Reionization - Knowledge (XXG)

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gas through resonant scattering, wherein neutral atoms in the ground (n=1) state absorb Lyman alpha photons and almost immediately re-emit them in a random direction. This obscures Lyman alpha emission from galaxies that are embedded in neutral gas. Thus, experiments to find galaxies by their Lyman alpha light can indicate the ionization state of the surrounding gas. An average density of galaxies with detectable Lyman alpha emission means the surrounding gas must be ionized; while an absence of detectable Lyman alpha sources may indicate neutral regions. A closely related class of experiments measures the Lyman alpha line strength in samples of galaxies identified by other methods (primarily

1754:, which means that the primary candidates are all sources which produce a significant amount of energy in the ultraviolet and above. How numerous the source is must also be considered, as well as the longevity, as protons and electrons will recombine if energy is not continuously provided to keep them apart. Altogether, the critical parameter for any source considered can be summarized as its "emission rate of hydrogen-ionizing photons per unit cosmological volume." With these constraints, it is expected that quasars and first generation 1726: 1863: 559: 36: 1846:, and emit a great deal of light above the threshold for ionizing hydrogen. It is unknown, however, how many quasars existed prior to reionization. Only the brightest of quasars present during reionization can be detected, which means there is no direct information about dimmer quasars that existed. However, by looking at the more easily observed quasars in the nearby universe, and assuming that the 5325: 1854:) during reionization will be approximately the same as it is today, it is possible to make estimates of the quasar populations at earlier times. Such studies have found that quasars do not exist in high enough numbers to reionize the IGM alone, saying that "only if the ionizing background is dominated by low-luminosity AGNs can the quasar luminosity function provide enough ionizing photons." 1584:. However, as the universe expands, the density of free electrons will decrease, and scattering will occur less frequently. In the period during and after reionization, but before significant expansion had occurred to sufficiently lower the electron density, the light that composes the CMB will experience observable Thomson scattering. This scattering will leave its mark on the CMB 1405: 5716: 5690: 571: 1823:, populations of LCEs are now being studied at cosmological redshifts greater than 6, allowing for the first time a detailed and direct assessment of the origins of cosmic Reionization. Combining these large samples of galaxies with new constraints on the UV luminosity function indicates that dwarf galaxies overwhelmingly contribute to Reionization. 1467: > 6). At that time, however, matter had been diffused by the expansion of the universe, and the scattering interactions of photons and electrons were much less frequent than before electron-proton recombination. Thus, the universe was full of low density ionized hydrogen and remained transparent, as is the case today. 1491:. Quasars release an extraordinary amount of energy, being among the brightest objects in the universe. As a result, some quasars are detectable from as long ago as the epoch of reionization. Quasars also happen to have relatively uniform spectral features, regardless of their position in the sky or distance from the 1556: = 6 showed a Gunn-Peterson trough, indicating that the IGM was still at least partly neutral, the ones below did not, meaning the hydrogen was ionized. As reionization is expected to occur over relatively short timescales, the results suggest that the universe was approaching the end of reionization at 1593:

anisotropies are actually introduced because of reionization. By looking at the CMB anisotropies observed, and comparing with what they would look like had reionization not taken place, the electron column density at the time of reionization can be determined. With this, the age of the universe when

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The redshifting for a particular quasar provides temporal information about reionization. Since an object's redshift corresponds to the time at which it emitted the light, it is possible to determine when reionization ended. Quasars below a certain redshift (closer in space and time) do not show the

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galaxy also provides indirect evidence of Population III stars. Even without direct observations of Population III stars, they are a compelling source. They are more efficient and effective ionizers than Population II stars, as they emit more ionizing photons, and are capable of reionizing hydrogen

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causes light to undergo noticeable redshifting. This means that as light from the quasar travels through the IGM and is redshifted, wavelengths which had been below the Lyman Alpha limit are stretched, and will in effect begin to fill in the Lyman absorption band. This means that instead of showing

