38:
399:. However, the administration decided to take advantage of having a Democrat-controlled Congress and Presidency to push through the RTAA. In 1936 and 1940, the Republican Party ran on a platform of repealing the tariff reductions secured under the RTAA. However, when they won back Congress in 1946, they did not act to remove the tariffs. In the years since the enactment of the RTAA in 1934, the economies of Europe and
350:, and Republicans were generally for higher tariffs. The pattern was clear in congressional votes for tariffs from 1860 to 1930. Democrats were the congressional minority in the majority of Congresses between the Civil War and the election of Roosevelt. During their brief stints in the majority, Democrats passed several tariff reduction bills. Examples include the
426:
As more
American industries began to benefit from tariff reductions, some of them began to lobby Congress for lower tariffs. Until RTAA, Congress had been lobbied mostly by industries seeking to create or increase tariffs to protect their industry. That change also helped to lock in many of the gains
247:
The extension law was not enacted by June 11, 1948, the due date of the extension in 1945, and the right of reduction was revoked. The extension law was established on
November 26, 1949, and was extended until June 11, 1951, and then 1951. The year was extended by two years and revoked in 1953 and
165:
countries. The Act served as an institutional reform intended to authorize the president to negotiate with foreign nations to reduce tariffs in return for reciprocal reductions in tariffs in the United States up to 50%. It resulted in a reduction of duties. This was the policy of the low tariff
439:
As
American duties dropped off dramatically, global markets were also increasingly liberalized. World trade expanded rapidly. The RTAA was a US law but provided the first widespread system of guidelines for bilateral trade agreements. The United States and the European nations began avoiding
407:, which left a huge global production vacuum that was filled by American exporters. During the war, the United States had its highest positive account balance in its history. Republican preferences for tariffs started shifting, as exporters from home districts began to benefit from increased
337:
priorities, and what was feasible with other countries in making his decisions on tariffs. Those considerations generally left presidents more inclined to reduce tariffs than the
Congress. Whether Roosevelt or Congress foresaw that result is a matter of historical debate.
510:
This Act has amended
Article 2 (c) (19 U. SC 135 1352 (c)) of the 1934 Reciprocity–Commerce–Committee Act in which the extension law up to that stipulates the period of authority. In contrast, the 1958 Extension Act stipulates that Article 2 itself will extend the time
328:
brokered under RTAA because it gave
Congress an incentive to lower tariffs. As more foreign countries entered into bilateral tariff reduction deals with the United States, exporters had more incentive to lobby Congress for even lower tariffs across many industries.
332:
By giving the
President the authority to negotiate the deals, the Congress effectively ceded a part of its power (authorized under US Constitution, Article I, Section VIII) to the executive branch. The President had to consider the welfare of all Americans, his
289:, it would act unilaterally and tackle the foreign country's tariff rate as fixed. Congress would choose a tariff rate that was either a little higher or lower than the median preferred tariff, depending upon the composition of the Congress. Generally, a
1356:
1286:
308:
The RTAA's novel approach freed
Roosevelt and Congress to break that trend of tariff increases. It tied US tariff reductions to reciprocal tariff reductions with international partners. It also allowed Congress to approve the tariffs with a
1331:
235:
Between 1934 and 1945, the United States signed 32 reciprocal trade agreements with 27 countries. Furthermore, the conclusion of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was made by the authority under the RTAA.
317:
necessary for other treaties. Also, the
President had the authority to negotiate the terms. The three innovations in trade policy created the political will and feasibility to enact a more liberal trade policy.
382:
Democrats voted for trade liberalization far more often than Republicans but were not uniform in their preferences. Democrats skeptical of reducing tariffs during the Depression included Representative
1211:
893:
531:"The Institutional Roots of American Trade Policy: Politics, Coalitions, and International Trade." Michael Bailey, Judith Goldstein, and Barry Weingast. World Politics, Volume 49, No. 3, 1997."
