421:, males prefer to have a longer copulatory duration for maximal sperm transfer and formation of a copulatory plug which aids in mate-guarding the female. If copulation lasts longer, males can produce larger plugs to reduce re-mating in females. However, if the quality or quantity of sperm transfer and copulatory plug is not adequate, the frequency of re-mating increases. Copulatory plug mass is also influenced by male body size, female body size, and the number of prior mating in that season. However, females prefer shorter copulation to prevent injury to their reproductive tract, suffocation, exhaustion, and risk of predation. Female genitalia often bleeds during and after copulation as penetration of the basal spine harms cloacal tissues while locking genitals. To shorten the copulatory period, female snakes perform axial rotation and roll their body to disturb cloacal alignment with males. They also use vaginal muscles and cloacal tissues to force males away. Females also avoid large mating aggregations and prefer dens with fewer male pheromones to avoid distress or death due to exhaustion or forcible insemination. Females also display post-copulatory sexual selection by re-mating or using sperm stored from the prior mating season, which increases sperm competition. It is common in red-sided garter snakes to have multiple paternity of offspring mainly by using stored sperm.
320:, and renal sex segment. Testes produce sperm that are transported by epididymis to the vas deferens, which then transfer the sperm to hemipenes. These snakes have a double penis with one testis supplying seminal fluid to each hemipenis. Hemipenes are saclike organs that facilitate sperm transfer to the female. During winter, the segment of the vas deferens is used for sperm storage. The function of the renal sex segment is to produce copulatory pheromones and the granules for formation of a copulatory plug. The female reproductive system consists of ovaries, an oviduct, and cloaca. The ovaries and oviducts are long due to the streamlined body of the snake. Multiple
291:. The young snakes mostly feed on earthworms. Soon after feeding, close to the end of summer, the adult snakes return to their dens for winter hibernation. The young snakes, around one-year-old, spend more time in marshy areas to find food before the winter temperatures arrive and hibernate there as their small size makes them unnoticeable to predators. During hibernation, the energy stored from summer feeding is used for body growth and maintenance to survive in subzero temperatures for months.
44:
404:
migrating to feeding grounds immediately after mating to avoid any injury or suffocation due to the mass gathering of males, who stay at dens till the end of breeding season. Along with mate-guarding the females, mating plugs also play an important role in initiating transfer of recently deposited sperm, evacuating stored sperm in the oviduct from previous matings, preventing sperm leakage, and acting as
350:, mating is largely based on the courtship tactics of males. Males prefer to mate with females who are unmated so they check females for any evidence of previous mating by studying their pheromonal trails for presence of copulatory pheromones or a copulatory plug by tongue-flicking in female cloaca and chin-rubbing to transfer pheromones from skin or cloaca to
31:
409:
are not receptive as these changes can be determined by the female's pheromonal trails from miles away. Female attractiveness decreases due to the presence of copulatory pheromones rather than changes in sex-attractiveness pheromones. The duration of release of copulatory pheromones coincides with the duration of a copulatory plug.
378:. After the male red-sided garter snake performs courtship behavior, if the female is sexually receptive, she remains steady, breathes rapidly, lifts her tail and gapes her cloacal opening. However, if she is unreceptive, she will reject the advances by strongly vibrating her tail and moving away from the courting males.