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light from galaxies offers a complementary tool set to study reionization. The Lyman alpha line is the n=2 to n=1 transition of neutral hydrogen, and can be produced copiously by galaxies with young stars. Moreover, Lyman alpha photons interact strongly with neutral hydrogen in intergalactic

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The earliest application of this method was in 2004, when the tension between late neutral gas indicated by quasar spectra and early reionization suggested by CMB results was strong. The detection of Lyman alpha galaxies at redshift z=6.5 demonstrated that the intergalactic gas was already

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of photons (of all wavelengths) off free electrons (and free protons, to a significantly lesser extent), but it became increasingly transparent as more electrons and protons combined to form neutral hydrogen atoms. While the electrons of neutral hydrogen can absorb photons of some wavelengths by

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Lyman alpha emission can be used in other ways to further probe reionization. Theory suggests that reionization was patchy, meaning that the clustering of Lyman alpha selected samples should be strongly enhanced during the middle phases of reionization. Moreover, specific ionized regions can be

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Zhu, Yongda; Becker, George D.; Bosman, Sarah E. I.; Keating, Laura C.; D’Odorico, Valentina; Davies, Rebecca L.; Christenson, Holly M.; Bañados, Eduardo; Bian, Fuyan; Bischetti, Manuela; Chen, Huanqing; Davies, Frederick B.; Eilers, Anna-Christina; Fan, Xiaohui; Gaikwad, Prakash (2022-06-01).

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Mascia, S.; Pentericci, L.; Calabrò, A.; Santini, P.; Napolitano, L.; Haro, P. Arrabal; Castellano, M.; Dickinson, M.; Ocvirk, P.; Lewis, J. S. W.; Amorín, R.; Bagley, M.; Cleri, R. N. J.; Costantin, L.; Dekel, A. (2024). "New insight on the nature of cosmic reionizers from the CEERS survey".

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For nearby objects in the universe, spectral absorption lines are very sharp, as only photons with energies just sufficient to cause an atomic transition can cause that transition. However, the distances between quasars and the telescopes which detect them are large, which means that the

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Sobral, David; Matthee, Jorryt; Darvish, Behnam; Schaerer, Daniel; Mobasher, Bahram; Röttgering, Huub J. A.; Santos, Sérgio; Hemmati, Shoubaneh (4 June 2015). "Evidence For POPIII-Like Stellar Populations In The Most Luminous LYMAN-α Emitters At The Epoch Of Re-Ionisation: Spectroscopic

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Saldana-Lopez, Alberto; Schaerer, Daniel; Chisholm, John; Flury, Sophia R.; Jaskot, Anne E.; Worseck, Gábor; Makan, Kirill; Gazagnes, Simon; Mauerhofer, Valentin; Verhamme, Anne; Amorín, Ricardo O.; Ferguson, Harry C.; Giavalisco, Mauro; Grazian, Andrea; Hayes, Matthew J. (July 2022).

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explosions produce such heavy elements, so hot, large, Population III stars which will form supernovae are a possible mechanism for reionization. While they have not been directly observed, they are consistent according to models using numerical simulation and current observations. A

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in hydrogen is potentially a means of studying this period, as well as the "dark ages" that preceded reionization. The 21-cm line occurs in neutral hydrogen, due to differences in energy between the spin triplet and spin singlet states of the electron and proton. This transition is

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Wold, Isak G. B.; Malhotra, Sangeeta; Rhoads, James; Wang, Junxian; Hu, Weida; Perez, Lucia A.; Zheng, Zhen-Ya; Khostovan, Ali Ahmad; Walker, Alistair R.; Barrientos, L. Felipe; González-López, Jorge; Harish, Santosh; Infante, Leopoldo; Jiang, Chunyan; Pharo, John (2022-03-01).