1216:
244:
The authorization under the RTAA has been granted for three years from the day of enactment (June 12, 1934) the RTAA. The authorization was extended to in 1937, in 1940, in 1943, in 1945.
470:
also found good use of the expansion of free trade after World War II. Many in the State Department saw multilateral trade agreements as a way to engage the world in accordance with the
1236:
1166:
1226:
1301:
423:. That means that the tariff would have to be especially onerous, and the Congress would have to be especially protectionist. Once enacted, tariff reductions tended to stick.
1291:
1933:
1151:
1141:
262:, and in response, the new tariff reduction, the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, was enacted, and the President was granted the power to reduce tariffs by June 30, 1967.
367:
agreements in which they voted for other members' preferred tariffs in order to secure support for their own. No one took into account the aggregate toll on American
1186:
1271:
1221:
1535:
411:. By the 1950s, there was no statistically significant difference between Republicans and Democrats on tariff policies, a change that has endured ever since.
1256:
1121:
444:
policies, which pursued national trade objectives at the expense of other nations. Instead, countries started to realize the gains from trade co-operation.
1096:
788:; Gilligan, Michael (1994). "The Political Economy of Trading States: Factor Specificity, Collective Action Problems and Domestic Political Institutions".
1196:
1191:
1181:
1131:
447:
Led by the United States and the United Kingdom, international co-operation flourished, and concrete institutions were created. In talks begun at the
1156:
1788:
1692:
1341:
255:
The RTAA, which has been updated intermittently until 1961, is a multilateral trade negotiation in GATT and negotiations with new member states.
1505:
1366:
1246:
456:
258:
The power to cut down expired in 1961, but in November, President Kennedy advocated a new tariff reduction negotiations, which would be called
1697:
1687:
1530:
1351:
1316:
884:
321:
1802:
1778:
1296:
170:
of 1930 that raised rates, and sharply reduced international trade. The Reciprocal Tariff Act was promoted heavily by Secretary of State
1540:
1583:
1231:
941:
220:, a smorgasbord of high tariffs across many American industries. At the same time, European countries enacted protectionist policies.
191:
150:
1136:
1041:
1928:
1717:
1707:
1376:
1361:
1071:
294:
290:
1823:
1818:
1626:
1281:
1036:
142:
96:
88:
1702:
1798:
1241:
1923:
1768:
1722:
1326:
1321:
1261:
1176:
1161:
1076:
1006:
1475:
1465:
1306:
1251:
931:
926:
351:
186:
signed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (RTAA) into law in 1934. It gave the president power to negotiate bilateral,
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1712:
1525:
1520:
1495:
1490:
217:
167:
1732:
1727:
1657:
1652:
1206:
1146:
452:
57:
419:
Another key feature of the RTAA was that if Congress wanted to repeal a tariff reduction, it would take a two-thirds
1773:
1752:
1682:
1677:
1667:
1662:
1311:
1091:
1016:
72:
227:
in the United States. American duties on foreign products declined from an average of 46% in 1934 to 12% by 1962.
1938:
1808:
1201:
1111:
877:
37:
1828:
1545:
1485:
460:
448:
1813:
1742:
1621:
951:
1747:
1576:
1414:
1171:
1116:
1101:
763:
For example, it became the basis of the United States tariff reduction under the Japan Accession Protocol.
611:
Bailey, Michael A.; Goldstein, Weingast (April 1997). "The Institutional Roots of American Trade Policy".
562:
467:
361:
By the Great Depression, tariffs were at historic highs. Members of Congress commonly entered in informal
213:
1844:
1642:
901:
183:
125:
274:
1902:
1864:
1672:
870:
441:
347:
248:
extended on August 7., also for one year until 1954. Met. The 1954 extension was also for one year,
835:"International regimes, transactions, and change: embedded liberalism in the postwar economic order"
567:
273:) included the negotiating powers of non-tariff measures in the respective legislation, such as the
1510:
1480:
1276:
1126:
1106:
1086:
1081:
1066:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1031:
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1021:
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996:
991:
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946:
936:
921:
916:
911:
547:
408:
355:
314:
277:, was granted to the President, but the power to reduce tariffs was generally similar to the RTAA.
