Readability - Knowledge (XXG)

982:, a professor of education at Ohio State University, was one of the first critics of Thorndike's vocabulary-frequency lists. He claimed that they did not distinguish between the different meanings that many words have. He created two new lists of his own. One, his "short list" of 769 easy words, was used by Irving Lorge in his formula. The other was his "long list" of 3,000 easy words, which were understood by 80% of fourth-grade students. However, one has to extend the word lists by regular plurals of nouns, regular forms of the past tense of verbs, progressive forms of verbs etc. In 1948, he incorporated this list into a formula he developed with 1051:

a multiple-choice test. The best level for unassisted reading is one for which readers can correctly answer 80% of the questions. These cutoff scores were later confirmed by Vygotsky and Chall and Conard. Among other things, Bormuth confirmed that vocabulary and sentence length are the best indicators of reading ease. He showed that the measures of reading ease worked as well for adults as for children. The same things that children find hard are the same for adults of the same reading levels. He also developed several new measures of cutoff scores. One of the most well known was the

875:, one-third at the 7th to 12th-grade level, and one-third at the 13th–17th grade level. The authors emphasized that one-half of the adult population at that time lacked suitable reading materials. They wrote, "For them, the enriching values of reading are denied unless materials reflecting adult interests are adapted to their needs." The poorest readers, one-sixth of the adult population, need "simpler materials for use in promoting functioning 720:. Formulas do not fully address the various content, purpose, design, visual input, and organization of a text. Text leveling is commonly used to rank the reading ease of texts in areas where reading difficulties are easy to identify, such as books for young children. At higher levels, ranking reading ease becomes more difficult, as individual difficulties become harder to identify. This has led to better ways to assess reading ease. 634:

readability exist from various sources. The definition fluctuates based on the type of audience to whom one is presenting a certain type of content to. For example, a technical writer might focus on clear and concise language and formatting that allows easy-reading. In contrast, a scholarly journal would use sophisticated writing that would appeal and make sense to the type of audience to whom they are directing information.

1968: 51: 625:, readability is necessary for understanding and applying a given text. Techniques to simplify readability are essential to communicate a set of information to the intended audience. Whether it is code, news information, or storytelling, every writer has a target audience that they have to adjust their readability levels to. 963:

Flesch formulas could increase readership up to 60%. Flesch's work made an enormous impact on journalism. The Flesch Reading Ease formula became one of the most widely used, tested, and reliable readability metrics. In 1951, Farr, Jenkins, and Patterson simplified the formula further by changing the syllable count.

708:. Starting with his own journal at the age of 13, Rubakin published many articles and books on science and many subjects for the great numbers of new readers throughout Russia. In Rubakin's view, the people were not fools. They were simply poor and in need of cheap books, written at a level they could grasp. 740:

textbooks. Their formula used five variable inputs and six constants. For each thousand words, it counted the number of unique words, the number of words not on the Thorndike list, and the median index number of the words found on the list. Manually, it took three hours to apply the formula to a book.

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forms in the auxiliary .40 X _________ ___ 7. Number of Prepositional Phrases .75 X _________ ___ 8. Number of Possessive nouns and pronouns .70 X _________ ___ 9. Number of Adverbs of Time (when, then, once, while...) .60 X _________

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1. Words/T-unit .95 X _________ ___ 2. Subordinate clauses/T-unit .90 X _________ ___ 3. Main clause word length (mean) .20 X _________ ___ 4. Subordinate clause length (mean)

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In 2008, it was shown that syntactic complexity is correlated with longer processing times in text comprehension. It is common to use a rich set of these syntactic features to predict the readability of a text. The more advanced variants of syntactic readability features are frequently computed from

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developed by Wilson Taylor. His work supported earlier research including the degree of reading ease for each kind of reading. The best level for classroom "assisted reading" is a slightly difficult text that causes a "set to learn", and for which readers can correctly answer 50% of the questions of

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of 10,000 words. He also published his readability formula. He wrote that word skills can be increased if the teacher introduces new words and repeats them often. In 1939, W.W. Patty and W. I Painter published a formula for measuring the vocabulary burden of textbooks. This was the last of the early

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After the Lively–Pressey study, people looked for formulas that were more accurate and easier to apply. In 1928, Carleton Washburne and Mabel Vogel created the first modern readability formula. They validated it by using an outside criterion, and correlated .845 with test scores of students who read

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Writing for a class of readers other than one's own is very difficult. It takes training, method, and practice. Among those who are good at this are writers of novels and children's books. The writing experts all advise that, besides using a formula, observe all the norms of good writing, which are

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The Golub Syntactic Density Score was developed by Lester Golub in 1974. It is among a smaller subset of readability formulas that concentrate on the syntactic features of a text. To calculate the reading level of a text, a sample of several hundred words is taken from the text. The number of words

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Gray and Leary analyzed 228 variables that affect reading ease and divided them into four types: content, style, format, and organization. They found that content was most important, followed closely by style. Third was format, followed closely by organization. They found no way to measure content,

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approaches to readability assessment (also known as Automatic Readability Assessment) incorporate myriad linguistic features and construct statistical prediction models to predict text readability. These approaches typically consist of three steps: 1. a training corpus of individual texts, 2. a set

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formula in two parts. Rather than using grade levels, it used a scale from 0 to 100, with 0 equivalent to the 12th grade and 100 equivalent to the 4th grade. It dropped the use of affixes. The second part of the formula predicts human interest by using personal references and the number of personal

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In 1981 the World Book Encyclopedia listed the grade levels of 44,000 words. A popular strategy amongst educators in modern times is "incidental vocabulary learning," which enforces efficiency in learning vocabulary in the short-term rather than drilling words and meanings teachers hope will stick.

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In the 1920s, the scientific movement in education looked for tests to measure students' achievement to aid in curriculum development. Teachers and educators had long known that, to improve reading skill, readers—especially beginning readers—need reading material that closely matches their ability.

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Bonnie Meyer and others tried to use organization as a measure of reading ease. While this did not result in a formula, they showed that people read faster and retain more when the text is organized into topics. She found that a visible plan for presenting content greatly helps readers to assess a

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In 1973, a study commissioned by the US military of the reading skills required for different military jobs produced the FORCAST formula. Unlike most other formulas, it uses only a vocabulary element, making it useful for texts without complete sentences. The formula satisfied requirements that it

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one of the most important books in readability research. Like Dale and Tyler, they focused on what makes books readable for adults of limited reading ability. Their book included the first scientific study of the reading skills of American adults. The sample included 1,690 adults from a variety of

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Writing experts have warned that an attempt to simplify the text only by changing the length of the words and sentences may result in text that is more difficult to read. All the variables are tightly related. If one is changed, the others must also be adjusted, including approach, voice, person,

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Armbruster confirmed Kintsch's finding that coherence and structure are more help for younger readers. R. C. Calfee and R. Curley built on Bonnie Meyer's work and found that an unfamiliar underlying structure can make even simple text hard to read. They brought in a graded system to help students

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The project was one of the widest reading ease projects ever. The developers of the formula used 650 normed reading texts, 474 million words from all the text in 28,000 books read by students. The project also used the reading records of more than 30,000 who read and were tested on 950,000 books.