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Flury, Sophia R.; Jaskot, Anne E.; Ferguson, Harry C.; Worseck, Gábor; Makan, Kirill; Chisholm, John; Saldana-Lopez, Alberto; Schaerer, Daniel; McCandliss, Stephan; Wang, Bingjie; Ford, N. M.; Heckman, Timothy; Ji, Zhiyuan; Giavalisco, Mauro; Amorin, Ricardo (2022-05-01).

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Ouchi, Masami; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Furusawa, Hisanori; Saito, Tomoki; Yoshida, Makiko; Akiyama, Masayuki; Ono, Yoshiaki; Yamada, Toru; Ota, Kazuaki; Kashikawa, Nobunari; Iye, Masanori; Kodama, Tadayuki; Okamura, Sadanori; Simpson, Chris; Yoshida, Michitoshi (2010-11-01).

1444:, a universe full of neutral hydrogen will be relatively opaque only at those absorbed wavelengths, but transparent throughout most of the spectrum. The Dark Ages of the universe start at that point, because there were no light sources other than the gradually redshifting 3212:

Hu, Weida; Wang, Junxian; Infante, Leopoldo; Rhoads, James E.; Zheng, Zhen-Ya; Yang, Huan; Malhotra, Sangeeta; Barrientos, L. Felipe; Jiang, Chunyan; González-López, Jorge; Prieto, Gonzalo; Perez, Lucia A.; Hibon, Pascale; Galaz, Gaspar; Coughlin, Alicia (2021-01-25).

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Kashikawa, Nobunari; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Matsuda, Yuichi; Egami, Eiichi; Jiang, Linhua; Nagao, Tohru; Ouchi, Masami; Malkan, Matthew A.; Hattori, Takashi; Ota, Kazuaki; Taniguchi, Yoshiaki; Okamura, Sadanori; Ly, Chun; Iye, Masanori; Furusawa, Hisanori (2011-06-20).

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Flury, Sophia R.; Jaskot, Anne E.; Ferguson, Harry C.; Worseck, Gábor; Makan, Kirill; Chisholm, John; Saldana-Lopez, Alberto; Schaerer, Daniel; McCandliss, Stephan R.; Xu, Xinfeng; Wang, Bingjie; Oey, M. S.; Ford, N. M.; Heckman, Timothy; Ji, Zhiyuan (2022-05-01).

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predominantly ionized at an earlier time than the quasar spectra suggested. Subsequent applications of the method suggested some residual neutral gas as recently as z=6.5, but still indicate that a majority of intergalactic gas was ionized prior to z=7.

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While observations have come in which narrow the window during which the epoch of reionization could have taken place, it is still uncertain which objects provided the photons that reionized the IGM. To ionize neutral hydrogen, an energy larger than 13.6

1819:/COS with LyC escape fractions anywhere from ≈ 0 to 88%. The results from the Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey have provided the empirical foundation necessary to identify and understand LCEs at the Epoch of Reionization. With new observations from 1792:(LyC)-emitting candidates. Compact dwarf star-forming galaxies like the GPs are considered excellent low-redshift analogs of high-redshift Lyman-alpha and LyC emitters (LAEs and LCEs, respectively). At that time, only two other LCEs were known: 1903:. As a consequence, Population III stars are currently considered the most likely energy source to initiate the reionization of the universe, though other sources are likely to have taken over and driven reionization to completion. 2688:

Pentericci, L.; Fontana, A.; Vanzella, E.; Castellano, M.; Grazian, A.; Dijkstra, M.; Boutsia, K.; Cristiani, S.; Dickinson, M.; Giallongo, E.; Giavalisco, M.; Maiolino, R.; Moorwood, A.; Paris, D.; Santini, P. (2011-12-20).

2647:"Keck spectroscopy of faint 3 < z < 7 Lyman break galaxies - I. New constraints on cosmic reionization from the luminosity and redshift-dependent fraction of Lyman α emission: The Lyα emitting fraction at high redshift" 4504:

Chisholm, J.; Saldana-Lopez, A.; Flury, S.; Schaerer, D.; Jaskot, A.; Amorín, R.; Atek, H.; Finkelstein, S. L.; Fleming, B.; Ferguson, H.; Fernández, V.; Giavalisco, M.; Hayes, M.; Heckman, T.; Henry, A. (2022-11-09).