785:
752:
1611:
1336:
1266:
1061:
628:
580:
205:
17:
1897:
1569:
1515:
479:
298:
862:
1884:
1879:
1606:
846:
797:
620:
572:
325:
209:
358:. However, subsequent Republican majorities always undid the unilateral tariff reductions.
1854:
1849:
1793:
1460:
475:
388:
266:
379:. Roosevelt and key members of his administration were intent on stopping the practice.
1874:
1455:
1444:
1439:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
801:
334:
297:-controlled Congress would prefer lower tariffs. Thus, tariffs were chosen based on US
252:. The law, which was once revoked in 1958 but extended on 30 August 1960, was enacted.
1917:
1859:
1550:
1434:
632:
584:
471:
420:
392:
259:
224:
162:
733:
July 1, 1954, ch. 445, 1, 1, 68 Stat. 360; June 21, 1955, ch. 169, 2 2, 69 Stat. 162
431:
to raise tariffs decreased, and the political incentive to lower tariffs increased.
491:
404:
384:
363:
195:
171:
81:
154:
1647:
1616:
1470:
396:
285:
Before the RTAA, if Congress wanted to establish a lower tariff for particular
166:
Democrats in response to the high tariff Republican program which produced the
851:
834:
376:
187:
305:
to raise tariffs to protect it from the negative effects of foreign imports.
194:
around the globe. It is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal
1869:
1346:
576:
548:"The Magic Bullet? The RTAA, Institutional Reform, and Trade Liberalization"
483:
428:
400:
302:
1592:
624:
487:
455:
was created. By 1949, the first international board governing trade, the
372:
368:
310:
301:. Individual members of Congress were under great pressure from industry
161:
agreements between the United States and separate nations, particularly
286:
201:
146:
100:
158:
459:(GATT), had been established. In 1994, the GATT was replaced by the
1565:
866:
204:
in the United States were at historically high levels from the
270:
463:(WTO), which still oversees international trade agreements.
1561:
216:
accelerated its protectionist policies, culminating in the
190:
with other countries and enabled Roosevelt to liberalize
293:-controlled Congress would prefer higher tariffs, and a
387:(D-IL) and members of Roosevelt's own administration:
724:
Aug. 7, 1953, ch. 348, title I, 101 101, 67 Stat. 472
342:
Historical partisan divide over tariffs and the RTAA
1837:
1761:
1635:
1599:
1375:
900:
712:
June 16, 1951, ch. 141, 2 2, 9 (a), 65 Stat. 72, 75
281:
Differences between RTAA and other trade agreements
106:
87:
68:
63:
52:
44:
346:After the Civil War, Democrats were generally for
223:The RTAA marked a sharp departure from the era of
73:
427:in trade liberalization. In short, the political
742:Pub. L. 85-686, 2 2, Aug. 20, 1958, 72 Stat. 673
720:
718:
1577:
878:
478:. US trade policy became an integral part of
8:
1688:Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
250:but from 1955 to the June 30, 1958 extension
198:that persisted throughout the 20th century.
30:
772:Pub. L. 87-794, Oct. 11, 1962, 76 Stat. 872
375:. That practice is commonly referred to as
1584:
1570:
1562:
894:United States federal taxation legislation
885:
871:
863:
703:Sept. 26, 1949, ch. 585, 3 3, 63 Stat. 698
1794:National Bituminous Coal Conservation Act
850:
813:
811:
685:June 7, 1943, ch. 118, 1, 1, 57 Stat. 125
658:June 12, 1934, ch. 474, 2 2, 48 Stat. 944
566:
141:(enacted June 12, 1934, ch. 474, 48
606:
604:
602:
600:
598:
596:
594:
541:
539:
537:
1934:United States federal trade legislation
1693:Federal Emergency Relief Administration
524:
503:
48:AN ACT To amend the Tariff Act of 1930.