365:
When a male finds a female attractive, male shows increased frequency of tongue-flicking, chin pressing, tail searching, body contractions, caudocephalic waving, and attempts to align his body and cloaca to that of females to increase his mating possibility. However, as the sex ratio during emergence
370:
between males and results in male-male combat to secure the mate where males try to keep other males away from the females by ‘tail wrestling’ in which they insert their tails between the female and other courting males to force them off. Larger males with uninjured basal spine are benefited in such
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period is about 3 to 4 months, and the young ones reach sexual maturity at 1.5 or 2 years of life. In this species, the offspring are usually born before the adults re-enter winter dormancy, and immediately after birth, adult male and female snakes migrate back to their dens and re-enter hibernation
391:
in the female cloaca that seals the cloaca by attaching the jelly-like substance to the cloacal wall. Average copulation lasts about 15 to 17 minutes, of which eight or more minutes are dedicated for sperm transfer and 2 to 5 minutes for the transfer of plug granules from the renal sex segment that
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During intromission, the male attempts to roll up the female's tail with his tail, aligning his cloaca with the female, and widens her cloaca by attaching the hooks at the base of hemipenes to cloacal scales for locking their cloacas together. Then males insert one of their hemipenis bases into the
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in females. After copulation, female attractiveness reduces due to seminal fluid and plug granules ejaculated in the female oviduct, which alters female pheromones that determine their attractiveness and receptivity Fewer males court these females to minimize the time spent on courting females who
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together, in a shared underground communal den, for about eight months each year to protect themselves from cold weather and predators. When the temperature rises around 25 °C, it leads to the emergence of these snakes from their dens and triggers mating behavior. Since food or water is not
332:
The behavior and physiology of red-sided garter snakes is heavily influenced by seasonal changes in the environment. Temperature is one of the most crucial factors in regulating the life cycle of this species. During mating season, males emerge first, all together in big groups, whereas females
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mating system, which means that males mate with multiple females each season. During the mating season, male snakes form a mating ball near the dens and court females as they emerge. Each female is courted by hundreds of males upon emergence. After mating, males and females move to mossy summer
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among males is induced due to copulatory plug, as the primary function of the plug is to prevent re-mating in females by maintaining a reproductive barrier that blocks the female cloacal opening for about 72 hours after mating. Around that time, most females either become unreceptive or start
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available close to dens, the snakes migrate to feeding grounds after mating. In summer, the snakes move to mossy or marshy areas where they look for food. Adult snakes feed only for 2 to 3 months during summer, whereas the young ones feed till the start of winter. The adult primarily feed on
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where they gather around at the opening of the communal dens and start courting the females as soon as they emerge from dormancy. The courtship from males can continue from minutes to hours, but due to vigorous courting from males, females typically mate within 30 minutes after emerging.
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The red-sided garter snakes have an upper row of well-defined red spots, and lower row with patches of red color that smear on the dark area on either side of their back. These snakes have multiple yellow stripes present on their body.
266:, where females are usually larger than males. The females can range from 18 to 24 inches in length, whereas males can grow up to 12 to 18 inches. The snakes of this subspecies are mainly non-venomous.
374:
However, female snakes exhibit no preference while choosing a mate. Females do not play active role in courtship or compete for mates, however they do play an important role during intromission and
274:
Winter temperatures near their habitat are very harsh and sometimes even drop below zero. During low temperatures in fall and winter, tens of thousands of male and female red-sided garter snakes
1364:
Friesen, C.R.; Kerns, A.R.; Mason, R.T. (2014). "Factors influencing paternity in multiply mated female red-sided garter snakes and the persistent use of sperm stored over winter".
324:(eggs) are present on the elongated ovaries. After mating, it takes up to 6 weeks for sperm to travel through the oviduct and reach the developing follicles in the ovaries.
706:"Reconsidering Reproductive Patterns in a Model Dissociated Species, the Red-Sided Garter Snake: Sex-Specific and Seasonal Changes in Gonadal Steroidogenic Gene Expression"
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combats as they have longer tails which help them push off smaller males easily. Male who manages to keep his cloaca aligned with female the longest, reaches intromission.
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Lutterschmidt, Deborah I., Robert T. Mason (1 October 2009). "Endocrine mechanisms mediating temperature-induced reproductive behavior in red-sided garter snakes (
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Lutterschmidt, Deborah I. (2012). "Chronobiology of reproduction in garter snakes: Neuroendocrine mechanisms and geographic variation".