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Mascia, S.; Pentericci, L.; Calabrò, A.; Treu, T.; Santini, P.; Yang, L.; Napolitano, L.; Roberts-Borsani, G.; Bergamini, P.; Grillo, C.; Rosati, P.; Vulcani, B.; Castellano, M.; Boyett, K.; Fontana, A. (April 2023).

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map, introducing secondary anisotropies (anisotropies introduced after recombination). The overall effect is to erase anisotropies that occur on smaller scales. While anisotropies on small scales are erased,

1605: > 11. This redshift range was in clear disagreement with the results from studying quasar spectra. However, the three year WMAP data returned a different result, with reionization beginning at 1663:

Even with the quasar data roughly in agreement with the CMB anisotropy data, there are still a number of questions, especially concerning the energy sources of reionization and the effects on, and role of,

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Bouwens, R. J.; et al. (2012). "Lower-luminosity Galaxies Could Reionize the Universe: Very Steep Faint-end Slopes to the UV Luminosity Functions at z >= 5-8 from the HUDF09 WFC3/IR Observations".

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Tilvi, V.; Malhotra, S.; Rhoads, J. E.; Coughlin, A.; Zheng, Z.; Finkelstein, S. L.; Veilleux, S.; Mobasher, B.; Wang, J.; Probst, R.; Swaters, R.; Hibon, P.; Joshi, B.; Zabl, J.; Jiang, T. (2020-03-01).

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Atek, Hakim; Richard, Johan; Jauzac, Mathilde; Kneib, Jean-Paul; Natarajan, Priyamvada; Limousin, Marceau; Schaerer, Daniel; Jullo, Eric; Ebeling, Harald; Egami, Eiichi; Clement, Benjamin (2015-11-18).

1690: 1564: > 10. On the other hand, long absorption troughs persisting down to z < 5.5 in the Lyman-alpha and Lyman-beta forests suggest that reionization potentially extends later than 1693:(EDGES) points to a signal from this era, although follow-up observations will be needed to confirm it. Several other projects hope to make headway in this area in the near future, such as the 5491: 160: 4712:

Fan, Xiaohu; et al. (2001). "A Survey of z>5.8 Quasars in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. I. Discovery of Three New Quasars and the Spatial Density of Luminous Quasars at z~6".

1781:(JWST), constraints on the UV luminosity function at the Epoch of Reionization have become commonplace, allowing for better constraints on the faint, low-mass population of galaxies. 5136: 1694: 3661:"A Comprehensive Study of Galaxies at z ∼ 9–16 Found in the Early JWST Data: Ultraviolet Luminosity Functions and Cosmic Star Formation History at the Pre-reionization Epoch" 1773:

are currently considered to be the primary source of ionizing photons during the epoch of reionization. For most scenarios, this would require the log-slope of the UV galaxy

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Limin Lu; et al. (1998). "The Metal Contents of Very Low Column Density Lyman-alpha Clouds: Implications for the Origin of Heavy Elements in the Intergalactic Medium".

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McLeod, D. J.; Donnan, C. T.; McLure, R. J.; Dunlop, J. S.; Magee, D.; Begley, R.; Carnall, A. C.; Cullen, F.; Ellis, R. S.; Hamadouche, M. L.; Stanton, T. M. (2023).

1627:, the redshift of reionization, assuming it was an instantaneous event. While this is unlikely to be physical, since reionization was very likely not instantaneous, z 1475:

Looking back so far in the history of the universe presents some observational challenges. There are, however, a few observational methods for studying reionization.

1976: 2746:

Tilvi, V.; Papovich, C.; Finkelstein, S. L.; Long, J.; Song, M.; Dickinson, M.; Ferguson, H. C.; Koekemoer, A. M.; Giavalisco, M.; Mobasher, B. (2014-09-17).