780:
778:
457:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
403:had been decimated by the violence of
29:
7:
1814:Rural Electrification Administration
1779:Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
694:July 5, 1945, ch. 269, 1, 1, 59 Stat
494:for relationships around the globe.
1769:Works Progress Administration (WPA)
833:Ruggie, John Gerard (Spring 1982).
790:The Journal of Political Philosophy
676:Apr. 12, 1940, ch. 96, 54 Stat. 107
802:10.1111/j.1467-9760.1994.tb00020.x
546:Hiscox, Michael J. (Autumn 1999).
157:) provided for the negotiation of
78:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
25:
1728:Public Works Administration (PWA)
1698:Frazier–Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act
1658:Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
667:Mar. 1, 1937, ch. 22, 50 Stat. 24
208:to the 1920s. In response to the
1753:Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
1718:National Recovery Administration
1708:National Industrial Recovery Act
1367:2021 (Infrastructure, PL 117–58)
482:. That pursuit of free trade as
36:
1824:United States Housing Authority
820:International Political Economy
18:Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act
1799:National Labor Relations Board
1789:Judicial Procedures Reform Act
490:, as the US competed with the
324:was an important tenet of the
1:
1723:National Youth Administration
645:U.S. Department of Commerce,
178:Reciprocal Tariff Act of 1934
27:1934 United States tariff law
1784:Farm Security Administration
1357:2021 (Defense Authorization)
435:World changes caused by RTAA
356:Underwood Tariff Act of 1913
269:negotiations in GATT (later
1733:Public Works of Art Project
1653:Agricultural Adjustment Act
1362:2021 (American Rescue Plan)
453:International Monetary Fund
231:Trade agreements under RTAA
188:reciprocal trade agreements
58:73rd United States Congress
1955:
1774:Federal Project Number One
1683:Farm Credit Administration
1678:Homeowners Refinancing Act
1663:Civil Works Administration
839:International Organization
555:International Organization
1893:
1809:Rural Electrification Act
852:10.1017/s0020818300018993
352:Wilson–Gorman Act of 1894
265:From then on, rounds and
118:in the House as H.R. 8687
111:
35:
1829:Fair Labor Standards Act
461:World Trade Organization
449:Bretton Woods Conference
218:Smoot–Hawley Act of 1930
1929:International trade law
1743:Railroad Retirement Act
1622:American Liberty League
818:Oatley, Thomas (2010).
649:, March 16, 1946, p. 31
647:Foreign Commerce Weekly
577:10.1162/002081899551039
486:intensified during the
1491:1922: Fordney–McCumber
468:US Department of State
1845:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1738:Reciprocal Tariff Act
1643:Emergency Banking Act
1352:2020 (Appropriations)
1342:2020 (Families First)
1332:2018 (Appropriations)
192:American trade policy
184:Franklin D. Roosevelt
139:Reciprocal Tariff Act
126:Franklin D. Roosevelt
31:Reciprocal Tariff Act
1924:1934 in American law
1865:Henry Morgenthau Jr.
1713:National Housing Act
1673:Executive Order 6102
1415:1828: "Abominations"
625:10.1353/wp.1997.0007
442:beggar-thy-neighbour
348:trade liberalization
313:, as opposed to the
1476:1909: Payne–Aldrich
1466:1894: Wilson–Gorman
409:international trade
315:two-thirds majority
168:Smoot–Hawley tariff
107:Legislative history
32:
1703:Glass–Steagall Act
1668:Communications Act
1612:New Deal Coalition
1496:1930: Smoot–Hawley
1395:1791: Hamilton III
822:. pp. 71–113.
