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six-month institutional phase followed by two aftercare phases, each lasting at least six months, for a total of about eighteen months. The first phase was the "boot camp" phase. Here, inmates had daily schedules sixteen hours long where they participated in activities and showed discipline. Some activities in phase one included physical training, manual labor, skills training, drug therapy, and transition planning. The second and third phases were called "community phases." In phase two the participants are on intensive supervised release (ISR). ISR includes being in contact with your supervisor on a daily basis, being a full-time employee, keeping curfew, passing random drug and alcohol tests, and doing community service while continuing to participate completely in the program. The final phase is phase three. During this phase one is still on ISR and has to remain in the community while maintaining a full-time job. They have to continue with community service and their participation in the program. Once phase three is complete participants have "graduated" CIP. They are then put on supervision until the end of their sentence. Inmates who drop out or fail to complete the program are sent back to prison to serve the rest of their sentence. Information was gathered through a quasi experimental design. This compared the recidivism rates of the CIP participants with a control group. The findings of the study have shown that the CIP program did not significantly reduce the chances of recidivism. However, CIP did increase the amount of time before rearrest. Moreover, CIP early release graduates lower the costs for the state by millions every year.
2178:(1980) and Polinsky and Rubinfeld (1991) have argued that a record of prior offenses provides information about the offender's characteristics (e.g., a higher-than-average propensity to commit crimes). However, Shavell (2004) has pointed out that making sanctions depend on offense history may be advantageous even when there are no characteristics to be learned about. In particular, Shavell (2004, p. 529) argues that when "detection of a violation implies not only an immediate sanction, but also a higher sanction for a future violation, an individual will be deterred more from committing a violation presently". Building on Shavell's (2004) insights, Müller and Schmitz (2015) show that it may actually be optimal to further amplify the overdeterrence of repeat offenders when exogenous restrictions on penalties for first-time offenders are relaxed.
1830:
inmates educational level the lower their odds of recidivating becomes. If an inmate attains a certificate of vocation their rate of recidivism reduces by 14.6%, if they attain a GED their rate of recidivism reduces by 25%, or if they attain an
Associates in Arts or Associates in Science their rate of recidivism is reduced by 70%. Tax payers are adversely affected as their tax money goes into the prison system instead of other places of society. Educating inmates is also cost effective. When investing in education, it could drastically reduce incarceration costs. For a one dollar investment in educational programs, there would be a reduction of costs of incarceration by nearly five dollars. Education reduces recidivism rates which can reduce cost of incarceration as well as reduce the number of people who commit crime within the community.
1935:
they are released. These dehumanizing acts, combined with learned violent behavior, are implicated in higher recidivism rates. Two studies were done to attempt to provide a "national" recidivism rate for the US. One was done in 1983 which included 108,580 state prisoners from 11 different states. The other study was done in 1994 on 272,111 prisoners from 15 states. Both studies represent two-thirds of the overall prisoners released in their corresponding years. An image developed by Matt Kelley indicates the percent of parolees returning to prison in each state in 2006. According to this image, in 2006, there was more recidivism in the southern states, particularly in the
Midwestern region. However, for the majority, the data is spread out throughout the regions.
1596:, recidivism measures require three characteristics: 1. a starting event, such as a release from prison 2. a measure of failure following the starting event, such as a subsequent arrest, conviction, or return to prison 3. an observation or follow-up period that generally extends from the date of the starting event to a predefined end date as in 6 months, 1 year, 3 years, 5 years, or 9 years). The latest reported that 83% of state prisoners were arrested at some point in the 9 years following their release. A large majority of those were arrested within the first 3 years, and more than 50% get rearrested within the first year. However, the longer the time period, the higher the reported recidivism rate, but the lower the actual threat to public safety.
1900:" in which the defendant would complete his or her time at home instead of in jail. According to the study: "Results show that the majority of offenders do successfully complete the program, but that a majority are also re-arrested within 5 years of completion." In doing this, they added to the rate of recidivism. In doing a study on the results of this program, Stanz considered age, race, neighborhood, and several other aspects. Most of the defendants who fell under the recidivism category included those who were younger, those who were sentenced for multiple charges, those accruing fewer technical violations, males, and those of African-American descent. In contrast, a study published by the
2056:, lessors may not always apply their official policies in this regard. When they do, apartments may be rented by someone other than the occupant. People with criminal records report difficulty or inability to find educational opportunities, and are often denied financial aid based on their records. In the United States of America, those found guilty of even a minor misdemeanor (in some states, a citation offense, such as a traffic ticket) or
59:
1852:
help to tip the balance of economic choice toward not needing to engage in criminal activity. Employment as a turning point enhances attachment and commitment to mainstream individuals and pursuits. From that perspective, ex-inmates are constrained from criminal acts because they are more likely to weigh the risk of severing social ties prior to engaging in illegal behavior and opt to refuse to engage in criminal activity.
1217:
132:
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1763:, African Americans represent only about 13 percent of the United States population, yet account for approximately half the prison population as well as ex-offenders once released from prison. As compared to whites, African Americans are incarcerated 6.4 times higher for violent offenses, 4.4 times higher for property offenses and 9.4 times higher for drug offenses.
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1611:, almost 44 percent of the recently released return before the end of their first year out. About 68 percent of 405,000 prisoners released in 30 states in 2005 were arrested for a new crime within three years of their release from prison, and 77 percent were arrested within five years, and by year nine that number reaches 83 percent.
2119:
it only begins a few weeks or months before the release of an inmate. "This process is often referred to as release planning or transition planning and its parameters may be largely limited to helping a person identify a place to stay upon release and, possibly, a source of income." A judge in
Missouri, David Mason, believes the
1779:(i.e. communities where poverty and joblessness affect members of one ethnicity more so than others) has been shown to be correlated with higher rates of recidivism, possibly due to the ex-inmates being "isolated from employers, health care services, and other institutions that can facilitate a law-abiding reentry into society".