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on different angular scales can also be used to study reionization. Photons undergo scattering when there are free electrons present, in a process known as

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Harikane, Yuichi; Ouchi, Masami; Oguri, Masamune; Ono, Yoshiaki; Nakajima, Kimihiko; Isobe, Yuki; Umeda, Hiroya; Mawatari, Ken; Zhang, Yechi (2023-03-01).

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also experienced a similar reionization phase change, but at a later epoch in the history of the universe. This is usually called "helium reionization".

1815:/COS program which nearly tripled the number of direct measurements of the LyC from dwarf galaxies. To date, at least 50 LCEs have been confirmed using 5085: 3596:"Are ultra-faint galaxies at z = 6–8 responsible for cosmic reionization? Combined constraints from the Hubble frontier fields clusters and parallels" 648: 1330: 5746: 5511: 1516: 835: 5117: 2276:

Kaplinghat, Manoj; et al. (2003). "Probing the Reionization History of the universe using the Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization".

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Kogut, A.; et al. (2003). "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Temperature-Polarization Correlation".

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allowed that comparison to be made. The initial observations, released in 2003, suggested that reionization took place from 30 >

1423: = 1089 (379,000 years after the Big Bang), due to the cooling of the universe to the point where the rate of recombination of 5604: 1528:

sharp spectral absorption lines, a quasar's light which has traveled through a large, spread out region of neutral hydrogen will show a

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Spergel, D. N.; et al. (2007). "Three-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Implications for Cosmology".

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Wang, Bingjie; Heckman, Timothy M.; Leitherer, Claus; Alexandroff, Rachel; Borthakur, Sanchayeeta; Overzier, Roderik A. (2019-10-30).

1540:), while quasars emitting light prior to reionization will feature a Gunn-Peterson trough. In 2001, four quasars were detected by the 3270:

Barkana, Rennan & Loeb, Abraham (2005). "Detecting the Earliest Galaxies through Two New Sources of 21 Centimeter Fluctuations".

1495:. Thus it can be inferred that any major differences between quasar spectra will be caused by the interaction of their emission with 5439: 3832:

Verhamme, A.; Orlitova, I.; Schaerer, D.; Hayes, M. (2014). "On the use of Lyman-alpha to detect Lyman continuum leaking galaxies".

1924:. Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift), and may have started the production of 544: 1689:. By studying 21-cm line emission, it will be possible to learn more about the early structures that formed. Observations from the 2108:

Becker, R. H.; et al. (2001). "Evidence For Reionization at z ~ 6: Detection of a Gunn-Peterson Trough In A z=6.28 Quasar".

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Venkatesan, Apama; et al. (2003). "Evolving Spectra of Population III Stars: Consequences for Cosmological Reionization".

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Izotov, Y. I.; Worseck, G.; Schaerer, D.; Guseva, N. G.; Chisholm, J.; Thuan, T. X.; Fricke, K. J.; Verhamme, A. (2021-03-22).

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Izotov, Y. I.; Schaerer, D.; Worseck, G.; Guseva, N. G.; Thuan, T. X.; Verhamme, A.; Orlitová, I.; Fricke, K. J. (2018-03-11).

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that are absorbed and re-emitted by surrounding neutral hydrogen, it will produce a 21-cm line signal in that hydrogen through

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Madau, Piero; et al. (1999). "Radiative Transfer in a Clumpy Universe. III. The Nature of Cosmological Ionizing Source".

5594: 5429: 5356: 1800:. Finding local LyC emitters has thus become crucial to the theories about the early universe and the epoch of reionization. 1222: 539: 253: 5537: 5465: 5282: 4892:

Tumlinson, Jason; et al. (2002). "Cosmological Reionization by the First Stars: Evolving Spectra of Population III".