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emerge singly or in small groups around 1 to 3 weeks after the emergence of males. When females start to emerge, males begin to form
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In red-sided garter snakes, the breeding season usually begins in early spring and lasts for about a month. These snakes exhibit a
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Shine, Richard; Ben
Phillips; Tracy Langkilde; Deborah I. Lutterschmidt; Heather Waye; Robert T. Mason (July 2004).
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1074:"Interactions of Behavior and Physiology during the Annual Reproductive Cycle of the Red-Sided Garter Snake (
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Hawley, Alexander W. L.; Michael
Aleksiuk (1976). "Sexual Receptivity in the Female Red-Sided Garter Snake (
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female cloaca and start sperm transfer. After sperm transfer, males deposit a thick translucent gelatinous
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828:"Courtship Tactics in Garter Snakes: How Do a Male's Morphology and behavior Influence his mating success"
162:
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Friesen, Christopher R.; Emily J. Uhrig; Mattie Squire; Robert T. Mason; Patricia L. R. Brennan (2014).
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is highly male-biased, it is possible that multiple males court the same females together. This raises
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Patterns and mechanisms: Postcopulatory sexual selection and sexual conflict in a novel mating system
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to determine her mating status. Males also display a preference for larger females with longer
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as longer females have higher follicular development, which indicates increased receptivity.
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Seasonal trailing behavior and corticosterone levels in male red-sided garter snakes (
249:. This subspecies is widely spread across northern United States and southern Canada.
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Lincoln, Julianna M., Megan L. Barlowe, Holly R. Rucker, M. Rockwell Parker. (2023).
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The reproductive system of male snakes includes testicles, epididymis, vas deferens,
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680:(MSc thesis). Dissertations and Theses. Vol. 3916. Portland State University.
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than smaller females. Increased female body length indirectly correlates to higher
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843:
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O'Donnell, Ryan P.; Neil B. Ford; Richard Shine; Robert T. Mason (October 2004).
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grounds where they find food and water and birth the offspring. These snakes are
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1124:"Chastity belts in gartersnakes: the functional significance of mating plugs"
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1326:"Mechanisms and consequences of sexual conflict in garter snakes (
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942:"Body Mass and Reproduction in Female Red-Sided Garter Snakes (
990:: Differential Effects on Male and Female Sexual Behavior"
826:
Mason, Robert T., Richard Shine, Tracy
Langkilde. (2004).
1272:) as Indicated by Experimental Manipulation of Genitalia"
1268:"Sexual Conflict over Mating in Red-Sided Garter Snakes (
1072:
Garstka, William R.; Brian
Camazine; David Crews (1982).
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Whittier, Joan M., Robert T. Mason, David Crews. (1985).
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and can birth about 30 young ones in one mating season.
1276:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1174:, Determine female mating status from pheromone trails"
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Shine, Richard; M. M. Olsson; R. T. Mason (July 2000).
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550:"The Ecological Physiology of a Garter Snake"
8:
1034:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
925:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
864:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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313:in early fall before the temperature falls.
245:and is one of the recognized subspecies of
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1128:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
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548:Crews, David; William R. Garstka (1982).
618:The Garter Snakes: Evolution and Ecology
467:The Garter Snakes: Evolution and Ecology
986:"Mating in the Red-Sided Garter Snake,
940:Whittier, Joan M.; David Crews (1990).
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648:(PhD thesis). Oregon State University.
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392:aids in formation of mating plugs.
1141:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb01229.x
574:10.1038/scientificamerican1182-158
14:
469:. University of Oklahoma Press.
42:
1170:"Male Red-Sided Garter Snakes,
885:Journal of Experimental Biology
620:. University of Oklahoma Press.
616:Rossman, Douglas Athon (1996).
465:Rossman, Douglas Athon (1996).