2004:
followed 16,486 prisoners for a three-year period to see how many of them would end up going back to jail. Results from the study found that about 63% of offenders were rearrested for a new crime and sent to prison again within the first three years they were released. Of the 16,486 prisoners, about
1908:
Department of Public Safety and
Corrections to examine 2,810 juvenile offenders who were released in the 1999/2000 fiscal year. The study built a socio-demographic of the offenders who were returned to the correctional system within a year of release. There was no significant difference between black
1878:
There have been hundreds of studies on the relationship between correctional interventions and recidivism. These studies show that a reliance on only supervision and punitive sanctions can actually increase the likelihood of someone reoffending, while well-implemented prison and reentry programs can
1842:
For example, research shows that treatment effectiveness should include cognitive-behavioral and social learning techniques of modeling, role playing, reinforcement, extinction, resource provision, concrete verbal suggestions (symbolic modeling, giving reasons, prompting) and cognitive restructuring;
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users from the drug by administering small doses of methadone, thereby avoiding withdrawal symptoms. 589 inmates who took part in MMT programs between 22 November 2005 and 31 October 2006 were observed after their release. Among these former inmates, "there was no statistically significant effect of
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has been shown to reduce recidivism rates. When inmates use educational programs while within incarceration they are roughly 43% less likely to recidivate than those who received no education while incarcerated. Inmates, in regards to partaking in educational programs, can improve cognitive ability,
2118:
The current criminal-justice system focuses on the front end (arrest and incarceration), and largely ignores the tail-end (and preparation for the tail-end), which includes rehabilitation and re-entry into the community. In most correctional facilities, if planning for re-entry takes place at all,
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after release from prison tend to have lower rates of recidivism. In one study, it was found that even if marginal employment, especially for ex-inmates over the age of 26, is offered to ex-inmates, those ex-inmates are less likely to commit crime than their counterparts. Another study found that
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African
Americans comprise a majority of the prison reentry population, yet few studies have been aimed at studying recidivism among this population. Recidivism is highest amongst those under the age of 18 who are male and African American, and African Americans have significantly higher levels of
3233:
The
Community Corrections Partnership (CCP) Program focuses on the cultural regrounding of African American boys to improve their self-esteem and help them to develop a sense of community. This article presents results from a study of rearrests among juveniles who have completed the program and a
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Several theories suggest that access to low-skill employment among parolees is likely to have favorable outcomes, at least over the short term, by strengthening internal and external social controls that constrain behavior toward legal employment. Any legal employment upon release from prison may
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when trying to make decisions about releasing people on bail and sentencing, which are based on their history and other attributes. It analyzed recidivism risk scores calculated by one of the most commonly used tools, the
Northpointe COMPAS system, and looked at outcomes over two years, and found
2080:
The likelihood of recidivism for a previously convicted criminal can be predicted using structured professional judgement (SPJ) tools in an effort to reduce recidivism by measuring protective factors such as stable work, attitudes towards authority and living circumstances. Two tools used for SPJ
2017:
Department of
Corrections created a graph showing the general recidivism rate of all offenders released from prison from July 1993 until six and a half years later. This graph shows that recidivism is much more likely within the first six months after they are released. The longer the offenders
1934:
Male prisoners are exposed and subject to sexual and physical violence in prisons. When these events occur, the victim usually suffers emotionally and physically. Studies suggest that this leads the inmate to accept these types of behaviors and value their lives and the lives of others less when
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One of the main reasons why they find themselves back in jail is because it is difficult for the individual to fit back in with 'normal' life. They have to reestablish ties with their family, return to high-risk places and secure formal identification; they often have a poor work history and now
1887:
The
Minnesota Department of Corrections did a study on criminals who are in prison to see if rehabilitation during incarceration correlates with recidivism or saved the state money. They used the Minnesota's Challenge Incarceration Program (CIP) which consisted of three phases. The first was a
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Studies assessing the effectiveness of alcohol/drug treatment have shown that inmates who participate in residential treatment programs while incarcerated have 9 to 18 percent lower recidivism rates and 15 to 35 percent lower drug relapse rates than their counterparts who receive no treatment in
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Psychopaths may have a markedly distorted sense of the potential consequences of their actions, not only for others, but also for themselves. They do not, for example, deeply recognize the risk of being caught, disbelieved or injured as a result of their behaviour. However, numerous studies and
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were involved in a study pertaining to education and recidivism. The study found that when the participant group of released offenders took educational classes while within the confines of prison, they had lower rates of recidivism as well as higher rates of employment. Moreover, the higher the
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is significant, however, chances of recidivism are low for those who avoid contact with the law for at least three years after release. The communities ex-inmates are released into play a part in their likelihood to re-offend; release of
African American ex-inmates into communities with higher
1557:
Norway has one of the lowest reimprisonment rates within 2 years in the world at 20% in 2010, 24% in 2014, 23% in 2015, 22% in 2016, 19% in 2017, and 18% in 2018. In Norway the recidivism rate measured by re-charging in the 5-year period from base year 2017 is for any charged offense 38.7%, for
1838:
A cultural re-grounding of African Americans is important to improve self-esteem and help develop a sense of community. Culturally specific programs and services that focus on characteristics that include the target population values, beliefs, and styles of problem solving may be beneficial in
1684:
Persons who are incarcerated or otherwise have compulsory involvement with the criminal justice system show rates of substance abuse and dependence four times higher than those of the general population, yet fewer than 20 percent of federal and state prisoners who meet the pertinent diagnostic
1800:
makes ex-inmates qualify for low-skill, low-wage employment. In addition to lack of education, many inmates report a difficulty in finding employment prior to incarceration. If an ex-inmate served a long prison sentence, they have lost an opportunity to gain work experience or network with
1804:
For African American ex-inmates, their race is an added barrier to obtaining employment after release. According to one study, African Americans are more likely to re-offend because employment opportunities are not as available in the communities they return to in relation to whites.
1651:, within three years almost 7 out of 10 released males will be rearrested and half will be back in prison. The study says this happens due to personal and situation characteristics, including the individual's social environment of peers, family, community, and state-level policies.
2097:
Countless policies aim to ameliorate recidivism, but many involve a complete overhaul of societal values concerning justice, punishment, and second chances. Other proposals have little impact due to cost and resource issues and other constraints. Plausible approaches include:
1706:
Released prisoners with the highest rearrest rates were robbers (70.2%), burglars (74.0%), larcenists (74.6%), motor vehicle thieves (78.8%), those in prison for possessing or selling stolen property (77.4%) and those in prison for possessing, using or selling illegal weapons
2030:
and are reluctantly absorbed into communities – which further increases their alienation and isolation. Other contributors to recidivism include the difficulties released offenders face in finding jobs, in renting apartments or in getting education. Owners of
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increasing the presence and quality of pre-release services (within incarceration facilities) that address factors associated with (for example) drug-related criminality—addiction treatment and mental-health counseling and education programs/vocational
4238:
Edens, John F.; Boccaccini, Marcus T.; Johnson, Darryl W. (January 2010). "Inter-rater reliability of the PCL-R total and factor scores among psychopathic sex offenders: are personality features more prone to disagreement than behavioral features?".
1843:
the effectiveness of the intervention incorporates a relapse prevention element. Relapse prevention is a cognitive-behavioral approach to self-management that focuses on teaching alternate responses to high-risk situations. Research also shows that
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with its criminological connotation than articles in the rest of medicine, which avoided the term. Carmel suggested that "as a means of decreasing stigmatization of psychiatric patients, we should avoid the word 'recidivism' when what we mean is
2688:
2144:
is often used in the psychiatric and mental health literature to mean "rehospitalization", which is problematic because the concept of recidivism generally refers to criminal reoffense. Carmel reviewed the medical literature for articles with
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African Americans are disproportionately represented in the American prison system, representing approximately half the prison population. Of this population, many enter into the prison system with less than a high school diploma. The lack of
2731:
1909:
offenders and white offenders. The study concluded that race does not play an important role in juvenile recidivism. The findings ran counter to conventional beliefs on the subject, which may not have controlled for other variables.
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will often refuse to hire a convicted felon and are at best hesitant, especially when filling any position that entails even minor responsibility or the handling of money (this includes most work), especially to those convicted of
1710:
Within 3 years, 2.5% of released rapists were arrested for another rape, and 1.2% of those who had served time for homicide were arrested for another homicide. These are the lowest rates of re-arrest for the same category of
1991:
from the years of 2002 to 2009 by 5.2%. However, California still has one of the highest recidivism rates in the nation. This high recidivism rate contributes greatly to the overcrowding of jails and prisons in California.
1847:
approaches to rehabilitation and reentry coupled with the therapeutic benefits of working with plants, say through urban agriculture, lead to psychosocial healing and reintegration into one's former community.
2123:
program is a successful tool for rehabilitation. Mason and four other Missouri state and federal judges have sentenced offenders to learn the Transcendental Meditation program as an anti-recidivism modality.
1662:
have a criminal record to deal with. Many prisoners report being anxious about their release; they are excited about how their life will be different "this time" which does not always end up being the case.
4164:
Singh, Jay P.; Grann, Martin; Fazel, Seena (April 2011). "A comparative study of violence risk assessment tools: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 68 studies involving 25,980 participants".
2355:
Statistics Norway, access date 24 June 2024, Table 17 Persons charged in base year, by group of principal offence at recidivism and group of principal offence in base year. Absolute figures and per cent
2162:". A 2016 followup by Peirson argued that "public policy makers and leaders should be careful to not misuse the word and unwittingly stigmatize persons with mental illness and substance use disorders".
2048:. Many leasing corporations (those organisations and people who own and rent apartments) as of 2017 routinely perform criminal background checks and disqualify ex-convicts. However, especially in the
1748:
that only 61% of those deemed high risk actually committed additional crimes during that period and that African-American defendants were far more likely to be given high scores than white defendants.
2026:
A 2011 study found that harsh prison conditions, including isolation, tended to increase recidivism, though none of these effects were statistically significant. Various researchers have noted that
3137:
2684:
1879:
substantially reduce recidivism. Counties, states, and the federal government will often commission studies on trends in recidivism, in addition to research on the impacts of their programming.
1740:
There are organizations that help with the re-integration of ex-detainees into society by helping them obtain work, teaching them various societal skills, and by providing all-around support.
3957:
de Vries Robbé, Michiel; de Vogel, Vivienne; de Spa, Eva (July 2011). "Protective Factors for Violence Risk in Forensic Psychiatric Patients: A Retrospective Validation Study of the SAPROF".
4066:
3397:
2723:
2174:
literature has provided various justifications for the fact that the sanction imposed on an offender depends on whether he was convicted previously. In particular, some authors such as
3732:
3207:
Wooldredge, John; Hartman, Jennifer; Latessa, Edward; Holmes, Stephen (October 1994). "Effectiveness of Culturally Specific Community Treatment for African American Juvenile Felons".