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Izotov, Y. I.; Worseck, G.; Schaerer, D.; Guseva, N. G; Thuan, T. X.; Fricke; Verhamme, A.; Orlitová, I. (2018-08-21).

2691:"SPECTROSCOPIC CONFIRMATION OF z ∼ 7 LYMAN BREAK GALAXIES: PROBING THE EARLIEST GALAXIES AND THE EPOCH OF REIONIZATION" 5455: 4839:

Fosbury, R. A. E.; et al. (2003). "Massive Star Formation in a Gravitationally Lensed H II Galaxy at z = 3.357".

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Gnedin, Nickolay & Ostriker, Jeremiah (1997). "Reionization of the Universe and the Early Production of Metals".

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Alvarez, M. A.; Pen, Ue-Li; Chang, Tzu-Ching (2010). "Enhanced Detectability of Pre-reionization 21 cm Structure".

1954: 800: 618: 329: 309: 117: 62: 3920:"Ionization state of inter-stellar medium in galaxies: evolution, SFR-M*-Z dependence, and ionizing photon escape" 5506: 5349: 5254: 5028: 2805:"Luminosity Functions of Lyα Emitters at Redshifts z = 6.5 and z = 5.7: Evidence against Reionization at z ≤ 6.5" 1702: 1686: 1524: 1456: 1413: 1374: 1118: 155: 4052:

Izotov, Y. I.; Schaerer, D.; Thuan, T. X.; Worseck, G.; Guseva, N. G.; Orlitová, I.; Verhamme, A. (2016-10-01).

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Izotov, Y. I.; Orlitová, I.; Schaerer, D.; Thuan, T. X.; Verhamme, A.; Guseva, N. G.; Worseck, G. (2016-01-14).

1811:/COS) to measure the LyC directly. These efforts culminated in the Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey, a large 5670: 5475: 5246: 3774:

Jaskot, A. E. & Oey, M. S. (2014). "Linking Ly-alpha and Low-Ionization Transitions at Low Optical Depth".

1751: 1710: 1541: 1508: 1393: 1359: 822: 634: 324: 89: 4105:"J1154+2443: a low-redshift compact star-forming galaxy with a 46 per cent leakage of Lyman continuum photons" 2978:"STATISTICS OF 207 Lyα EMITTERS AT A REDSHIFT NEAR 7: CONSTRAINTS ON REIONIZATION AND GALAXY FORMATION MODELS" 1463:. This occurred between 150 million and one billion years after the Big Bang (at a redshift 20 > 5660: 5204: 2329:

Dore, O.; et al. (2007). "Signature of patchy reionization in the polarization anisotropy of the CMB".

973: 292: 172: 5751: 5568: 4381:"The Low-Redshift Lyman Continuum Survey: Unveiling the ISM properties of low- z Lyman-continuum emitters" 1835: 1730: 1560: = 6. This, in turn, suggests that the universe must still have been almost entirely neutral at 875: 5126: 5741: 5614: 5470: 5217: 1900: 497: 299: 241: 3720:"The galaxy UV luminosity function at z ≃ 11 from a suite of public JWST ERS, ERO and Cycle-1 programs" 2219:"Long Dark Gaps in the Lyβ Forest at z < 6: Evidence of Ultra-late Reionization from XQR-30 Spectra" 5645: 5047: 4991: 4938: 4901: 4858: 4784: 4731: 4684: 4642: 4580: 4468: 4402: 4342: 4228: 4002: 3943: 3876: 3853:

Izotov, Y. I.; Guseva, N. G.; Fricke, K. J.; Henkel, C.; Schaerer, D.; Thuan, T. X. (February 2021).