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Both Rudolf Flesch and Robert Gunning worked extensively with newspapers and the wire services in improving readability. Mainly through their efforts in a few years, the readability of US newspapers went from the 16th to the 11th-grade level, where it remains today. Publishers discovered that the

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of 20 November 1947. He divided the items into those above the 8th-grade level and those at the 8th grade or below. He chose the 8th-grade breakpoint, as that was determined to be the average reading level of adult readers. An 8th-grade text "...will reach about 50% of all American grown-ups," he

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for assessing readability and matching students with appropriate texts. The Lexile framework uses average sentence length, and average word frequency in the American Heritage Intermediate Corpus to predict a score on a 0–2000 scale. The AHI Corpus includes five million words from 1,045 published

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Wilber Schramm, who directed the Communications Research program at the University of Illinois interviewed 1,050 newspaper readers in 1947. He found that an easier reading style helps to determine how much of an article is read. This was called reading persistence, depth, or perseverance He also

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used a split-run edition to study the effects of making text easier to read. He found that reducing from the 9th to the 6th-grade reading level increased readership by 43% for an article about 'nylon'. He also found a 60% increase in readership for an article on corn, with better responses from

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In 1939, Irving Lorge published an article that reported other combinations of variables that indicate difficulty more accurately than the ones Gray and Leary used. His research also showed that, "The vocabulary load is the most important concomitant of difficulty." In 1944, Lorge published his

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The term "readability" is inherently broad and can become confusing when examining all of the possible definitions. Readability is a concept that involves audience, content, quality, legibility, and can even involve the formatting and design structure of any given text. Different definitions of

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consists of characteristics of the explicit text that play some role in helping the reader mentally connect ideas in the text." The definition of coherence is the subject of much debate. Theoretically, the coherence of a text is defined by the interaction between linguistic representations and

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Beginning in the 1970s, cognitive theorists began teaching that reading is really an act of thinking and organization. The reader constructs meaning by mixing new knowledge into existing knowledge. Because of the limits of the reading ease formulas, some research looked at ways to measure the

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A study in 1947 by Melvin Lostutter showed that newspapers were generally written at a level five years above the ability of average American adult readers. The reading ease of newspaper articles was not found to have much connection with the education, experience, or personal interest of the

657:(12 million), are written at the 9th-grade level. The most popular novels are written at the 7th-grade level. This supports the fact that the average adult reads at the 9th-grade level. It also shows that, for recreation, people read texts that are two grades below their actual reading level. 937:

journalists writing the stories. It instead had more to do with the convention and culture of the industry. Lostutter argued for more readability testing in newspaper writing. Improved readability must be a "conscious process somewhat independent of the education and experience of the staffs

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published the first reading ease formula. They were concerned that junior high school science textbooks had so many technical words and that teachers would spend all class time explaining these words. They argued that their formula would help to measure and reduce the "vocabulary burden" of

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and others showed the central role of coherence in reading ease, mainly for people learning to read. In 1983, Susan Kemper devised a formula based on physical states and mental states. However, she found this was no better than word familiarity and sentence length in showing reading ease.

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It was a two-year study of adult reading interests. Their book showed not only what people read but what they would like to read. They found that many readers lacked suitable reading materials: they would have liked to learn but the reading materials were too hard for them.

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Readability is essential to the clarity and accessibility of texts used in classrooms, work environments, and everyday life. The government prioritizes readability as well through Plain Language Laws which enforces important documents to be written at an 8th grade level.

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and artistry that few people who have ideas will take the trouble to achieve... If simple language were easy, many of our problems would have been solved long ago." Bryson helped set up the Readability Laboratory at the college. Two of his students were Irving Lorge and

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published the first adult reading ease formula based on passages on health topics from a variety of textbooks and magazines. Of 29 factors that are significant for young readers, they found ten that are significant for adults. They used three of these in their formula.

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knowledge representations. While coherence can be defined as characteristics of the text (i.e., aspects of cohesion) that are likely to contribute to the coherence of the mental representation, Coh-Metrix measurements provide indices of these cohesion characteristics.

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In 2000, researchers of the School Renaissance Institute and Touchstone Applied Science Associates published their Advantage-TASA Open Standard (ATOS) Reading ease Formula for Books. They worked on a formula that was easy to use and that could be used with any texts.

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The type-token ratio is one of the features that are often used to captures the lexical richness, which is a measure of vocabulary range and diversity. To measure the lexical difficulty of a word, the relative frequency of the word in a representative corpus like the

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The incidental learning tactic is meant to help learners build comprehension and learning skills rather than memorizing words. Through this strategy, students would hopefully be able to navigate various levels of readability using context clues and comprehension.

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of Columbia University noted that, in Russia and Germany, teachers used word frequency counts to match books to students. Word skill was the best sign of intellectual development, and the strongest predictor of reading ease. In 1921, Thorndike published

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Harry McLaughlin determined that word length and sentence length should be multiplied rather than added as in other formulas. In 1969, he published his SMOG (Simple Measure of Gobbledygook) formula. It is often recommended for use in healthcare.

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In 1889 in Russia, the writer Nikolai A. Rubakin published a study of over 10,000 texts written by everyday people. From these texts, he took 1,500 words he thought most people understood. He found that the main blocks to comprehension are

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website, which provide texts for different age groups. In total, there are 3125 articles that are divided into five readability levels (from age 7 to 16). Weebit corpus has been used in several AI-based readability assessment research.

728:, one of the first books to apply psychology to marketing. Kitson's work showed that each type of reader bought and read their own type of text. On reading two newspapers and two magazines, he found that short sentence length and short 819:

In 1934, Ralph Ojemann investigated adult reading skills, factors that most directly affect reading ease, and causes of each level of difficulty. He did not invent a formula, but a method for assessing the difficulty of materials for

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In the 1940s, Robert Gunning helped bring readability research into the workplace. In 1944, he founded the first readability consulting firm dedicated to reducing the "fog" in newspapers and business writing. In 1952, he published

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found that people will read less of long articles than of short ones, for example, a story nine paragraphs long will lose 3 out of 10 readers by the fifth paragraph. In contrast, a shorter story will lose only 2 out of 10 readers.

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Sherman wrote: "No man should talk worse than he writes, no man should write better than he should talk..." He wrote this wanting to emphasize that the closer writing is to speech, the more clear and effective the content becomes.

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essential for writing readable texts. Writers should study the texts used by their audience and their reading habits. This means that for a 5th-grade audience, the writer should study and learn good quality 5th-grade materials.

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For centuries, teachers and educators have seen the importance of organization, coherence, and emphasis in good writing. In the 1880s, English professor L. A. Sherman found that the English sentence was getting shorter. In

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in the sample is counted, as are the number of T-units. A T-unit is defined as an independent clause and any dependent clauses attached to it. Other syntactical units are then counted and entered into the following table:

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wrote. Among the wire-service stories, the lower group got two-thirds more readers, and among local stories, 75% more readers. Feld also believed in drilling writers in Flesch's clear-writing principles.

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Ojemann emphasized the reported features, such as whether the text was coherent or unduly abstract. He used his 16 passages to compare and judge the reading ease of other texts, a method now called

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can be highly misleading. Even though the traditional features like the average sentence length have high correlation with reading difficulty, the measure of readability is much more complex. The

913:, which included a readability formula to predict the difficulty of adult reading material. Investigators in many fields began using it to improve communications. One of the variables it used was 1232:) and Ani Nenkova (University of Pennsylvania) are considered pioneers in evaluating the parse-tree syntactic features and making it widely used in readability assessment. Some examples include: 1346:), in 2021. Whilst introducing his features hybridization method, he also explored handcrafted advanced semantic features which aim to measure the amount of knowledge contained in a given text. 3594:

Graesser, A.C.; McNamara, D.S.; Louwerse, M.M. (2003), Sweet, A.P.; Snow, C.E. (eds.), "What do readers need to learn in order to process coherence relations in narrative and expository text",

824:. He was the first to assess the validity of this method by using 16 magazine passages tested on actual readers. He evaluated 14 measurable and three reported factors that affect reading ease. 2045:

Users add the numbers in the right hand column and divide the total by the number of T-units. Finally, the quotient is entered into the following table to arrive at a final readability score.

3245:: Final Report, Project no 7-0052, Contract No. OEC-3-7-0070052-0326. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, Bureau of Research, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1402: 1493: 986:, who later founded the Harvard Reading Laboratory. In 1995, Dale and Chall published a new version of their formula with an upgraded word list, the New Dale–Chall readability formula. 1121:

content, organization, and coherence of text. Although this did not improve the reliability of the formulas, their efforts showed the importance of these variables in reading ease.