1751:
The TRACER Act is intended to monitor released terrorists to prevent recidivism. Nevertheless, rates of re-offending for political crimes are much less than for non-political crimes.
1558:
property theft 49.6%, for criminal damage 45.2%, for violence and maltreatment 46.8%, for sexual offenses 31.7%, for drug and alcohol offenses 48.1%, and for traffic offenses 27.8%.
1433:
1678:
2344:
Correctional Statistics of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden 2016 – 2020, Ragnar Kristoffersen, University College of Norwegian Correctional Service, Lillestrøm, 2022
1714:
The 272,111 offenders discharged in 1994 had accumulated 4.1 million arrest charges before their most recent imprisonment and another 744,000 charges within 3 years of release.
1301:
3704:
851:
2900:
Tripoli, Stephen J.; Kim, Johnny S.; Bender, Kimberly (2010). "Is employment associated with reduced recidivism?: The complex relationship between employment and crime".
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comparison group of youths who underwent probation. The findings revealed that CCP did no better than regular probation for preventing recidivism among these juveniles.
69:
3411:
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1701:
tracked the re-arrest, re-conviction, and re-incarceration of former inmates for 3 years after their release from prisons in 15 states in 1994. Key findings include:
2852:
3482:
Duwe, Grant; Kerschner, Deborah (October 2008). "Removing a Nail From the Boot Camp Coffin: An Outcome Evaluation of Minnesota's Challenge Incarceration Program".
2408:
1633:
among formerly incarcerated persons. This is a significant issue because ninety-five percent of prisoners will be released back into the community at some point.
3170:
3932:
Webster, C. D.; Douglas, K. S.; Eaves, D.; Hart, S. D. (1997). "Assessing risk of violence to others". In Webster, Christopher D.; Jackson, Margaret A. (eds.).
3578:
McMillan, Garnett P.; Lapham, Sandra; Lackey, Michael (December 2008). "The effect of a jail methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) program on inmate recidivism".
3903:
1516:"I fall") is the act of a person repeating an undesirable behavior after they have experienced negative consequences of that behavior, or have been trained to
1951:, in New York, is making efforts to reduce this statistic by teaching horticulture to its inmates. It is shown that the inmates that go through this type of
1801:
potential job employers. Because of this, employers and agencies that assist with employment believe that ex-inmates cannot obtain or maintain employment.
4621:
2109:
increasing the presence and quality of community-based organizations that provide post-release/reentry services (in the same areas mentioned in approach 2)
1674:
3134:
2944:
3753:
1426:
4129:
Yang, Min; Wong, Stephen C. P.; Coid, Jeremy (2010). "The efficacy of violence prediction: A meta-analytic comparison of nine risk assessment tools".
2354:
1294:
468:
4062:
3009:
Uggen, Christopher (August 2000). "Work As A Turning Point In The Life Course of Criminals: A Duration Model Of Age, Employment, And Recidivism".
2027:
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reducing recidivism among African American inmates; programs involving social skills training and social problem solving could also be effective.
3389:
3044:
Makarios, M.; B. Steiner and L.F. Travis III (2010). "Examining the Predictors of Recidivism among Men and Women Released from Prison in Ohio".
1727:
violent offense are less likely to be re-arrested in the years after release than those convicted of property, drug, or public order offenses."
1776:
1113:
1107:
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The ability of former criminals to achieve social mobility appears to narrow as criminal records become electronically stored and accessible.
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4536:
3941:
3729:
3674:
2280:
1744:
1419:
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Reisig, Michael D.; Bales, William D.; Hay, Carter; Wang, Xia (September 2007). "The Effect of Racial Inequality on Black Male Recidivism".
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2436:
2319:
201:
2633:
1863:, reforms to reduce recidivism rates among low-income minority communities were announced with major support across political ideologies.
3455:
Lipsey, Mark W.; Cullen, Francis T. (December 2007). "The Effectiveness of Correctional Rehabilitation: A Review of Systematic Reviews".
3986:"The Structured Assessment of Protective Factors for violence risk (SAPROF): A meta-analysis of its predictive and incremental validity"
2120:
1743:
In an effort to be more fair and to avoid adding to already high imprisonment rates in the US, courts across America have started using
1698:
1287:
3831:
3330:
Kowalski, Brian R; Bellair, Paul E (May 2011). "Low-Skill Employment Opportunity and African American-White Difference in Recidivism".
3135:"Justice and Education Departments Announce New Research Showing Prison Education Reduces Recidivism, Saves Money, Improves Employment"
3094:
Bellair, P. E.; Kowalski, B. R. (4 May 2011). "Low-Skill Employment Opportunity and African American-White Difference in Recidivism".
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prison. Inmates who receive aftercare (treatment continuation upon release) demonstrate an even greater reduction in recidivism rate.
1641:
1583:
818:
672:
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837:
103:
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A study was done by Robert Stanz in Jefferson County, Kentucky, which discussed an alternative to jail time. The alternative was "
3694:
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1760:
1615:
38:
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cast serious doubt on claims made about the ability of psychopathy ratings to predict who will offend or respond to treatment.
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ex-inmates were less likely to re-offend if they found and maintained stable employment throughout their first year of parole.
715:
412:
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increased dramatically, filling prisons to capacity in bad conditions for inmates. Crime continues inside many prison walls.
3617:
2457:
Visher, Christy A.; Travis, Jeremy (August 2003). "Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding Individual Pathways".
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652:
632:
206:
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Dowden, Craig; Antonowicz, Daniel; Andrews, D.A. (October 2003). "The effectiveness of relapse prevention with offenders".
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analyzed the recidivism rates associated with various initial offenses and found that statistically, "people convicted of
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808:
662:
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Sbicca, Joshua (2016). "These Bars Can't Hold Us Back: Plowing Incarcerated Geographies with Restorative Food Justice".
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It is estimated that three quarters of those returning to prison have a history of substance abuse. Over 70 percent of
1658:, events during their incarceration, and the period after they are released from prison, both immediate and long term.
3984:
Burghart, Matthias; de Ruiter, Corine; Hynes, Sophia E.; Krishnan, Nishant; Levtova, Yara; Uyar, Abdo (January 2023).
3167:
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1236:
720:
1520:
it. Recidivism is also used to refer to the percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested for a similar offense.
85:
3890:
2845:"Machine Bias: There's Software Used Across the Country to Predict Future Criminals. And it's Biased Against Blacks"
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use the term recidivism to refer to the behaviour of states who repeatedly engage in IMF economic programs such as
1964:
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1186:
627:
352:
303:
216:
186:
2072:) while receiving Federal student aid are disqualified from receiving further aid for a specified period of time.
2866:
Hodwitz, Omi (2019). "The Terrorism Recidivism Study (TRS): Examining Recidivism Rates for Post-9/11 Offenders".
2538:
Henrichson, Christian; Delaney, Ruth (October 2012). "The Price of Prisons: What Incarceration Costs Taxpayers".
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912:
770:
176:
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Mitchell Polinsky, A.; Rubinfeld, Daniel L. (December 1991). "A model of optimal fines for repeat offenders".
2343:
1644:, found that the average per-inmate cost of incarceration among the 40 states surveyed was $ 31,286 per year.
3853:
Drago, Francesco; Galbiati, Roberto; Vertova, Pietro (1 February 2011) . "Prison Conditions and Recidivism".
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1737:, known colloquially as "previous" or "form" in the UK and "priors" in the United States and Australia.
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has praised these efforts who noted the unity will lead to an improved situation of the prison system.
3618:"The Causes of Recidivism in the Criminal Justice System and Why It Is Worth the Cost to Address Them"
2153:) in the title and found that articles in the psychiatric literature were more likely to use the term
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While the US justice system has traditionally focused its efforts at the front end of the system, by
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allowing current trends to continue without additional intervention (maintaining the status-quo)
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Stanz, Robert (2000). "Predictors of Success and Recidivism in a Home Incarceration Program".
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2379:. U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics. May 2018
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This article is about recidivism in criminology and penology. For recidivism in medicine, see
4368:
Walters, Glenn D. (April 2004). "The Trouble with Psychopathy as a General Theory of Crime".
