry
936:IQ points
910:60 - 310
866:50 - 100
775:actinides
712:With care
688:Mortality
641:Dizziness
514:function
305:Immediate
284:6–8
278:2–6
272:1–2
240:Cataracts
3970:ONR (UK)
3960:IRR (UK)
3939:SRP (UK)
3878:Glovebox
3782:Roentgen
3224:Sunlight
3209:Infrared
3089:11572640
2865:(1955).
2751:11749482
2710:24915439
2662:PLOS ONE
2643:27578040
2513:15642178
2420:19047611
2361:19047611
2191:24275177
2087:See also
2006:Ontogeny
1837:and the
1671:helium-4
1661:. These
1647:boron-10
1591:Internal
1584:7 weeks
1571:8 years
1557:3 hours
1516:3 hours
1498:2 years
1469:3 years
1456:2 years
1430:2 years
1417:7 years
1392:3 years
1363:4 years
1347:10 days
1323:2 years
1147:External
945:, since
662:Vomiting
637:Vomiting
633:Diarrhea
615:Alopecia
593:Weakness
542:lethargy
530:Seizures
424:Headache
380:Diarrhea
358:Duration
352:Minutes
314:vomiting
256:Symptom
3944:UNSCEAR
3909:Euratom
3792:Sievert
3435:chronic
3114:Sources
3097:8711325
2927:1932419
2906:Bibcode
2701:4051648
2670:Bibcode
2634:5443345
2504:1064116
2411:2585137
2352:2585137
2080:UV lamp
2065:protons
1694:History
1608:person.
1581:0.4 mSv
1484:1.5 mSv
1443:1 year
1403:1 year
1376:1 year
1344:0.1 mSv
1331:1.5 mSv
1216:neutron
1127:French
1062:sievert
993:sievert
921:Severe
904:Severe
842:Effects
787:sievert
724:99–100%
721:50–100%
701:95–100%
623:Severe
603:Purpura
589:Fatigue
576:Illness
327:90–100%
324:75–100%
321:50–100%
144:sievert
54:with a
4023:, and
3617:, and
3095:
3087:
3045:16 Oct
3017:
2994:24 May
2989:751062
2987:
2954:25 Nov
2924:
2898:Nature
2875:
2847:15 Jul
2819:
2813:819945
2811:
2771:
2749:
2708:
2698:
2690:
2641:
2631:
2623:
2584:23 Oct
2511:
2501:
2493:
2418:
2408:
2400:
2359:
2349:
2341:
2275:11 Nov
2266:
2230:15 Jul
2189:
1946:using
1913:cancer
1804:radium
1784:radium
1735:cancer
1700:X-rays
1669:and a
1606:normal
1568:25 mSv
1563:PET-CT
1543:1 day
1414:20 mSv
1389:10 mSv
1360:12 mSv
1188:cancer
1131:(IRSN)
1111:(NCRP)
1098:(ICRU)
1022:matter
658:Nausea
538:ataxia
534:tremor
428:Slight
310:Nausea
253:Phase
126:, and
101:cells.
3430:acute
3327:X-ray
3214:Light
3104:(PDF)
3093:S2CID
3065:(PDF)
2817:S2CID
2300:6 Sep
1948:SQUID
1798:, at
1768:enema
1495:6 mSv
1475:Spine
1466:8 mSv
1453:6 mSv
1440:3 mSv
1427:6 mSv
1400:3 mSv
1373:3 mSv
1352:Heart
1320:7 mSv
1312:Chest
1304:4 mSv
1290:2 mSv
1036:unit
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