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corpus to the academic field in 2015. The corpus is a collection of thousands of news articles professionally leveled to different reading complexities by professional editors at

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Much research has focused on matching prose to reading skill, resulting in formulas for use in research, government, teaching, publishing, the military, medicine, and business.

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The accuracy of readability formulas increases when finding the average readability of a large number of works. The tests generate a score based on characteristics such as

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Klare, G. R., J. E. Mabry, and L. M. Gustafson. 1955. "The relationship of patterning (underlining) to immediate retention and to acceptability of technical material."

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can be used in many different ways to investigate the cohesion of the explicit text and the coherence of the mental representation of the text. "Our definition of

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formulas that used the Thorndike vocabulary-frequency list. Until computers came along, word frequency lists were the best aids for grading reading ease of texts.

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format, or organization—but they could measure variables of style. Among the 17 significant measurable style variables, they selected five to create a formula:

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text. A hierarchical plan shows how the parts of the text are related. It also aids the reader in blending new information into existing knowledge structures.

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In 1975, in a project sponsored by the U.S. Navy, the Reading Ease formula was recalculated to give a grade-level score. The new formula is now called the

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had long tried to teach how to write in a clear and readable style, Bryson found that it was rare. He wrote that such language is the result of a "...

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University-based psychologists did much of the early research, which was later taken up by textbook publishers. In 1921, Harry D. Kitson published

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Derivation of new readability formulas (Automated Readability Index, Fog Count, and Flesch Reading Ease Formula) for Navy enlisted personnel.

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Dale, E. and R. Tyler. 1934. "A study of the factors influencing the difficulty of reading materials for adults of limited reading ability."

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Bonnie Armbruster found that the most important feature for learning and comprehension is textual coherence, which comes in two types:

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Coleman, E. B. and P. J. Blumenfeld. 1963. "Cloze scores of nominalization and their grammatical transformations using active verbs."

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Ojemann, R. H. 1934. "The reading ability of parents and factors associated with reading difficulty of parent-education materials."

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A teacher's word book of the twenty thousand words found most frequently and widely in general reading for children and young people

2613: 2015: 522: 2388: 2033:.50 X _________ ___ 5. Number of Modals (will, shall, can, may, must, would...) .65 X _________ ___ 6. Number of 621:

Higher readability in a text eases reading effort and speed for the general population of readers. For those who do not have high

298: 4170: 611: 1261:, but was proved to improve readability assessment accuracy in general. Cognitively-motivated features, in combination with a 2368: 1993: 1342:

Advanced semantic or semantic features' influence on text readability was pioneered by Bruce W. Lee during his study at the (

603: 887:, a readability formula that used three variables and set the stage for simpler and more reliable formulas that followed. 744:

and liked the criterion books. It was also the first to introduce the variable of interest to the concept of readability.

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Proceedings of the 12th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics on - EACL '09

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Collins-Thompson, Kevyn (2015). "Computational assessment of text readability: A survey of current and future research".

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Link to external site, this link will open in a new tab; Link to external site, this link will open in a new tab (2023).

2602:(1979), "Rubakin, Nikolai Aleksandrovic", in Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Nasri, William Z.; Daily, Jay Elwood (eds.), 1989: 4281: 4212: 2716:

Washburne, C. and M. Vogel. 1928. "An objective method of determining grade placement of children's reading material.

1254: 1004: 867:, magazines, and books—as well as a standard reading test. They found a mean grade score of 7.81 (eighth month of the 3258:

Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, Bureau of Research, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

1978: 4335: 4325: 4293: 4163: 1645:{\displaystyle n\cdot {\frac {\sum _{i=1}^{n}(p_{i}-{\bar {p}})^{4}}{(\sum _{i=1}^{n}(p_{i}-{\bar {p}})^{2})^{2}}}} 1343: 1320: 1316: 1229: 990: 34: 3175:

Methodologies for determining reading requirements of military occupational specialties: Technical report No. 73-5

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Image words, abstraction, direct and indirect statements, types of narration and sentences, phrases, and clauses;

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Raw score = uncorrected reading grade of a student who can answer one-half of the test questions on a passage.

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Farr, J. N., J. J. Jenkins, and D. G. Paterson. 1951. "Simplification of the Flesch Reading Ease Formula."

2156:(COCA) is often used. Below includes some examples for lexico-semantic features in readability assessment. 4330: 4201: 1674: 1199: 747:

Between 1929 and 1939, Alfred Lewerenz of the Los Angeles School District published several new formulas.

149: 104: 74: 3704:"On Improving the Accuracy of Readability Classification using Insights from Second Language Acquisition" 2692:

Lively, Bertha A. and S. L. Pressey. 1923. "A method for measuring the 'vocabulary burden' of textbooks.

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Klare, G. R. 1957. "The relationship of typographic arrangement to the learning of technical material."

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Finally, to compensate for the "grade-equivalent curve", apply the following chart for the Final Score:

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with his own Fog Index, a formula that correlates 0.91 with comprehension as measured by reading tests.

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Lijun Feng pioneered some cognitively-motivated features (mostly lexical) in 2009. This was during her

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Proceedings of the 6th Workshop on Natural Language Processing Techniques for Educational Applications

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Patty. W. W. and W. I. Painter. 1931. "A technique for measuring the vocabulary burden of textbooks."

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The Classic Readability Studies, William H. DuBay, Editor (chapter on Washburne, C. i M. Vogel. 1928).

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Rabin, A. T. 1988 "Determining difficulty levels of text written in languages other than English." In

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Paper presented at the 31st Annual Meeting of the International Reading Association, Philadelphia, PA.

2857:"Exploration of Incidental Vocabulary Learning Strategies from Different Modes to Acquire Vocabulary" 2599: 1759:

Compute the average sentence length in words (divide the number of words by the number of sentences).

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Global coherence, which integrates high-level ideas as themes in an entire section, chapter, or book.

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Proceedings of the Fifteenth Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications

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times, the average sentence was 50 words long while in Sherman's modern time, it was 23 words long.

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Where: polysyllable count = number of words of more than two syllables in a sample of 30 sentences.

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Raw score = 0.1579*(PDW) + 0.0496*(ASL) if the percentage of PDW is less than 5%, otherwise compute

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For reading alone below the 4th grade, the best learning gain requires at least 85% comprehension.

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Spyridakis, J. H. 1989. "Signaling effects: Increased content retention and new answers-Part 2."

482: 338: 144: 109: 3653:"LXPER Index 2.0: Improving Text Readability Assessment Model for L2 English Students in Korea" 3615:

Proceedings of the 11th Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications

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Found that unusual words and sentence length were among the first causes of reading difficulty

736: 539: 452: 236: 211: 69: 3942:"Pushing on Text Readability Assessment: A Transformer Meets Handcrafted Linguistic Features" 3256:

Development of standards of readability: Towards a rational criterion of passage performance.

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Many other studies looked at the effects on reading ease of other text variables, including:

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Fry, E. B. 1988. "Writeability: the principles of writing for increased comprehension." In

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Jatowt, A. and K. Tanaka. 2012. "Longitudinal analysis of historical texts' readability."

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Readability Scoring Tool - Scores against many readability formulas at once - Readable.io

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In 1978, John Bormuth of the University of Chicago looked at reading ease using the new

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Kintsch, W. and J. R. Miller 1981. "Readability: A view from cognitive psychology." In

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___ 10. Number of gerunds, participles, and absolutes Phrases .85 X _________ ___

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ASW = average word length in syllables (number of syllables divided by number of words)

835: 831:. He showed that even though these factors cannot be measured, they cannot be ignored. 785: 781: 760: 430: 241: 201: 4139: 3963: 3946:

Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

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Proceedings of the 2008 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing

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Clark, H. H. and S. E. Haviland. 1977. "Comprehension and the given-new contract." In

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Coleman, E. B. 1966. "Learning of prose written in four grammatical transformations."