1677:
also have a substance use disorder. Nevertheless, only 7 to 17 percent of prisoners who meet
4681:
4673:
4565:
4509:
4482:
4447:
4412:
4377:
4342:
4305:
4295:
4248:
4174:
4138:
4101:
3997:
3966:
3870:
3862:
3823:
3739:, "California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation Office of Research", January 2014
3587:
3521:
3491:
3464:
3339:
3293:
3266:
3216:
3103:
3053:
3018:
2980:
2909:
2607:
2547:
2466:
2220:
2215:
2175:
1734:
1452:
1265:
1118:
972:
907:
443:
389:
4554:"Overdeterrence of repeat offenders when penalties for first-time offenders are restricted"
2598:
Hammett, T.; Roberts, C.; Kennedy, S. (2001). "Health-Related Issues in Prisoner Reentry".
4615:
4048:
3808:
3736:
3193:
3174:
3141:
2708:
2580:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. NCJ 236096.
2499:
2061:
2045:
1654:
There are many other factors in recidivism, such as the individual's circumstances before
1552:
1528:
1342:
1181:
927:
780:
422:
362:
357:
342:
274:
269:
191:
171:
81:
4473:
Rubinstein, Ariel (January 1980). "On an anomaly of the deterrent effect of punishment".
3776:
2470:
2369:
4686:
4661:
4291:
3548:
3425:
3262:
3080:
2812:
2559:
2492:
2478:
44:"Reoffender" redirects here. For the Scottish alternative rock band song by Travis, see
4310:
4275:
3898:
3643:
1604:
on the States, 43.3% of prisoners released in 2004 were reincarcerated within 3 years.
1502:
1196:
982:
539:
166:
3081:
Can We Close the Revolving Door? Recidivism vs. Employment of Ex-Offenders in the U.S.
4716:
4513:
4486:
3699:
3591:
3533:
3351:
3228:
3115:
3065:
2992:
2668:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. 2010.
2395:
2240:
2235:
2134:
1948:
1944:
1655:
1396:
695:
527:
437:
335:
4276:"Authorship Bias in Violence Risk Assessment? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
3426:"Keeping it REAL: Why Congress Must Act to Restore Pell Grant Funding For Prisoners"
3313:
2929:
2786:
2634:"Treating Offenders with Drug Problems: Integrating Public Health and Public Safety"
2619:
1870:
There is greater indication that education in prison helps prevent reincarceration.
1670:
Of US federal inmates in 2010 about half (51%) were serving time for drug offenses.
4677:
2840:
2502:, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2002.
2057:
1971:
has the lowest rate of recidivism among offenders compared to all other US states.
1897:
1864:
1191:
1064:
897:
690:
264:
4570:
4553:
2724:"Post-Prison Treatment Reduces Recidivism Among Women With Substance Use Problems"
4416:
4333:
Crighton, David (May 2009). "Uses and abuses of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist".
4300:
3970:
3549:"A Refutation of Racial Differentials in the Juvenile Recidivism Rate Hypothesis"
3564:
3525:
3220:
2753:
2611:
2190:
2053:
2001:
1975:
has one of the lowest rates of recidivism among offenders at only 29.2 percent.
1967:
on recidivism rates across the United States showed that, at only 24.6 percent,
1361:
1216:
1123:
1022:
735:
522:
427:
374:
241:
196:
119:
45:
1787:
Most research regarding recidivism indicates that those ex-inmates that obtain
1622:
exist on the inside, often with tactical decisions made by imprisoned leaders.
131:
4451:
4440:
Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research
4403:
Carmel, Harold A. (November 2002). "'Rehospitalization' Versus 'Recidivism'".
4178:
4106:
4089:
2984:
2945:
Created Equal: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the US Criminal Justice System
2574:
2049:
1988:
1984:
1917:
A study was conducted regarding the recidivism rate of inmates receiving MMT (
1788:
1588:
1221:
967:
957:
902:
755:
750:
4707:
4381:
3495:
3343:
3297:
3107:
3057:
2952:
2913:
2551:
2813:"When the Past is a Prison: The Hardening Plight of the American Ex-Convict"
2639:. Bethesda, Maryland: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2009. Archived from
2250:
2065:
1918:
1905:
1822:
1817:
work skills as well as being able to further their education upon release.
1813:
1797:
1771:
1102:
962:
892:
394:
330:
4695:
4459:
4424:
4389:
4354:
4319:
4260:
4186:
4150:
4115:
4009:
3695:"Study suggests Nevada prisons do pretty good job of preventing recidivism"
3599:
3305:
2921:
2370:"2018 Update on Prisoner Recidivism: A 9-Year Follow-up Period (2005-2014)"
1926:
receiving methadone in the jail or dosage on subsequent recidivism risks".
4090:"Attention to the eyes and fear-recognition deficits in child psychopathy"
3866:
17:
4635:
4589:. Routledge global institutions (Reprinted ed.). London: Routledge.
4346:
3157:, "MTC Institute and The Correctional Education Institute", February 2003
2431:
2032:
1818:
1524:
534:
481:
123:
4028:
4027:. New York: The Council of State Governments. p. xi. Archived from
3390:"Obama, Koch Brothers in Unlikely Alliance to Overhaul Criminal Justice"
2879:
4662:"Criminal recidivism rates globally: A 6-year systematic review update"
4025:"Charting the Safe and Successful Return of Prisoners to the Community"
4001:
3875:
3270:
3030:
2754:"Bureau of Justice Statistics Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 1994"
2685:"Charting the Safe and Successful Return of Prisoners to the Community"
2198:
2041:
2014:
1968:
1532:
947:
595:
565:
4370:
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
4142:
4065:. Americans United for the Separation of Church and State. May 2006.
3640:"Bureau of Justice Statistics Reentry Trends in the U.S.: Recidivism"
3286:
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
2902:
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology
2202:
2082:
2069:
1972:
1922:
1138:
1097:
937:
512:
146:
4252:
3022:
1629:, it has not exerted an equal effort at the tail end of the system:
4221:"SVP risk tools show 'disappointing' reliability in real-world use"
3667:
Doing Time in the Garden: Life Lessons Through Prison Horticulture
3144:, "Department of Justice Office of Public Affairs", 22 August 2013
2194:
2037:
1619:
1587:
507:
288:
4614:
2687:. New York: The Council of State Governments. p. II-B-12–3.
2394:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
2181:
Also, economists and scholars who research issues related to the
4708:
Lowering Recidivism Through Life & Practical Skills Training
4660:
Yukhnenko, Denis; Farouki, Leen; Fazel, Seena (September 2023).
4587:
The international monetary fund: politics of conditional lending
3918:
2205:
each spent well over 12 years under consecutive IMF agreements.
1860:
1826:
932:
4274:
Singh, Jay P.; Grann, Martin; Fazel, Seena (2 September 2013).
3985:
2409:"State of Recidivism: The revolving door of America's prisons"
2182:
52:
4653:
2573:
Guerino, Paul; Harrison, Paige M.; Sabol, William J. (2011).
1485:
68:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
27:
Person repeating an undesirable behavior following punishment
4629:
2364:
2362:
4438:
Peirson, Ryan P. (July 2016). "Locking Away 'Recidivism'".
2843:; Surya Mattu; Jeff Larson; Lauren Kirchner (23 May 2016).
2018:
stayed out of prison, the less likely they were to return.
1987:
as of 2008–2009 is 61%. Recidivism has reduced slightly in
4063:"Missouri Sentences Convicts To Transcendental Meditation"
3724:
3722:
3244:
3242:
3728:
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation,
1681:
criteria for a substance use disorder receive treatment.
1479:
1473:
1467:
1458:
4202:"Violence risk meta-meta: Instrument choice does matter"
2513:
2085:
developed in the late 2010s. SPJ tools are also used in
1921:
Maintenance Therapy). This therapy is intended to wean
3611:
3609:
3155:"Education Reduces Crime, Three-State Recidivism Study"
1770:
The sheer number of ex-inmates exiting prison into the
77:
1535:", which is more commonly used in medicine and in the
37:"Repeat offender" redirects here. For other uses, see
3388:
Nelson, Colleen Mccain; Fields, Gary (16 July 2015).
1482:
1464:
3507:
3505:
1476:
1470:
1455:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
1647:According to a national study published in 2003 by
1461:
4552:Müller, Daniel; Schmitz, Patrick W. (April 2015).