3793: 3741: 3682: 3617: 3559: 3502: 3445: 3342: 3289: 3236: 3176: 3116: 3057: 2999: 2941: 2883: 2826: 2769: 2712: 2611: 2554: 2507: 2454: 2401: 2348: 2295: 2240: 2127: 2080: 2033: 1886: 1590: 1529: 1512: 1351: 857: 510: 482: 304: 5665: 5619: 5496: 5406: 5386: 5114: 4207:"A New Technique for Finding Galaxies Leaking Lyman-continuum Radiation: [S ii]-deficiency" 1991: 1665: 1617: 1459:

energy, the universe reverted from being composed of neutral atoms, to once again being an ionized

1178: 907: 442: 402: 372: 319: 275: 263: 167: 57: 5599: 5213: 5090: 5063: 5037: 5007: 4981: 4954: 4928: 4874: 4848: 4819: 4800: 4774: 4747: 4721: 4632: 4604: 4570: 4518: 4458: 4426: 4392: 4332: 4277: 4218: 4167: 4116: 4065: 4034: 3992: 3961: 3933: 3900: 3866: 3833: 3809: 3783: 3731: 3672: 3641: 3607: 3575: 3549: 3518: 3492: 3461: 3435: 3358: 3332: 3305: 3279: 3226: 3166: 3106: 3047: 2989: 2977: 2931: 2919: 2873: 2861: 2816: 2759: 2702: 2690: 2658: 2601: 2523: 2497: 2470: 2444: 2417: 2391: 2364: 2338: 2311: 2285: 2230: 2178: 2143: 2117: 2023: 1907: 1895: 1870: 1644: 1581: 1537: 1436: 1343: 1242: 1198: 927: 523: 462: 432: 397: 367: 314: 258: 27: 4054:"Detection of high Lyman continuum leakage from four low-redshift compact star-forming galaxies" 3855:"Low-redshift compact star-forming galaxies as analogues of high-redshift star-forming galaxies" 3595: 2645:

Stark, Daniel P.; Ellis, Richard S.; Chiu, Kuenley; Ouchi, Masami; Bunker, Andrew (2010-11-01).

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The parameter usually quoted here is τ, the "optical depth to reionization," or alternatively, z

4156:"Low-redshift Lyman continuum leaking galaxies with high [O iii]/[O ii] ratios" 3155:"Onset of Cosmic Reionization: Evidence of an Ionized Bubble Merely 680 Myr after the Big Bang" 2747: 1838:(AGN), were considered a good candidate source because they are highly efficient at converting 5736: 5655: 5640: 5209: 4596: 4538: 4486: 4418: 4360: 4297: 4246: 4187: 4136: 4085: 4026: 4018: 3892: 3700: 3633: 3252: 3194: 3134: 3075: 3015: 2957: 2899: 2842: 2785: 2728: 2627: 2590:"Searching for the Earliest Galaxies Using the Gunn-Peterson Trough and the Lyα Emission Line" 2570: 2258: 2198: 2049: 1911: 1777:, often denoted α, to be steeper than it is today, approaching α = -2. With the advent of the 492: 4559:"Closing in on the sources of cosmic reionization: First results from the GLASS-JWST program" 3981:"Eight per cent leakage of Lyman continuum photons from a compact, star-forming dwarf galaxy" 5720: 5694: 5573: 5055: 4999: 4946: 4866: 4792: 4739: 4692: 4650: 4646: 4588: 4584: 4528: 4507:"The far-ultraviolet continuum slope as a Lyman Continuum escape estimator at high redshift" 4506: 4476: 4410: 4406: 4350: 4287: 4265: 4236: 4177: 4155: 4126: 4075: 4010: 3951: 3884: 3880: 3801: 3749: 3690: 3625: 3567: 3510: 3453: 3350: 3297: 3244: 3184: 3124: 3065: 3007: 2949: 2891: 2834: 2777: 2720: 2668: 2619: 2562: 2515: 2511: 2462: 2409: 2356: 2303: 2248: 2188: 2135: 2088: 2041: 1925: 1725: 1460: 1366: 1014: 575: 387: 377: 362: 213: 82: 4104: 5589: 5121: 4668: 2860:

Hu, E. M.; Cowie, L. L.; Barger, A. J.; Capak, P.; Kakazu, Y.; Trouille, L. (2010-12-10).