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Lewerenz, A. S. 1939. "Selection of reading materials by pupil ability and interest."

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people under 35. The result was a gain of 42,000 readers in a circulation of 275,000.

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Analytics of literature: A manual for the objective study of English prose and poetry

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Where: ASL = average sentence length (number of words divided by number of sentences)

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They found that three variables give the most reliable measure of text reading ease:

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Easy enough for Army clerical personnel to use without special training or equipment.

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Gibson, Edward (1998). "Linguistic complexity: locality of syntactic dependencies".

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eds. B. L. Zakaluk and S. J. Samuels. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

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Compute the percentage of words NOT on the Dale–Chall word list of 3,000 easy words.

1257:(CUNY). The cognitively-motivated features were originally designed for adults with 1111:

Feedback and interaction with the teacher are the most important factors in reading.

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Felker, D. B., F. Pickering, V. R. Charrow, V. M. Holland, and J. C. Redish. 1981.

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Lewerenz, A. S. 1929. "Objective measurement of diverse types of reading material.

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found that many adults had poor reading ability due to poor education. Even though

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Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Building Educational Applications Using NLP

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Lewerenz, A. S. 1930. "Vocabulary grade placement of typical newspaper content."

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Language model perplexity (comparing the text to generic or genre-specific models)

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Shorter sentences and concrete terms help people to make sense of what is written.

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Feng, Lijun; Jansche, Martin; Huernerfauth, Matt; Elhadad, Noémie (August 2010).

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Gough, P. B. 1965. "Grammatical transformations and the speed of understanding."

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no. 187. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.

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sentences. The new formula correlated 0.70 with the McCall-Crabbs reading tests.

4155: 3941: 3902: 3322:

Meyer, B. J. 1982. "Reading research and the teacher: The importance of plans."

1967: 1220:

model to predict the readability, using the computed linguistic feature values.

1096:

To help learning, the teacher should match book reading ease with reading skill.

872: 729: 672: 595: 587: 477: 400: 4079:, eds. B. I. Zakaluk and S. J. Samuels. Newark, DE: International Reading Assn. 3925: 2482:"Applying statistical rigor to a validation study of the fry readability graph" 2481: 2184:

The correlation with comprehension as measured by reading tests is as follows:

3486:

Spyridakis, J. H. 1989. "Signaling effects: A review of the research-Part 1."

3348:

Calfee, R. C. and R. Curley. 1984. "Structures of prose in content areas." In

2497: 1225: 1195: 1047: 979: 839: 808: 579: 575: 567: 487: 415: 410: 333: 303: 3269:

The ATOS readability formula for books and how it compares to other formulas.

3218:

Should textbooks challenge students? The case for easier or harder textbooks.

2729:

Lewerenz, A. S. 1929. "Measurement of the difficulty of reading materials."

2505: 1887:

Grade level= 0.4 * ( (average sentence length) + (percentage of Hard Words) )

996:

In 1963, while teaching English teachers in Uganda, Edward Fry developed his

3837: 3801: 3765: 3703: 3681: 3610: 2873: 2856: 2343: 2294: 1250: 1062:

In 1988, Jack Stenner and his associates at MetaMetrics, Inc. published the

864: 583: 3633: 2966:

Lorge, I. 1939. "Predicting reading difficulty of selections for children.

2316:, data-driven approach (see above) was studied to tackle this shortcoming. 1883:

The Gunning fog formula is one of the most reliable and simplest to apply:

4023: 3742: 3405: 3984:

Dale, E. and J. S. Chall. 1948. '"A formula for predicting readability".

3878: 3861: 3766:"Revisiting Readability: A Unified Framework for Predicting Text Quality" 3021:

Schramm, W. 1947. "Measuring another dimension of newspaper readership."

2431: 2414: 1014:

The Golub Syntactic Density Score was developed by Lester Golub in 1974.

876: 444: 395: 390: 380: 357: 328: 3190:

Kincaid, J. P., R. P. Fishburne, R. L. Rogers, and B. S. Chissom. 1975.

1713:

Reading Ease score = 206.835 − (1.015 × ASL) − (84.6 × ASW)

4122:

The Science of Reading: Information, Media, and Mind in Modern America.

3285: 2301:

is taken into account) and sentence length (as an unreliable proxy for

1332: 1328: 900:

Used vocabulary and sentence length in formulas to predict reading ease

804: 716:

The earliest reading ease assessment is the subjective judgment termed

591: 547: 425: 405: 370: 261: 216: 173: 119: 42: 3940:

Lee, Bruce W.; Jang, Yoo Sung; Lee, Jason Hyung-Jong (November 2021).

3783: 3781: 3779: 3697: 3695: 3034:

Lostutter, M. 1947. "Some critical factors in newspaper readability."

2453:

Dale, Edgar and Jeanne S. Chall. 1949. "The concept of readability."

1148:

progress from simpler story lines to more advanced and abstract ones.

4270: 3862:"Problems in Current Text Simplification Research: New Data Can Help" 3352:, ed. J. Flood. Newark, DE: International Reading Assn., pp. 414–430. 2302: 1303:

created the WeeBit corpus by combining educational articles from the

1063: 571: 3093:

Columbus, OH: Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University.

1784:

PDW = Percentage of difficult words not on the Dale–Chall word list.

50: 3954: 3915: 3665: 3623: 3008:

Murphy, D. 1947. "How plain talk increases readership 45% to 60%."

2608:, vol. 26 (illustrated ed.), CRC Press, pp. 178–79, 2166:

Type-token ratio: the ratio of unique terms to total terms observed

1655:

where the count of discovered topics (n) and topic probability (p)

1000:. It became one of the most popular formulas and easiest to apply. 776:

During the recession of the 1930s, the U.S. government invested in

3997:

McLaughlin, G. H. 1969. "SMOG grading-a new readability formula."

1729:

New reading ease score = 1.599nosw − 1.015sl − 31.517

1269:

by more than 70%. The newly discovered features by Feng include:

4287: 3512:

Halbert, M. G. 1944. "The teaching value of illustrated books."

1913: 1143:

Local coherence, which joins ideas within and between sentences.

1105:

Advanced readers need 92% comprehension for independent reading.

4159: 4051:

How to write in plain English: A book for lawyers and consumers

3682:"A Comparison of Features for Automatic Readability Assessment" 3335:

Armbruster, B. B. 1984. "The problem of inconsiderate text" In

3173:

Caylor, J. S., T. G. Stitch, L. C. Fox, and J. P. Ford. 1973.

2768:

Lewerenz, A. S. 1935. "A vocabulary grade placement formula."

2468:

The Literacy Dictionary, The Vocabulary of Reading and Writing.

1953:

Where N = number of single-syllable words in a 150-word sample.

1481:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{n}}\cdot \sum _{i=1}^{n}max(p)-p_{i}} 1216:

of linguistic features to be computed from each text, and 3. a

3823:

Feng, Lijun; Elhadad, Noémie; Huenerfauth, Matt (March 2009).

3120:

Readability revisited: The new Dale–Chall readability formula.

2627:

Lorge, I. 1944. "Word lists as background for communication."

1961: 954:

In 1948, Bernard Feld did a study of every item and ad in the

863:

settings and regions. The test used a number of passages from

3866:

Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics

3060:

Feld, B. 1948. "Empirical test proves clarity adds readers."

2551:

Smart language: Readers, Readability, and the Grading of Text

1339:

research, but was also used for text readability assessment.

894:

Successfully used statistical methods to analyze reading ease

16:

Level of ease with which a reader can understand written text

3901:

Deutsch, Tovly; Jasbi, Masoud; Shieber, Stuart (July 2020).

3609:

Xia, Menglin; Kochmar, Ekaterina; Briscoe, Ted (June 2016).