3688:
3686:
3553:African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies
1902:African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies
3196:, "Center for Economic and Policy Research", 2010
2835:
2833:
3638:Bureau of Justice Statistics (25 October 2002).
2943:Hartney, Christopher; Vuong, Linh (March 2009).
1523:The term is frequently used in conjunction with
3959:International Journal of Forensic Mental Health
1733:An accused's history of convictions are called
3934:Impulsivity: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment
3822:Florida Department of Corrections (May 2001).
3775:Office of Policy Management (6 January 2009).
3129:
3127:
3125:
2785:Sawyer, Wendy; Wagner, Peter (19 March 2019).
2298:"Sentenced to Serving the Good Life in Norway"
1955:have significantly lower rates of recidivism.
2320:"Why Norway's prison system is so successful"
1427:
1295:
845:
66:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
3410:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3332:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
3096:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
1947:jail system is as high as 65%. The jail at
1314:
3325:
3323:
2666:"Addiction and the Criminal Justice System"
2005:56% of them were convicted of a new crime.
1834:Reducing recidivism among African Americans
1675:mentally ill prisoners in the United States
3187:"The High Budgetary Cost of Incarceration"
2895:
2893:
2891:
2889:
1434:
1420:
1313:
1302:
1288:
863:
852:
838:
486:
115:
4685:
4569:
4309:
4299:
4105:
3874:
3469:10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.3.081806.112833
2966:
2964:
2962:
2273:Social Problems: A Down-to-earth Approach
1600:According to an April 2011 report by the
104:Learn how and when to remove this message
4703:Life After Prison: Overcoming Recidivism
3153:Steurer, Stephen J. and Linda G. Smith,
3004:
3002:
2787:"Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2019"
2318:Sterbenz, Christina (11 December 2014).
1855:In 2015, a bipartisan effort, headed by
1631:decreasing the likelihood of reoffending
4529:Foundations of Economic Analysis of Law
4023:Reentry Policy Council (January 2005).
3457:Annual Review of Law and Social Science
2683:Reentry Policy Council (January 2005).
2263:
1352:
1321:
1205:
1172:
1088:
981:
946:
878:
866:
564:
118:
4044:
4034:
3804:
3794:
3756:from the original on 11 September 2009
3430:University of Massachusetts Law Review
3403:
3400:from the original on 16 February 2017.
3377:from the original on 21 February 2016.
2855:from the original on 17 November 2017.
2704:
2694:
2028:prisoners are stripped of civil rights
1331:Italian school of positive criminology
4625:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911.
4088:Dadds; et al. (September 2006).
3707:from the original on 14 November 2009
3642:. US Dept. of Justice. Archived from
3367:"Koch Bros to Bankroll Prison Reform"
2730:. National Institute of Corrections.
2691:from the original on 20 October 2014.
2427:"Once a criminal, always a criminal?"
2140:In 2002, Carmel stated that the term
1745:quantitative risk assessment software
1592:According to the latest study by the
7:
4069:from the original on 12 October 2013
3936:. Guilford Press. pp. 251–277.
3909:from the original on 23 January 2017
2766:from the original on 24 January 2012
2493:"Reentry Trends in the United States
2471:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.095931
2313:
2311:
4641:United States Recidivism Statistics
3752:. Office of Governor (California).
3079:Freeman, Richard B. (19 May 2003).
2296:Adams, William Lee (12 July 2010).
1913:Methadone maintenance therapy (MMT)
1699:United States Department of Justice
3834:from the original on 15 March 2010
3166:Nevada Department of Corrections,
2672:from the original on 8 March 2012.
2439:from the original on 16 July 2015.
1767:recidivism as compared to whites.
1642:decarceration in the United States
1584:Incarceration in the United States
1574:prisoners rather than punishment.
25:
4241:Behavioral Sciences & the Law
4094:The British Journal of Psychiatry
3855:American Law and Economics Review
3783:from the original on 16 June 2010
3547:Mbuba, Jospeter (November 2005).
2587:from the original on 8 June 2015.
2081:include the HCR-20 and the newer
1939:Rikers Island, New York, New York
1564:Norwegian criminal justice system
4585:Vreeland, James Raymond (2009).
4200:Franklin, Karen (19 June 2011).
3592:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02361.x
2734:from the original on 28 May 2014
2389:
2246:Serial offender hunting patterns
1761:United States incarceration rate
1755:African Americans and recidivism
1451:
1215:
207:Risk & actuarial criminology
130:
57:
4636:Recidivism in Finland 1993–2001
4219:Franklin, Karen (29 May 2012).
3616:Bailey, Kristen (Winter 2006).
3168:"Education Services Newsletter"
2728:Corrections & Mental Health
2491:Hughes, T. & D .J. Wilson.
1531:. Recidivism is a synonym for "
874:Criminal trials and convictions
4678:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2023.102115
4405:American Journal of Psychiatry
2759:. Ojp.usdoj.gov. 2 June 2002.
2093:Policies addressing recidivism
1636:A cost study performed by the
1164:Sexually violent predator laws
1:
4571:10.1016/j.econlet.2015.02.010
3046:Criminal Justice and Behavior
2113:Prison contemplative programs
1609:National Institute of Justice
4649:Bureau of Justice Statistics
4531:. Harvard University Press.
4514:10.1016/0047-2727(91)90009-Q
4487:10.1016/0165-1765(80)90062-2
4417:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.11.1949
4335:Evidence Based Mental Health
4301:10.1371/journal.pone.0072484
3971:10.1080/14999013.2011.600232
3365:Mak, Tim (13 January 2015).
3011:American Sociological Review
1685:criteria receive treatment.
1640:, a non-profit committed to
1614:Beginning in the 1990s, the
1057:Cruel and unusual punishment
4666:Journal of Criminal Justice
4502:Journal of Public Economics
3526:10.1177/0032885500080003006
3221:10.1177/0011128794040004007
2612:10.1177/0011128701047003006
2540:Federal Sentencing Reporter
1943:The recidivism rate in the
1904:in 2005 used data from the
80:, discuss the issue on the
4749:
4630:Higher Education in Prison
4167:Clinical Psychology Review
2811:Roots, Roger (Fall 2004),
2459:Annual Review of Sociology
2271:Henslin, James M. (2008).
1965:University of Nevada, Reno
1581:
1546:
1537:disease model of addiction
1259: English/Welsh courts
187:Expressive function of law
43:
36:
29:
4656:Curated articles and data
4452:10.1007/s10488-015-0646-9
4179:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.009
4107:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.018150
3730:"2013 Outcome Evaluation"
2985:10.1080/07418820701485387
2868:Perspectives on Terrorism
2413:The Pew Charitable Trusts
2231:Incapacitation (penology)
2121:Transcendental Meditation
1930:United States, nationwide
1783:Employment and recidivism
1638:Vera Institute of Justice
1407:Therapeutic jurisprudence
1382:Rehabilitation (penology)
4527:Shavell, Steven (2009).
4382:10.1177/0306624X03259472
3990:Psychological Assessment
3824:"Recidivism Rate Curves"
3779:. State of Connecticut.
3496:10.1177/0011128707301628
3344:10.1177/0022427810391536
3298:10.1177/0306624x03253018
3108:10.1177/0022427810391536
3058:10.1177/0093854810382876
2914:10.1177/0306624X09342980
2560:10.1525/fsr.2012.25.1.68
2552:10.1525/fsr.2012.25.1.68
2512:Hyperakt (2 June 2020).
2498:14 December 2011 at the
1809:Education and recidivism
1721:Prison Policy Initiative
1616:US rate of incarceration
1594:US Department of Justice
913:Presumption of innocence
177:Differential association
4622:Encyclopædia Britannica
3750:"Strategic Growth Plan"
3484:Crime & Delinquency
3209:Crime & Delinquency
3192:1 December 2017 at the
3173:1 December 2017 at the
3140:1 February 2018 at the
3133:Department of Justice,
2600:Crime & Delinquency
1983:The recidivism rate in
1857:Koch family foundations
1549:Incarceration in Norway
1367:Peacemaking criminology
1075:Indefinite imprisonment
237:Symbolic interactionism
4131:Psychological Bulletin
3735:22 August 2017 at the
2820:Justice Policy Journal
2722:Whitten, Lori (2012).