206:American Civil War
1911:
1910:
1600:Causes and legacy
1559:
1558:
1400:1792: Hamilton IV
1390:1790: Hamilton II
1287:2010 (PL 111-312)
1282:2010 (PL 111–240)
480:US foreign policy
299:domestic politics
275:Trade Law of 1974
135:
134:
90:Statutes at Large
16:(Redirected from
1946:
1939:June 1934 events
1885:Robert F. Wagner
1880:Francis Townsend
1607:Great Depression
1586:
1579:
1572:
1563:
1551:2018/2019: Trump
1501:1934: Reciprocal
1425:1833: Compromise
1385:1789: Hamilton I
887:
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864:
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326:trade agreements
251:
210:Great Depression
128:on June 12, 1934
91:
79:
75:
40:
33:
21:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1889:
1855:Frances Perkins
1850:Harold L. Ickes
1833:
1819:Social Security
1762:Second New Deal
1757:
1631:
1595:
1590:
1560:
1555:
1536:1988: Canada FT
1486:1921: Emergency
1481:1913: Underwood
1410:1824: Sectional
1371:
1257:2007 (Mortgage)
1157:1983 (PL 98-76)
1152:1983 (PL 98-67)
903:
896:
891:
861:
860:
832:
831:
827:
817:
816:
809:
784:
783:
776:
771:
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751:1st to 4th and
750:
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732:
728:
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568:10.1.1.464.2534
550:
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530:
526:
521:
516:
515:
509:
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500:
476:Monroe Doctrine
437:
417:
389:Rexford Tugwell
344:
311:simple majority
283:
267:free trade area
249:
242:
233:
180:
131:
122:Signed into law
89:
77:
53:Enacted by
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23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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1936:
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1900:
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1877:
1875:Herbert Hoover
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1748:Securities Act
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1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
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1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1461:1890: McKinley
1458:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
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1239:
1234:
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1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
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1189:
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1179:
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914:
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898:
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890:
889:
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875:
867:
859:
858:
845:(2): 379–415.
825:
807:
796:(2): 165–192.
774:
765:
756:
744:
735:
726:
714:
705:
696:
687:
678:
669:
660:
651:
638:
619:(3): 309–338.
613:World Politics
590:
561:(4): 669–698.
533:
523:
522:
520:
517:
514:
513:
502:
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436:
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416:
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343:
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335:foreign policy
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229:
179:
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163:Latin American
151:19 U.S.C.
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93:
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26:
24:
14:
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10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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1860:Harry Hopkins
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1405:1816: Dallas
1347:2020 (CARES)
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1838:Individuals
1648:Economy Act
1617:Brain Trust
1541:1993: NAFTA
1430:1842: Black
1322:2017 (TCJA)
1297:2012 (ATRA)
415:Reciprocity
397:Adolf Berle
322:Reciprocity
155:§ 1351
1918:Categories
1506:1948: GATT
1327:2018 (BBA)
1312:2015 (BBA)
1277:2010 (ACA)
1017:1940 (2nd)
519:References
377:logrolling
295:Democratic
291:Republican
182:President
116:Introduced
69:Public law
45:Long title
1870:Huey Long
1627:Criticism
1546:1994: WTO
1177:1986 Code
1077:1954 Code
1007:1939 Code
633:154711958
585:155043044
563:CiteSeerX
484:diplomacy
429:incentive
401:East Asia
373:exporters
369:consumers
303:lobbyists
64:Citations
1898:Category
1636:New Deal
1593:New Deal
902:Internal
488:Cold War
474:and the
354:and the
214:Congress
95:48
1903:Commons
1516:1974/75
1377:Tariffs
1147:Gas Tax
904:Revenue
287:imports
240:History
202:Tariffs
74:Pub. L.
1267:Crisis
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565:
511:limit.
395:, and
159:tariff
153:
145:
99:
82:73–316
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1167:COBRA
841:. 2.
629:S2CID
581:S2CID
551:(PDF)
498:Notes
143:Stat.
97:Stat.
1531:1988
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1521:1979
1511:1962
1452:1875
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1440:1857
1420:1832
1317:2016
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967:1924
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957:1918
952:1917
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942:1914
937:1913
932:1909
927:1894
922:1864
917:1862
912:1861
466:The
137:The
56:the
1803:Act
847:doi
798:doi
621:doi
573:doi
371:or
271:WTO
147:943
101:943
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