3473:

Hornby, P. A. 1974. "Surface structure and presupposition."

2843:

The living word vocabulary: A national vocabulary inventory.

1732:

Where: nosw = number of one-syllable words per 100 words and

3825:"Cognitively motivated features for readability assessment" 3309:

Kemper, S. 1983. "Measuring the inference load of a text."

1212: 3860:

Xu, Wei; Callison-Burch, Chris; Napoles, Courtney (2015).

3611:"Text Readability Assessment for Second Language Learners" 3144:

Fry, E. B. 1968. "A readability formula that saves time."

2855:

He, Shumin 1 1 Country Garden Experimental School (2023).

917:

such as names and personal pronouns. Another variable was

3579:

Proceedings of Joint Conference on Digital Libraries 2012

3361:

Dolch. E. W. 1939. "Fact burden and reading difficulty."

2571:

Know Your Reader: The scientific approach to readability.

2308:

Most experts agree that simple readability formulas like

2169:

Ratio of function words, in comparison to the full corpus

691:

Over time, text becomes easier if it is more like speech.

616:

the ease with which humans can read computer program code

2163:

Out-of-vocabulary rate, in comparison to the full corpus

4134: 1892:

Where: Hard Words = words with more than two syllables.

1059:

system used by the College Entrance Examination Board.

909:

In 1943, Rudolf Flesch published his PhD dissertation,

3525:

Vernon, M. D. 1946. "Learning from graphic material."

3464:

ed. R. O. Freedle. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Press, pp. 1–40.

3091:

Readability: An appraisal of research and application.

2466:

Harris, Theodore L. and Richard E. Hodges, eds. 1995.

2293:

word length (which is used as an unreliable proxy for

1067:

works often read by students in grades three to nine.

25:

Computer programming § Readability of source code

2819:

36:1–19, 123–44, 229–41. October, November, December.

2815:

Thorndike, E. 1934. "Improving the ability to read."

2653:

Fry, E. B. 2002. "Text readability versus leveling."

2642:

Becoming literate: The construction of inner control.

1496: 1412: 1356: 3229:

Bormuth, J. R. 1966. "Readability: A new approach."

2415:"Text Simplification to Specific Readability Levels" 1756:

Select several 100-word samples throughout the text.

649:

The two publications with the largest circulations,

3542:

Washington, D. C: American Institutes for Research.

2172:

Ratio of pronouns, in comparison to the full corpus

1043:Raygor readability estimate was developed in 1977. 1644: 1480: 1396: 1108:Book length can be a good measure of reading ease. 3598:, New York: Guilford Publications, pp. 82–98 879:and in establishing fundamental reading habits." 682:Literature is a subject for statistical analysis. 3903:"Linguistic Features for Readability Assessment" 3284:Madison, WI: School Renaissance Institute, Inc. 3047:Flesch, R. 1948. "A new readability yardstick." 1771:Raw score = 0.1579*(PDW) + 0.0496*(ASL) + 3.6365 3589: 3587: 3339:, ed. G. Duffy. New York: Longmann, p. 202–217. 3271:Madison, WI: School Renaissance Institute, Inc. 3157:Doak, C. C., L. G. Doak, and J. H. Root. 1996. 2994:Columbia University contributions to education, 2605:Encyclopedia of library and information science 4113:Vacca, J. A., R. Vacca, and M. K. Gove. 1995. 3702:Vajjala, Sowmya; Meurers, Detmar (June 2012). 3501:Journal of technical writing and communication 3488:Journal of technical writing and communication 3475:Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior 3433:Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior 1283:Average number of entity mentions per sentence 1280:Average number of unique entities per sentence 4171: 3646: 3644: 1211:Unlike the traditional readability formulas, 516: 8: 4145:Text Content Analysis Tool -UsingEnglish.com 3790:International Journal of Applied Linguistics 3764:Pitler, Emily; Nenkova, Ani (October 2008). 2565: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2320:tone, typography, design, and organization. 1335:. The corpus was originally introduced for 732:were the best contributors to reading ease. 3988:January 21 and February 17, 27:1–20, 37–54. 3375: 3373: 3371: 2924:University of Iowa studies in child welfare 2895:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2533:Readability: Its past, present, and future, 1996:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1397:{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}p_{i}\cdot i} 1289:Total number of entity mentions in document 1286:Total number of unique entities in document 1245:Average number of verb phrases per sentence 1242:Average number of noun phrases per sentence 1025:Suitable for the young adult-male recruits. 4178: 4164: 4156: 4077:Readability: Its past, present, and future 3443: 3441: 3169: 3167: 3161:. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 3159:Teaching patients with low literacy skills 3004: 3002: 2979:Lorge, I. 1944. "Predicting readability." 2694:Educational administration and supervision 2594: 2592: 1868:Raw score = 64 - 0.95 *(PDW) - 0.69 *(ASL) 871:). About one-third read at the 2nd to 6th- 523: 509: 29: 3953: 3924: 3914: 3877: 3836: 3664: 3632: 3622: 2872: 2757:Los Angeles educational research bulletin 2744:Los Angeles educational research bulletin 2731:Los Angeles educational research bulletin 2430: 2016:Learn how and when to remove this message 1633: 1623: 1608: 1607: 1598: 1585: 1574: 1559: 1544: 1543: 1534: 1521: 1510: 1503: 1495: 1472: 1441: 1430: 1413: 1411: 1382: 1372: 1361: 1355: 688:Speech is easier to understand than text. 562:, the readability of text depends on its 4252: 4094:How to increase reading ability, 8th Ed. 3207:Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3085: 3083: 2992:Flesch, R. "Marks of a readable style." 2389:"Typographic Readability and Legibility" 2186: 2047: 1793: 1265:model, can correct the average error of 1055:, which was used in 1981 to produce the 197:Directed listening and thinking activity 3462:Discourse production and comprehension, 3300:Newark, DE: International Reading Assn. 3101: 3099: 3077:. Ames, Iowa: University of Iowa Press. 2949: 2947: 2945: 2804:The teacher's word book of 30,000 words 2670:Newark, DE: International Reading Assn. 2545: 2543: 2541: 2520:Varied uses of readability measurement. 2470:Newark, DE: International Reading Assn. 2380: 2154:Corpus of Contemporary American English 1099:Reading often helps with reading gains. 41: 3651:Lee, Bruce W.; Lee, Jason (Dec 2020). 3194:CNTECHTRA Research Branch Report 8-75. 2888: 1735:sl = average sentence length in words. 4124:Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3324:College composition and communication 3216:Chall, J. S. and S. S. Conard. 1991. 3179:Human Resources Research Organization 3135:. London: Cambridge University Press. 2913:Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 801:Teachers College, Columbia University 7: 4196:Tests and formulas that measure the 4106:Manzo, A. V. and U. C. Manzo. 1995. 4101:Teaching children to read and write. 3286:http://www.renlearn.com/GIRP2008.pdf 3267:School Renaissance Institute. 2000. 3231:Reading research quarterly 1:79–132. 2957:. Chicago: Chicago University Press. 2845:World Book-Childcraft International. 2666:Fry, Edward B. 2006. "Readability." 2480:Fusaro, Joseph A. (September 1988). 2160:Average number of syllables per word 1994:adding citations to reliable sources 1116:Measuring coherence and organization 1022:Based on Army-job reading materials. 322:Reading differences and disabilities 4140:Readability Tests - Joe's Web Tools 3948:. EMNLP '21. pp. 10669–10686. 3350:Understanding reading comprehension 3243:Development of readability analysis 4092:Harris, A. J. and E. Sipay. 1985. 3540:Guidelines for document designers. 750:In 1934, educational psychologist 14: 4108:Teaching children to be literate. 3311:Journal of educational psychology 3220:New York: Teachers College Press. 2770:Journal of experimental education 1765:Compute this equation from 1948: 678:Sherman's work established that: 4236:Flesch–Kincaid readability tests 3596:Rethinking reading comprehension 3118:Chall, J. S. and E. Dale. 1995. 2953:Gray, W. S. and B. Leary. 1935. 2841:Dale, E. and J. O'Rourke. 1981. 2569:Klare, G. R. and B. Buck. 1954. 2553:. Costa Mesa:Impact Information. 2486:Reading Research and Instruction 1966: 1705:Flesch–Kincaid readability tests 574:) and its presentation (such as 120:The active view of reading model 49: 4096:New York & London: Longman. 3964:10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.834 3122:Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. 2911:What adults want to read about. 2909:Waples, D. and R. Tyler. 1931. 2830:Journal of educational research 1864:The new Dale-Chall formula is: 1299:In 2012, Sowmya Vajjala at the 967:Formula refinement and variants 790:What Adults Want to Read About. 4230:Dale–Chall readability formula 4064:How to write readable English. 3381:The Technique of Clear Writing 3107:Journal of Applied Psychology. 3075:The measurement of readability 2369:Bourbaki dangerous bend symbol 1748:Dale–Chall readability formula 1679:Number of different hard words 1630: 1620: 1613: 1591: 1567: 1556: 1549: 1527: 1462: 1456: 974:The Technique of Clear Writing 946:In 1948, Flesch published his 735:In 1923, Bertha A. Lively and 558:though in different forms. In 93:Scientific theories and models 1: 4151:Check text readability online 4115:Reading and learning to read. 3986:Educational research bulletin 3735:10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00034-1 3566:Journal of Applied Psychology 3553:Journal of Applied Psychology 3527:British journal of psychology 3514:American school board journal 3449:Journal of Applied Psychology 3049:Journal of Applied Psychology 2582:Sherman, Lucius Adelno 1893. 1958:Golub Syntactic Density Score 1787:ASL = Average sentence length 550:. The concept exists in both 2180:Readability formula accuracy 1907: 1292:Average lexical chain length 1085:average grade level of words 890:By 1940, investigators had: 602:, things such as programmer 23:. For code readability, see 4282:Raygor readability estimate 4213:Automated readability index 4110:Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace. 4016:The Art of Readable Writing 3398:The Art of Readable Writing 3298:Teaching: Research reviews. 3282:Guided independent reading. 2861:The Educational Review, USA 1255:City University of New York 1005:automated readability index 905:Readership formula adoption 860:What Makes a Book Readable, 4352: 4294:Spache readability formula 4246:Flesch–Kincaid grade level 4147:, free membership required 2955:What makes a book readable 2668:Reading Hall of Fame Book. 2644:Portsmouth, NH: Heinneman. 2310:Flesch–Kincaid grade-level 2233:Original Dale‐Chall (1948) 2222:Flesch Reading Ease (1948) 1944:Grade level = 20 − ( 1911: 1900: 1876: 1745: 1702: 1688:Percentage of unique words 1344:University of Pennsylvania 1321:University of Pennsylvania 1317:University of Pennsylvania 1295:Average lexical chain span 1267:Flesch–Kincaid grade-level 1230:University of Pennsylvania 1034:Flesch–Kincaid grade-level 991:Spache readability formula 924:In 1947, Donald Murphy of 115:Scarborough's Reading Rope 18: 4208: 4194: 3363:Elementary English review 3337:Comprehension instruction 2968:Elementary English Review 2802:. 1944 (with J.E. Lorge) 2783:Elementary English review 2718:Elementary school journal 2573:New York: Heritage House. 2498:10.1080/19388078809557957 2305:complexity) of the work. 1908:McLaughlin's SMOG formula 1799: 1796: 1725:The modified formula is: 1709:The original formula is: 1350:Semantic Richness : 1323:), and Courtney Napoles ( 1319:), Chris Callison-Burch ( 1239:Average parse tree height 1182:Diagrams and line graphs; 1170:Active and passive voice; 911:Marks of a Readable Style 856:Xavier College in Chicago 538:is the ease with which a 344:Reading for special needs 4117:New York: HarperCollins. 4103:Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 3926:10.18653/v1/2020.bea-1.1 3383:. New York: McGraw–Hill. 1406:Semantic Clarity : 1325:Johns Hopkins University 232:Sustained silent reading 4259:Fry readability formula 3838:10.3115/1609067.1609092 3802:10.1075/itl.165.2.01col 3133:Teaching faster reading 2981:Teachers college record 2874:10.26855/er.2023.07.014 2817:Teachers college record 2796:The teacher's word book 2679:Kitson, Harry D. 1921. 