2052:or in areas with high
1717:
1597:
1134:Miscarriage of justice
217:Social disorganization
3669:. New Village Press.
3665:Jiler, James (2006).
3625:Nashville Bar Journal
3177:, "NDOC", Winter 2009
2000:A study conducted in
1703:
1591:
1547:Further information:
1387:Reintegrative shaming
1159:Sex offender registry
879:Rights of the accused
726:Biosocial criminology
433:Uniform Crime Reports
152:Biosocial criminology
32:Recidivism (medicine)
4347:10.1136/ebmh.12.2.33
3830:. State of Florida.
2791:www.prisonpolicy.org
1316:Positive criminology
1245:English/Welsh courts
1173:Related areas of law
601:Solitary confinement
86:create a new article
78:improve this article
4646:Prisoner Recidivism
4292:2013PLoSO...872484S
3867:10.1093/aler/ahq024
3394:Wall Street Journal
3263:2016Antip..48.1359S
2575:"Prisoners in 2010"
2275:. Pearson A and B.
2133:recent large-scale
2087:forensic psychiatry
2060:drug offence (e.g.
1845:restorative justice
1759:With regard to the
1649:The Urban Institute
1568:restorative justice
1392:Restorative justice
1372:Positive psychology
1318:
1154:Restorative justice
791:Radical criminology
162:Collective efficacy
4616:"Recidivism"
4047:has generic name (
4002:10.1037/pas0001184
3807:has generic name (
3777:"Recidivism Study"
3271:10.1111/anti.12247
2707:has generic name (
2158:'rehospitalization
1959:Arizona and Nevada
1898:home incarceration
1666:Drug-related crime
1598:
1508:"recurring", from
1402:Social integration
1044:Capital punishment
1036:Dangerous offender
923:Self-incrimination
868:Criminal procedure
4596:978-0-415-37463-7
4558:Economics Letters
4538:978-0-674-04349-7
4475:Economics Letters
3943:978-1-57230-225-9
3919:National Archives
3828:Recidivism Report
3676:978-0-9766054-2-3
3586:(12): 2017–2023.
3052:(12): 1377–1391.
2973:Justice Quarterly
2435:. 23 April 2014.
2282:978-0-205-53466-1
2226:Habitual offender
2172:law and economics
2166:Law and economics
2151:rehospitalization
1777:racial inequality
1627:locking people up
1607:According to the
1560:Prisons in Norway
1444:
1443:
1339:Raffaele Garofalo
1312:
1311:
1187:Criminal defenses
1129:Habitual offender
1080:Three-strikes law
1070:Life imprisonment
1049:Execution warrant
918:Exclusionary rule
862:
861:
608:
607:
545:Prisoners' rights
449:Positivist school
114:
113:
106:
88:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
4740:
4699:
4689:
4626:
4618:
4601:
4600:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4573:
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4543:
4542:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4497:
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4490:
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4463:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4400:
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4393:
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4359:
4358:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4313:
4303:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4235:
4229:
4228:
4216:
4210:
4209:
4197:
4191:
4190:
4161:
4155:
4154:
4143:10.1037/a0020473
4126:
4120:
4119:
4109:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4046:
4042:
4040:
4032:
4031:on 3 April 2012.
4020:
4014:
4013:
3981:
3975:
3974:
3954:
3948:
3947:
3929:
3923:
3922:
3916:
3914:
3908:
3895:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3850:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3819:
3813:
3812:
3806:
3802:
3800:
3792:
3790:
3788:
3772:
3766:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3746:
3740:
3726:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3690:
3681:
3680:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3646:on 26 April 2009
3635:
3629:
3628:
3622:
3613:
3604:
3603:
3575:
3569:
3568:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3509:
3500:
3499:
3479:
3473:
3472:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3409:
3401:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3327:
3318:
3317:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3246:
3237:
3236:
3203:
3197:
3184:
3178:
3164:
3158:
3151:
3145:
3131:
3120:
3119:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3076:
3070:
3069:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3006:
2997:
2996:
2968:
2957:
2956:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2897:
2884:
2883:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2837:
2828:
2827:
2817:
2808:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2765:
2758:
2750:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2706:
2702:
2700:
2692:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2646:on 21 April 2013
2645:
2638:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2579:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2514:"Vera Institute"
2509:
2503:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2454:
2441:
2440:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2415:. 12 April 2011.
2405:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2374:
2366:
2357:
2352:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2330:
2324:Business Insider
2315:
2306:
2305:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2268:
2221:Crime statistics
2161:
2149:(vs. terms like
2128:Mental disorders
1693:Recidivism rates
1492:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1436:
1429:
1422:
1319:
1304:
1297:
1290:
1276:
1268:
1260:
1255:
1247:
1239:
1220:
1219:
1119:Criminal justice
973:Directed verdict
864:
854:
847:
840:
487:
444:Crime statistics
370:
134:
116:
109:
102:
98:
95:
89:
61:
60:
53:
21:
4748:
4747:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4713:
4712:
4659:
4613:
4610:
4605:
4604:
4597:
4584:
4583:
4579:
4551:
4550:
4546:
4539:
4526:
4525:
4521:
4499:
4498:
4494:
4472:
4471:
4467:
4437:
4436:
4432:
4402:
4401:
4397:
4367:
4366:
4362:
4332:
4331:
4327:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4253:10.1002/bsl.918
4237:
4236:
4232:
4218:
4217:
4213:
4199:
4198:
4194:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4087:
4086:
4082:
4072:
4070:
4061:
4060:
4056:
4043:
4033:
4022:
4021:
4017:
3983:
3982:
3978:
3956:
3955:
3951:
3944:
3931:
3930:
3926:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3893:
3889:
3888:
3884:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3837:
3835:
3821:
3820:
3816:
3803:
3793:
3786:
3784:
3774:
3773:
3769:
3759:
3757:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3737:Wayback Machine
3727:
3720:
3710:
3708:
3692:
3691:
3684:
3677:
3664:
3663:
3659:
3649:
3647:
3637:
3636:
3632:
3620:
3615:
3614:
3607:
3577:
3576:
3572:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3511:
3510:
3503:
3481:
3480:
3476:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3424:
3423:
3419:
3402:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3371:The Daily Beast
3364:
3363:
3359:
3329:
3328:
3321:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3248:
3247:
3240:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3194:Wayback Machine
3185:
3181:
3175:Wayback Machine
3165:
3161:
3152:
3148:
3142:Wayback Machine
3132:
3123:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3043:
3042:
3038:
3023:10.2307/2657381
3008:
3007:
3000:
2970:
2969:
2960:
2942:
2941:
2937:
2899:
2898:
2887:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2839:
2838:
2831:
2815:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2795:
2793:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2737:
2735:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2703:
2693:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2577:
2572:
2571:
2567:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2522:
2520:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2500:Wayback Machine
2490:
2486:
2456:
2455:
2444:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2390:
2382:
2380:
2372:
2368:
2367:
2360:
2353:
2349:
2342:
2338:
2328:
2326:
2317:
2316:
2309:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2211:
2189:. For example,
2168:
2159:
2130:
2095:
2078:
2024:
2011:
1998:
1981:
1963:A study by the
1961:
1941:
1932:
1915:
1894:
1885:
1876:
1865:President Obama
1836:
1811:
1785:
1757:
1695:
1668:
1586:
1580:
1555:
1553:Crime in Norway
1545:
1529:substance abuse
1454:
1450:
1440:
1411:
1348:
1343:Cesare Lombroso
1308:
1279:
1271:
1266:Canadian courts
1263:
1258:
1253:Scottish courts
1250:
1242:
1234:
1226:
1214:
1201:
1182:Civil procedure
1168:
1089:Post-sentencing
1084:
1053:
1027:
977:
942:
928:Double jeopardy
858:
829:
828:
804:
796:
795:
721:Anthropological
711:
703:
702:
618:
610:
609:
484:
474:
473:
423:Critical theory
408:
400:
399:
380:State-corporate
368:
291:
280:
279:
275:Archibald Reiss
270:Cesare Lombroso
255:
254:Major theorists
247:
246:
222:Social learning
202:Rational choice
192:Labeling theory
172:Criminalization
142:
110:
99:
93:
90:
75:
62:
58:
49:
42:
39:Repeat Offender
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4746:
4744:
4736:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4715:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4657:
4654:recidivism.com
4651:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4632:at Hudson link
4627:
4609:
4608:External links
4606:
4603:
4602:
4595:
4577:
4544:
4537:
4519:
4508:(3): 291–306.