444:Canadian Herpetological Society
287:, and occasionally on mice and
1440:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
1410:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
1218:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
1172:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
1076:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
988:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
944:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
881:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
676:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
260:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
211:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
172:Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis
1:
1557:Reptiles of the United States
1190:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.09.020
844:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.05.007
672:Thinesen, Pamela Kay (1989).
496:Reptarium.cz Reptile Database
342:Mate selection and courtship
788:10.1016/j.ygcen.2011.12.015
1583:
1562:Reptiles described in 1823
723:10.3389/fendo.2023.1135535
710:Frontiers in Endocrinology
596:"NatureServe Explorer 2.0"
1378:10.1007/s00265-014-1749-0
270:Phenology and habitat use
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39:Scientific classification
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28:
23:
1567:Taxa named by Thomas Say
396:Post-copulatory behavior
1547:Snakes of North America
642:Friesen, C. R. (2012).
439:"Red-sided Gartersnake"
368:intrasexual competition
328:Pre-copulatory behavior
24:Red-sided garter snake
1288:10.1098/rspb.2013.2694
206:red-sided garter snake
1347:10.1093/beheco/arh058
956:(2). JSTOR: 219–226.
154:T. s. parietalis
1542:Thamnophis sirtalis
1328:Thamnophis sirtalis
1270:Thamnophis sirtalis
566:1982SciAm.247e.158C
554:Scientific American
491:Thamnophis sirtalis
247:Thamnophis sirtalis
222:, in the subfamily
220:common garter snake
16:Subspecies of snake
1552:Reptiles of Canada
1334:Behavioral Ecology
1282:(1774): 20132694.
1006:10.1007/BF00310989
897:10.1242/jeb.033100
360:sexual receptivity
264:sexually dimorphic
193:Coluber parietalis
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1402:Taxon identifiers
891:(19): 3108–3118.
687:10.15760/etd.5800
401:Sperm competition
356:snout-vent length
352:vomeronasal organ
241:is indigenous to
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1340:(4): 654–660.
1330:, Colubridae)"
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1501:NatureServe
1475:iNaturalist
1434:Wikispecies
716:: 1135535.
178:(Say, 1823)
1536:Categories
425:References
376:copulation
306:viviparous
301:polygynous
285:wood frogs
253:Appearance
232:subspecies
228:Colubridae
224:Natricinae
216:subspecies
127:Thamnophis
116:Colubridae
102:Suborder:
1425:Q15843100
1386:253819264
796:0016-6480
322:follicles
318:hemipenes
310:Gestation
276:hibernate
236:natricine
196:Say, 1823
134:Species:
106:Serpentes
62:Kingdom:
56:Eukaryota
1506:2.105584
1419:Wikidata
1306:24225467
1198:28192328
1022:33478759
913:35337853
905:19749103
804:22210163
742:36992803
733:10040831
582:24966731
450:June 15,
185:Synonyms
112:Family:
96:Squamata
86:Reptilia
76:Chordata
72:Phylum:
66:Animalia
52:Domain:
1467:6161465
1297:3843848
1242:1443979
1150:4843692
1094:3892366
1014:4599775
962:3892907
852:4830666
562:Bibcode
494:at the
218:of the
214:) is a
122:Genus:
92:Order:
82:Class:
1519:183615
1493:209099
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382:Mating
1480:28368
1454:5F7PC
1382:S2CID
1238:JSTOR
1194:S2CID
1146:S2CID
1090:JSTOR
1018:S2CID
1010:JSTOR
958:JSTOR
909:S2CID
848:S2CID
578:JSTOR
289:voles
281:ranid
239:snake
1514:NCBI
1488:ITIS
1462:GBIF
1302:PMID
1226:1976
1220:)".
1036:link
927:link
901:PMID
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866:link
800:PMID
792:ISSN
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738:PMID
471:ISBN
452:2023
283:and
204:The
1449:CoL
1374:doi
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1292:PMC
1284:doi
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1002:doi
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840:doi
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