2629:Teachers College Record 2393:Web Design Envato Tuts+ 2314:artificial intelligence 2201:Gray & Leary (1935) 1903:Fry readability formula 1259:intellectual disability 1236:Average sentence length 1213:artificial intelligence 1207:Artificial Intelligence 1057:Degree of Reading Power 1007:was developed in 1967. 993:was developed in 1952. 566:(the complexity of its 227:Structured word inquiry 4038:The art of plain talk. 2681:The Mind of the Buyer. 2586:. Boston: Ginn and Co. 2297:difficulty; sometimes 2266:McLaughlin Smog (1969) 1848:Grades 13–15 (college) 1752:To apply the formula: 1646: 1590: 1526: 1490:Semantic Noise : 1482: 1446: 1398: 1377: 1301:University of Tübingen 1092:They also found that: 759:, which contained the 150:Phonological awareness 105:Simple view of reading 75:Vocabulary development 4120:Johns, Adrian. 2023. 4099:Ruddell, R. B. 1999. 3254:Bormuth, J. R. 1971. 3241:Bormuth, J. R. 1969. 2349:Accessible publishing 2211:Flesch‐Kincaid (1948) 1897:Fry readability graph 1856:Grades 16 and above. 1693:prepositional phrases 1647: 1570: 1506: 1483: 1426: 1399: 1357: 854:and Bernice Leary of 852:University of Chicago 726:The Mind of the Buyer 623:reading comprehension 556:programming languages 473:Functional illiteracy 21:Readability (service) 19:For the website, see 4053:. New York: Harpers. 4018:. New York: Harper. 3879:10.1162/tacl_a_00139 3831:. pp. 229–237. 3686:Coling 2010: Posters 3634:10.18653/v1/W16-0502 3400:. New York: Harper. 3062:Editor and publisher 3036:Journalism quarterly 3023:Journalism quarterly 2794:Thorndike E.L. 1921 2683:New York: Macmillan. 2432:10.3390/math11092063 1990:improve this section 1659:Readability formulas 1494: 1410: 1354: 915:personal references, 578:aspects that affect 366:Alphabetic principle 299:Automatic assessment 4241:Flesch reading ease 4066:London: Hutchinson. 4062:Klare, G. R. 1980. 3203:Vygotsky, L. 1978. 3146:Journal of reading 3089:Chall, J. S. 1958. 3073:Klare, G. R. 1963. 2549:DuBay, W. H. 2006. 2291:statistical average 1919:SMOG grading = 3 + 1873:Gunning fog formula 1337:text simplification 1263:logistic regression 1158:Difficult concepts; 1088:characters per word 1048:Cloze deletion test 772:Readability studies 386:History of printing 222:Reciprocal teaching 207:Independent reading 174:Reading instruction 133:Cognitive processes 80:Vocabulary learning 4224:Coleman–Liau index 3999:Journal of reading 3503:19, no. 4:395–415. 3420:Psychology reports 3379:Gunning, R. 1952. 3313:75, no. 3:391–401. 3109:35, no. 5:333–357. 2657:56 no. 23:286–292. 2455:Elementary English 2244:Gunning Fog (1952) 1923:polysyllable count 1742:Dale–Chall formula 1642: 1478: 1394: 1179:The use of images; 1082:words per sentence 1053:Mean Cloze Formula 757:Teachers Word Book 483:Literary criticism 339:Reading disability 145:Phonemic awareness 110:Science of reading 4336:Reading (process) 4326:Readability tests 4303: 4302: 4265:Gunning fog index 4187:Readability tests 4049:Flesch, R. 1979. 4040:New York: Harper. 4036:Flesch, R. 1946. 3516:108, no. 5:43–44. 3490:19, no 3:227-240. 3177:. Alexander, VA: 3131:Fry, E. B. 1963. 2937:Library quarterly 2518:Fry, E. B. 1986. 2287: 2286: 2144: 2143: 2026: 2025: 2018: 1879:Gunning fog index 1860: 1859: 1808:Grade 4 and below 1684:personal pronouns 1640: 1616: 1552: 1421: 1327:) introduced the 1188:Fonts and layout; 998:Readability Graph 737:Sidney L. Pressey 653:(13 million) and 592:character spacing 533: 532: 453:Critical literacy 237:Synthetic phonics 212:Literature circle 100:Dual route theory 70:Reading readiness 4343: 4316:Learning to read 4180: 4173: 4166: 4157: 4080: 4073: 4067: 4060: 4054: 4047: 4041: 4034: 4028: 4027: 4008: 4002: 3995: 3989: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3957: 3937: 3931: 3930: 3928: 3918: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3881: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3840: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3785: 3774: 3773: 3761: 3755: 3754: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3699: 3690: 3689: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3648: 3639: 3638: 3636: 3626: 3606: 3600: 3599: 3591: 3582: 3575: 3569: 3562: 3556: 3549: 3543: 3536: 3530: 3523: 3517: 3510: 3504: 3497: 3491: 3484: 3478: 3471: 3465: 3458: 3452: 3445: 3436: 3429: 3423: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3390: 3384: 3377: 3366: 3359: 3353: 3346: 3340: 3333: 3327: 3326:33, no. 1:37–49. 3320: 3314: 3307: 3301: 3294: 3288: 3278: 3272: 3265: 3259: 3252: 3246: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3214: 3208: 3205:Mind in society. 3201: 3195: 3188: 3182: 3171: 3162: 3155: 3149: 3142: 3136: 3129: 3123: 3116: 3110: 3103: 3094: 3087: 3078: 3071: 3065: 3058: 3052: 3045: 3039: 3032: 3026: 3019: 3013: 3006: 2997: 2990: 2984: 2977: 2971: 2964: 2958: 2951: 2940: 2933: 2927: 2920: 2914: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2894: 2886: 2876: 2852: 2846: 2839: 2833: 2826: 2820: 2813: 2807: 2792: 2786: 2779: 2773: 2766: 2760: 2753: 2747: 2740: 2734: 2727: 2721: 2714: 2708: 2703: 2697: 2690: 2684: 2677: 2671: 2664: 2658: 2651: 2645: 2638: 2632: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2596: 2587: 2580: 2574: 2567: 2554: 2547: 2536: 2529: 2523: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2477: 2471: 2464: 2458: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2434: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2401: 2400: 2385: 2255:Fry Graph (1963) 2187: 2048: 2021: 2014: 2010: 2007: 2001: 1970: 1962: 1940:The formula is: 1925: 1924: 1794: 1651: 1649: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1639: 1638: 1637: 1628: 1627: 1618: 1617: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1589: 1584: 1565: 1564: 1563: 1554: 1553: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1525: 1520: 1504: 1487: 1485: 1484: 1479: 1477: 1476: 1445: 1440: 1422: 1414: 1403: 1401: 1400: 1395: 1387: 1386: 1376: 1371: 1228:. Emily Pitler ( 1218:machine learning 1176:Structural cues; 1064:Lexile Framework 926:Wallace's Farmer 822:parent education 752:Edward Thorndike 702:unfamiliar words 560:natural language 552:natural language 525: 518: 511: 421:Written language 309:Readability test 277:Words per minute 192:Concept-oriented 182:Analytic phonics 160:Word recognition 62:Learning to read 53: 30: 4351: 4350: 4346: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4306: 4305: 4304: 4299: 4204: 4190: 4184: 4131: 4089: 4087:Further reading 4084: 4083: 4074: 4070: 4061: 4057: 4048: 4044: 4035: 4031: 4010: 4009: 4005: 3996: 3992: 3983: 3979: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3822: 3821: 3817: 3787: 3786: 3777: 3763: 3762: 3758: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3701: 3700: 3693: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3650: 3649: 3642: 3608: 3607: 3603: 3593: 3592: 3585: 3576: 3572: 3568:41, no 1:41–45. 3563: 3559: 3555:39, no 1:40–42. 3550: 3546: 3537: 3533: 3524: 3520: 3511: 3507: 3498: 3494: 3485: 3481: 3472: 3468: 3459: 3455: 3446: 3439: 3430: 3426: 3417: 3413: 3392: 3391: 3387: 3378: 3369: 3360: 3356: 3347: 3343: 3334: 3330: 3321: 3317: 3308: 3304: 3295: 3291: 3280:Paul, T. 2003. 3279: 3275: 3266: 3262: 3253: 3249: 3240: 3236: 3228: 3224: 3215: 3211: 3202: 3198: 3189: 3185: 3172: 3165: 3156: 3152: 3143: 3139: 3130: 3126: 3117: 3113: 3104: 3097: 3088: 3081: 3072: 3068: 3059: 3055: 3046: 3042: 3033: 3029: 3020: 3016: 3007: 3000: 2991: 2987: 2978: 2974: 2965: 2961: 2952: 2943: 2934: 2930: 2921: 2917: 2908: 2904: 2887: 2854: 2853: 2849: 2840: 2836: 2827: 2823: 2814: 2810: 2793: 2789: 2780: 2776: 2767: 2763: 2754: 2750: 2741: 2737: 2728: 2724: 2715: 2711: 2704: 2700: 2691: 2687: 2678: 2674: 2665: 2661: 2655:Reading Teacher 2652: 2648: 2640:Clay, M. 1991. 2639: 2635: 2626: 2622: 2616: 2598: 2597: 2590: 2581: 2577: 2568: 2557: 2548: 2539: 2530: 2526: 2517: 2513: 2479: 2478: 2474: 2465: 2461: 2452: 2448: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2398: 2396: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2377: 2359:William S. Gray 2354:George R. Klare 2330: 2196:Standard Error 2182: 2149: 2147:Lexico-semantic 2043: 2022: 2011: 2005: 2002: 1987: 1971: 1960: 1938: 1936:FORCAST formula 1922: 1920: 1916: 1910: 1905: 1899: 1881: 1875: 1750: 1744: 1707: 1701: 1699:Flesch formulas 1675:sentence length 1666: 1661: 1629: 1619: 1594: 1566: 1555: 1530: 1505: 1492: 1491: 1468: 1408: 1407: 1378: 1352: 1351: 1209: 1167:Nominalization; 1164:Human interest; 1118: 984:Jeanne S. Chall 969: 956:Birmingham News 907: 848:William S. Gray 778:adult education 774: 714: 668: 663: 655:Reader's Digest 640: 631: 612:choice of names 610:structure, and 529: 500: 499: 468:Family literacy 463:Distant reading 448: 447: 436: 435: 376:Dolch word list 361: 360: 349: 348: 324: 323: 314: 313: 294: 293: 282: 281: 257: 256: 247: 246: 177: 176: 165: 164: 155:Subvocalization 135: 134: 125: 124: 95: 94: 85: 84: 65: 64: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4349: 4347: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4308: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4279: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4233: 4227: 4221: 4216: 4209: 4206: 4205: 4195: 4192: 4191: 4185: 4183: 4182: 4175: 4168: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4148: 4142: 4137: 4130: 4129:External links 4127: 4126: 4125: 4118: 4111: 4104: 4097: 4088: 4085: 4082: 4081: 4068: 4055: 4042: 4029: 4003: 3990: 3977: 3932: 3893: 3852: 3815: 3775: 3756: 3713: 3691: 3672: 3640: 3601: 3583: 3570: 3557: 3544: 3531: 3518: 3505: 3492: 3479: 3466: 3453: 3437: 3424: 3411: 3385: 3367: 3354: 3341: 3328: 3315: 3302: 3289: 3273: 3260: 3247: 3234: 3222: 3209: 3196: 3183: 3163: 3150: 3137: 3124: 3111: 3095: 3079: 3066: 3053: 3040: 3027: 3014: 3010:Printer's ink. 2998: 2985: 2972: 2959: 2941: 2928: 2915: 2902: 2867:(7): 927–932. 