4492:
4465:
4446:(4): 479–481.
4430:
4395:
4376:(2): 133–148.
4360:
4325:
4266:
4247:(1): 106–119.
4230:
4211:
4192:
4173:(3): 499–513.
4156:
4137:(5): 740–767.
4121:
4080:
4054:
4015:
3976:
3965:(3): 178–186.
3949:
3942:
3924:
3899:whitehouse.gov
3882:
3845:
3814:
3767:
3741:
3718:
3682:
3675:
3657:
3630:
3605:
3570:
3539:
3514:Prison Journal
3501:
3490:(4): 614–643.
3474:
3463:(1): 297–320.
3447:
3417:
3380:
3357:
3319:
3276:
3257:(5): 1359–79.
3238:
3198:
3179:
3159:
3146:
3121:
3102:(2): 176–208.
3086:
3071:
3036:
3017:(4): 529–546.
2998:
2958:
2935:
2885:
2858:
2829:
2803:
2777:
2745:
2714:
2675:
2657:
2625:
2606:(3): 390–409.
2590:
2565:
2530:
2504:
2484:
2442:
2418:
2400:
2358:
2347:
2336:
2307:
2288:
2281:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2167:
2164:
2129:
2126:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2094:
2091:
2077:
2074:
2023:
2020:
2010:
2007:
1997:
1994:
1980:
1977:
1960:
1957:
1953:rehabilitation
1940:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1914:
1911:
1893:
1890:
1884:
1881:
1875:
1872:
1835:
1832:
1810:
1807:
1784:
1781:
1756:
1753:
1716:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1694:
1691:
1667:
1664:
1579:
1576:
1572:rehabilitating
1544:
1541:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1438:
1431:
1424:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1327:
1324:
1323:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1306:
1299:
1292:
1284:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1269:
1261:
1256:
1248:
1240:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1222:Law portal
1211:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1149:Rehabilitation
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1105:
1100:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
989:
986:
985:
979:
978:
976:
975:
970:
965:
960:
954:
951:
950:
944:
943:
941:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
884:
881:
880:
876:
875:
871:
870:
860:
859:
857:
856:
849:
842:
834:
831:
830:
827:
826:
821:
816:
811:
805:
802:
801:
798:
797:
794:
793:
788:
783:
778:
776:Organizational
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
712:
709:
708:
705:
704:
701:
700:
699:
698:
693:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
619:
616:
615:
612:
611:
606:
605:
604:
603:
598:
593:
588:
586:Transformative
583:
578:
570:
569:
562:
561:
560:
559:
554:
552:Rehabilitation
549:
548:
547:
542:
540:Prisoner abuse
532:
531:
530:
525:
520:
510:
505:
503:Incapacitation
500:
495:
485:
480:
479:
476:
475:
472:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
409:
406:
405:
402:
401:
398:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
339:
338:
328:
327:
326:
321:
313:
312:
311:
306:
301:
292:
286:
285:
282:
281:
278:
277:
272:
267:
262:
260:Émile Durkheim
256:
253:
252:
249:
248:
245:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
212:Social control
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
167:Crime analysis
164:
159:
157:Broken windows
154:
149:
143:
140:
139:
136:
135:
127:
126:
112:
111:
72:of the subject
70:worldwide view
65:
63:
56:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4745:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4658:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4631:
4628:
4624:
4623:
4617:
4612:
4611:
4607:
4598:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4578:
4572:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4548:
4545:
4540:
4534:
4530:
4523:
4520:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4496:
4493:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4469:
4466:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4434:
4431:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4399:
4396:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4364:
4361:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4329:
4326:
4321:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4286:(9): e72484.
4285:
4281:
4277:
4270:
4267:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4234:
4231:
4226:
4222:
4215:
4212:
4207:
4203:
4196:
4193:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4160:
4157:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4125:
4122:
4117:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4100:(3): 280–81.
4099:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4081:
4068:
4064:
4058:
4055:
4050:
4045:|author=
4038:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4016:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3980:
3977:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3953:
3950:
3945:
3939:
3935:
3928:
3925:
3920:
3905:
3901:
3900:
3892:
3891:"FAFSA Facts"
3886:
3883:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3861:(1): 103–30.
3860:
3856:
3849:
3846:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3818:
3815:
3810:
3805:|author=
3798:
3782:
3778:
3771:
3768:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3731:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3706:
3702:
3701:
3700:Las Vegas Sun
3696:
3689:
3687:
3683:
3678:
3672:
3668:
3661:
3658:
3645:
3641:
3634:
3631:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3571:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3543:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3520:(3): 326–45.
3519:
3515:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3478:
3475:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3451:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3418:
3413:
3407:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3384:
3381:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3361:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3292:(5): 516–28.
3291:
3287:
3280:
3277:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3215:(4): 589–98.
3214:
3210:
3202:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3188:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3087:
3082:
3075:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2979:(3): 408–34.
2978:
2974:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2939:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2908:(5): 706–20.
2907:
2903:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2862:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2821:
2814:
2807:
2804:
2792:
2788:
2781:
2778:
2762:
2755:
2749:
2746:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2715:
2710:
2705:|author=
2698:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2642:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2583:
2576:
2569:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2531:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2465:(1): 89–113.
2464:
2460:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2410:
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2396:public domain
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2241:Serial killer
2239:
2237:
2236:Incarceration
2234:
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2224:
2222:
2219:
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2216:Bastøy Prison
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2135:meta-analysis
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2019:
2016:
2013:In 2001, the
2008:
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2003:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1978:
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1970:
1966:
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1956:
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1949:Rikers Island
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1945:New York City
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1656:incarceration
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819:Organizations
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766:Environmental
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683:Postmodernist
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576:Participatory
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438:Crime mapping
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94:December 2019
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33:
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4547:
4528:
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4505:
4501:
4495:
4481:(1): 89–94.
4478:
4474:
4468:
4443:
4439:
4433:
4411:(11): 1949.
4408:
4404:
4398:
4373:
4369:
4363:
4341:(2): 33–36.
4338:
4334:
4328:
4283:
4279:
4269:
4244:
4240:
4233:
4224:
4214:
4205:
4195:
4170:
4166:
4159:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4097:
4093:
4083:
4071:. Retrieved
4057:
4029:the original
4018:
3996:(1): 56–67.
3993:
3989:
3979:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3933:
3927:
3917:– via
3911:. Retrieved
3897:
3885:
3858:
3854:
3848:
3838:14 September
3836:. Retrieved
3827:
3817:
3787:14 September
3785:. Retrieved
3770:
3760:14 September
3758:. Retrieved
3744:
3711:14 September
3709:. Retrieved
3698:
3666:
3660:
3648:. Retrieved
3644:the original
3633:
3624:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3556:
3552:
3542:
3517:
3513:
3487:
3483:
3477:
3460:
3456:
3450:
3433:
3429:
3420:
3393:
3383:
3370:
3360:
3335:
3331:
3289:
3285:
3279:
3254:
3250:
3232:
3212:
3208:
3201:
3182:
3162:
3149:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3074:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3014:
3010:
2976:
2972:
2938:
2905:
2901:
2874:(2): 54–64.
2871:
2867:
2861:
2848:
2841:Julia Angwin
2823:
2819:
2806:
2794:. Retrieved
2790:
2780:
2770:14 September
2768:. Retrieved
2748:
2736:. Retrieved
2727:
2717:
2678:
2660:
2648:. Retrieved
2641:the original
2628:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2568:
2546:(1): 68–80.
2543:
2539:
2533:
2521:. Retrieved
2517:
2507:
2487:
2462:
2458:
2430:
2421:
2412:
2403:
2381:. Retrieved
2376:
2350:
2339:
2327:. Retrieved
2323:
2301:
2291:
2272:
2266:
2180:
2169:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2139:
2131:
2117:
2096:
2079:
2058:misdemeanour
2046:drug addicts
2025:
2012:
1999:
1982:
1962:
1942:
1933:
1916:
1901:
1895:
1886:
1877:
1869:
1854:
1850:
1841:
1837:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1786:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1742:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1696:
1687:
1683:
1672:
1669:
1660:
1653:
1646:
1635:
1624:
1613:
1606:
1599:
1556:
1522:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1494:
1446:
1445:
1376:
1335:Enrico Ferri
1192:Criminal law
1143:
1114:Life licence
1065:Imprisonment
898:Speedy trial
771:Experimental
556:
493:Denunciation
459:Quantitative
369:Public-order
324:White-collar
265:Hans Eysenck
100:
91:
67:
50:
4728:Psychopathy
4723:Criminology
4564:: 116–120.