2847: 2834: 2821: 2808: 2787: 2774: 2761: 2748: 2735: 2722: 2709: 2698: 2685: 2672: 2659: 2646: 2633: 2620: 2614: 2588: 2575: 2555: 2537: 2524: 2511: 2472: 2459: 2446: 2405: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2372: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2339:Plain language 2336: 2334:Asemic writing 2329: 2326: 2299:word frequency 2285: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2277:FORCAST (1973) 2274: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2241: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2198: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2031: 2024: 2023: 2006:September 2024 1974: 1972: 1965: 1959: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1950: 1949: 1937: 1934: 1933: 1932: 1928: 1927: 1912:Main article: 1909: 1906: 1901:Main article: 1898: 1895: 1894: 1893: 1889: 1888: 1877:Main article: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1869: 1858: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1841: 1838: 1834: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1825: 1822: 1818: 1817: 1814: 1810: 1809: 1806: 1802: 1801: 1798: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1772: 1769: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1746:Main article: 1743: 1740: 1739: 1738: 1737: 1736: 1733: 1723: 1722: 1721: 1720: 1717: 1703:Main article: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1689: 1686: 1680: 1677: 1665: 1664:Gray and Leary 1662: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1652: 1636: 1632: 1626: 1622: 1615: 1612: 1606: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1562: 1558: 1551: 1548: 1542: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1502: 1499: 1488: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1420: 1417: 1404: 1393: 1390: 1385: 1381: 1375: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275:lexical chains 1247: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1208: 1205: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1090: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1023: 968: 965: 906: 903: 902: 901: 898: 895: 834:Also in 1934, 782:Douglas Waples 773: 770: 713: 710: 706:long sentences 693: 692: 689: 686: 683: 667: 666:Early research 664: 662: 659: 639: 636: 630: 627: 614:can determine 531: 530: 528: 527: 520: 513: 505: 502: 501: 498: 497: 496: 495: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 449: 443: 442: 441: 438: 437: 434: 433: 431:Writing system 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 362: 356: 355: 354: 351: 350: 347: 346: 341: 336: 331: 325: 321: 320: 319: 316: 315: 312: 311: 306: 301: 295: 289: 288: 287: 284: 283: 280: 279: 274: 269: 264: 258: 254: 253: 252: 249: 248: 245: 244: 242:Whole language 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 202:Guided reading 199: 194: 189: 184: 178: 172: 171: 170: 167: 166: 163: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 136: 132: 131: 130: 127: 126: 123: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 96: 92: 91: 90: 87: 86: 83: 82: 77: 72: 66: 60: 59: 58: 55: 54: 46: 45: 39: 38: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4348: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4331:Plain English 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4313: 4311: 4295: 4292: 4289: 4286: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4277:Linsear Write 4275: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4260: 4257: 4254: 4251: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4238: 4237: 4234: 4231: 4228: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4214: 4211: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4193: 4188: 4181: 4176: 4174: 4169: 4167: 4162: 4161: 4158: 4152: 4149: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4116: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4102: 4098: 4095: 4091: 4090: 4086: 4078: 4072: 4069: 4065: 4059: 4056: 4052: 4046: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4030: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4007: 4004: 4000: 3994: 3991: 3987: 3981: 3978: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3933: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3856: 3853: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3796:(2): 97–135. 3795: 3791: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3760: 3757: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3698: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3647: 3645: 3641: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3605: 3602: 3597: 3590: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3567: 3561: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3545: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3506: 3502: 3496: 3493: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3467: 3463: 3457: 3454: 3450: 3444: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3428: 3425: 3421: 3415: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3329: 3325: 3319: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3274: 3270: 3264: 3261: 3257: 3251: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3226: 3223: 3219: 3213: 3210: 3206: 3200: 3197: 3193: 3187: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3134: 3128: 3125: 3121: 3115: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3070: 3067: 3063: 3057: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3037: 3031: 3028: 3024: 3018: 3015: 3011: 3005: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2969: 2963: 2960: 2956: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2932: 2929: 2925: 2919: 2916: 2912: 2906: 2903: 2898: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2851: 2848: 2844: 2838: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2822: 2818: 2812: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2791: 2788: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2771: 2765: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2736: 2732: 2726: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2710: 2707: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2686: 2682: 2676: 2673: 2669: 2663: 2660: 2656: 2650: 2647: 2643: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2624: 2621: 2617: 2615:9780824720261 2611: 2607: 2606: 2601: 2600:Choldin, M.T. 2595: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2579: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2528: 2525: 2521: 2515: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2463: 2460: 2456: 2450: 2447: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2406: 2394: 2390: 2384: 2381: 2374: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2331: 2327: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2257: 2254: 2253: 2249: 2246: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2220: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2199: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2188: 2185: 2179: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2157: 2155: 2146: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2049: 2046: 2040: 2036: 2030: 2020: 2017: 2009: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1985: 1984: 1980: 1975:This section 1973: 1969: 1964: 1963: 1957: 1952: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1942: 1941: 1935: 1930: 1929: 1918: 1917: 1915: 1904: 1896: 1891: 1890: 1886: 1885: 1884: 1880: 1872: 1867: 1866: 1865: 1862: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1844: 1843: 1839: 1836: 1835: 1831: 1828: 1827: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1807: 1805:4.9 and below 1804: 1803: 1795: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1779: 1778: 1770: 1767: 1766: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1753: 1749: 1741: 1734: 1731: 1730: 1728: 1727: 1726: 1718: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1678: 1676: 1672: 1671: 1670: 1663: 1658: 1656: 1634: 1624: 1610: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1586: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1560: 1546: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1522: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1507: 1500: 1497: 1489: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1459: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1415: 1405: 1391: 1388: 1383: 1379: 1373: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1358: 1349: 1348: 1347: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1310: 1306: 1305:Weekly Reader 1302: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1272: 1271: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1253:study at the 1252: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1221: 1219: 1214: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1197: 1191:Document age. 1190: 1187: 1185:Highlighting; 1184: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1173:Embeddedness; 1172: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1161:Idea density; 1160: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1127: 1126:Walter Kintch 1122: 1115: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1093: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1079: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1042: 1041:Linsear Write 1037: 1035: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1008: 1006: 1001: 999: 994: 992: 987: 985: 981: 977: 975: 966: 964: 960: 957: 952: 949: 944: 943: 940: 934: 930: 927: 922: 920: 916: 912: 904: 899: 896: 893: 892: 891: 888: 886: 880: 878: 874: 870: 869:seventh grade 866: 861: 857: 853: 849: 844: 841: 837: 832: 830: 825: 823: 817: 815: 814:Rudolf Flesch 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 791: 787: 783: 779: 771: 769: 765: 762: 758: 753: 748: 745: 741: 738: 733: 731: 727: 721: 719: 718:text leveling 711: 709: 707: 703: 697: 690: 687: 684: 681: 680: 679: 676: 674: 665: 660: 658: 656: 652: 647: 644: 637: 635: 628: 626: 624: 619: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 526: 521: 519: 514: 512: 507: 506: 504: 503: 494: 491: 490: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 458:Close reading 456: 454: 451: 450: 446: 440: 439: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 363: 359: 353: 352: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 326: 318: 317: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 296: 292: 286: 285: 278: 275: 273: 272:Speed reading 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 259: 251: 250: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 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