4225:IN THE NEWS
4206:IN THE NEWS
3876:10419/34825
3436:(1). 2016.
2383:18 November
2191:South Korea
2054:crime rates
2002:Connecticut
1996:Connecticut
1735:antecedents
1512:"back" and
1362:Open prison
1124:Exoneration
761:Development
736:Criminology
658:Integrative
596:Utilitarian
591:Retributive
581:Restorative
568:in penology
454:Qualitative
428:Ethnography
413:Comparative
319:Blue-collar
242:Victimology
197:Psychopathy
120:Criminology
46:Re-Offender
4717:Categories
4672:: 102115.
3693:Ryan, Cy.
3338:(2): 183.
2947:(Report).
2849:ProPublica
2479:A108278710
2258:References
2176:Rubinstein
2155:recidivism
2147:recidivism
2142:recidivism
2076:Prediction
2062:possession
2050:inner city
2040:, such as
2033:businesses
1989:California
1985:California
1979:California
1789:employment
1775:levels of
1602:Pew Center
1582:See also:
1518:extinguish
1447:Recidivism
1377:Recidivism
1144:Recidivism
1018:Guidelines
983:Sentencing
968:Not proven
958:Conviction
903:Jury trial
888:Fair trial
756:Demography
678:Positivist
557:Recidivism
498:Deterrence
390:Victimless
232:Subculture
18:Recidivist
3580:Addiction
3565:200336309
3534:145251818
3352:145407579
3229:146477078
3205:Compare:
3116:145407579
3083:(Report).
3066:145456810
2993:144968287
2953:419266058
2251:Addiction
2066:marijuana
1919:Methadone
1906:Louisiana
1883:Minnesota
1823:Minnesota
1814:Education
1798:education
1772:community
1566:focus on
1506:recidivus
1274:UK courts
1237:US courts
1103:Probation
1013:Discharge
1003:Custodial
998:Suspended
993:Mandatory
963:Acquittal
893:Pre-trial
781:Political
710:Subfields
633:Classical
623:Anarchist
518:abolition
418:Profiling
363:Political
358:Organized
343:Corporate
331:Cold case
287:Types of
82:talk page
4733:Penology
4696:38486817
4687:10933794
4460:25808445
4425:12411241
4390:15070462
4355:19395597
4320:24023744
4280:PLOS ONE
4261:20101592
4187:21255891
4151:20804235
4116:16946366
4067:Archived
4037:cite web
4010:36227302
3904:Archived
3832:Archived
3797:cite web
3781:Archived
3754:Archived
3733:Archived
3705:Archived
3600:19469745
3561:ProQuest
3406:cite web
3398:Archived
3375:Archived
3314:26561127
3306:14526593
3251:Antipode
3190:Archived
3171:Archived
3138:Archived
2930:41445079
2922:19638472
2880:26626865
2853:Archived
2796:29 March
2761:Archived
2732:Archived
2697:cite web
2689:Archived
2670:Archived
2620:74397616
2582:Archived
2496:Archived
2437:Archived
2432:CBS News
2209:See also
2106:training
2044:, or to
2038:thievery
1892:Kentucky
1859:and the
1819:Maryland
1707:(70.2%).
1562:and the
1525:criminal
1495:recidive
1197:Evidence
1031:Totality
1008:Periodic
814:Journals
741:Critical
731:Conflict
716:American
687:Realism
653:Feminist
643:Critical
638:Conflict
535:Prisoner
482:Penology
348:Juvenile
299:Humanity
295:Against
182:Deviance
124:penology
76:You may
4311:3759386
4288:Bibcode
3913:24 June
3442:2711979
3259:Bibcode
3031:2657381
2377:bjs.gov
2329:17 June
2199:Liberia
2042:larceny
2015:Florida
2009:Florida
1969:Arizona
1874:Studies
1533:relapse
1501:, from
1493:; from
1206:Portals
948:Verdict
908:Counsel
746:Culture
668:Marxist
663:Italian
628:Chicago
617:Schools
566:Justice
407:Methods
336:Perfect
4694:
4684:
4593:
4535:
4458:
4423:
4388:
4353:
4318:
4308:
4259:
4185:
4149:
4114:
4073:26 May
4008:
3940:
3673:
3650:26 May
3598:
3563:
3532:
3440:
3350:
3312:
3304:
3227:
3114:
3064:
3029:
2991:
2951:
2928:
2920:
2878:
2738:26 May
2650:26 May
2618:
2558:
2523:3 June
2477:
2279:
2203:Panama
2083:SAPROF
2070:heroin
2022:Causes
1973:Nevada
1923:heroin
1711:crime.
1543:Norway
1353:Topics
1322:People
1272:
1264:
1251:
1235:
1139:Pardon
1110:
1108:Tariff
1098:Parole
938:Appeal
824:People
803:Browse
786:Public
528:reform
513:Prison
315:Class
304:Person
227:Strain
147:Anomie
141:Theory
3907:(PDF)
3894:(PDF)
3621:(PDF)
3559:(2).
3530:S2CID
3348:S2CID
3310:S2CID
3225:S2CID
3112:S2CID
3062:S2CID
3027:JSTOR
2989:S2CID
2926:S2CID
2876:JSTOR
2816:(PDF)
2764:(PDF)
2757:(PDF)
2644:(PDF)
2637:(PDF)
2616:S2CID
2585:(PDF)
2578:(PDF)
2556:JSTOR
2373:(PDF)
2195:Zaire
1620:Gangs
1503:Latin
1023:Guilt
809:Index
751:Cyber
696:Right
508:Trial
469:NIBRS
375:State
309:State
289:crime
84:, or
4692:PMID
4591:ISBN
4533:ISBN
4456:PMID
4421:PMID
4386:PMID
4351:PMID
4316:PMID
4257:PMID
4183:PMID
4147:PMID
4112:PMID
4075:2014
4049:help
4006:PMID
3938:ISBN
3915:2015
3840:2009
3809:help
3789:2009
3762:2009
3713:2009
3671:ISBN
3652:2014
3596:PMID
3438:SSRN
3412:link
3302:PMID
2949:OCLC
2918:PMID
2798:2019
2772:2009
2740:2014
2709:help
2652:2014
2525:2020
2518:Vera
2475:Gale
2385:2019
2331:2020
2302:TIME
2277:ISBN
2201:and
2187:SBAs
2170:The
1861:ACLU
1827:Ohio
1825:and
1719:The
1697:The
1570:and
1551:and
1514:cado
1499:-ism
1497:and
933:Bail
691:Left
523:open
122:and
4682:PMC
4674:doi
4566:doi
4562:129
4510:doi
4483:doi
4448:doi
4413:doi
4409:159
4378:doi
4343:doi
4306:PMC
4296:doi
4249:doi
4175:doi
4139:doi
4135:136
4102:doi
4098:189
3998:doi
3967:doi
3871:hdl
3863:doi
3588:doi
3584:103
3522:doi
3492:doi
3465:doi
3340:doi
3294:doi
3267:doi
3217:doi
3104:doi
3054:doi
3019:doi
2981:doi
2910:doi
2826:(3)
2608:doi
2548:doi
2467:doi
2183:IMF
2068:or
2064:of
1725:any
1679:DSM
1510:re-
464:BJS
395:War
4719::
4690:.
4680:.
4670:88
4668:.
4664:.
4619:.
4560:.
4556:.
4506:46
4504:.
4477:.
4454:.
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4442:.
4419:.
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4384:.
4374:48
4372:.
4349:.
4339:12
4337:.
4314:.
4304:.
4294:.
4282:.
4278:.
4255:.
4245:28
4243:.
4223:.
4204:.
4181:.
4171:31
4169:.
4145:.
4133:.
4110:.
4096:.
4092:.
4041::
4039:}}
4035:{{
4004:.
3994:35
3992:.
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3801::
3799:}}
3795:{{
3721:^
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3685:^
3623:.
3608:^
3594:.
3582:.
3555:.
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