2162: 1968: 1878: 1797: 502: 437: 422: 407: 392: 382: 246: 5501: 4321:"The Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey. I. New, Diverse Local Lyman Continuum Emitters" 143: 5051: 4995: 4942: 4905: 4862: 4788: 4735: 4688: 4472: 4346: 4232: 4006: 3947: 3797: 3745: 3686: 3621: 3563: 3506: 3449: 3346: 3293: 3240: 3180: 3120: 3093:

McQuinn, Matthew; Hernquist, Lars; Zaldarriaga, Matias; Dutta, Suvendra (October 2007).

3061: 3003: 2945: 2887: 2830: 2773: 2716: 2615: 2558: 2458: 2405: 2352: 2299: 2244: 2167:"Evidence of patchy hydrogen reionization from an extreme Lyα trough below redshift six" 2131: 2084: 2037: 5081: 1770: 1674: 1074: 994: 487: 447: 5059: 3805: 3514: 3354: 3011: 2953: 2895: 2724: 1862: 1455:

that were energetic enough to re-ionize neutral hydrogen. As these objects formed and

5730: 4751: 4608: 4430: 3965: 3904: 3813: 3629: 3579: 3571: 3522: 3376: 3362: 3214: 3129: 3094: 2673: 2646: 2527: 2368: 1881:, the only elements that formed aside from hydrogen and helium were trace amounts of 1669: 1408:

Schematic timeline of the universe, depicting reionization's place in cosmic history.

1319: 472: 457: 357: 5067: 5011: 4958: 4878: 4558: 4380: 3854: 3645: 3465: 2804: 2781: 2589: 2421: 2315: 2147: 2011: 5324: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5221: 5199: 4804: 4038: 3481:"In the Beginning: The First Sources of Light and the Reionization of the Universe" 3398: 3309: 2474: 1739: 1504: 1441: 1218: 947: 477: 452: 427: 412: 4654: 4592: 4414: 3888: 2519: 1451:

The second phase change occurred once gas clouds started to condense in the early

2488:

Planck Collaboration (2020). "Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters".

5563: 5553: 5227: 4447:"The Low-redshift Lyman Continuum Survey. II. New Insights into LyC Diagnostics" 1747: 1681:

dependent, meaning that as objects form in the "dark ages" and emit Lyman-alpha

1678: 1639: 1094: 225: 218: 4673:"Cosmological H II regions and the photoionization of the intergalactic medium" 4481: 4446: 4355: 4320: 4241: 4206: 3695: 3660: 3248: 3189: 3154: 3070: 3035: 2542: 2360: 2253: 2218: 5558: 5305: 5300: 3980: 1981: 1851: 1789: 1785: 1585: 1500: 886: 467: 4600: 4542: 4533: 4490: 4422: 4364: 4301: 4250: 4191: 4140: 4089: 4022: 3896: 3754: 3719: 3704: 3637: 3256: 3198: 3138: 3079: 3019: 2961: 2903: 2846: 2789: 2732: 2631: 2574: 2262: 2202: 2053: 1873:

were the earliest stars, which had no elements more massive than hydrogen or

5372: 5310: 4292: 4182: 4131: 4080: 4053: 2193: 1890: 1743: 1034: 417: 5147: 4972:

Alvarez, Marcelo; et al. (2006). "The H II Region of the First Star".

4030: 3956: 3919: 1404: 16:

Process that caused matter to reionize early in the history of the Universe

1620:

mission, yield an instantaneous reionization redshift of z = 7.68 ± 0.79.

5516: 5401: 5391: 5194: 4986: 4933: 4853: 4824: 4779: 4726: 3497: 3440: 3284: 2821: 2606: 2449: 2396: 2343: 2290: 2122: 1949: 1929: 1885:. Yet quasar spectra have revealed the presence of heavy elements in the 1866:

Simulated image of the first stars, 400 million years after the Big Bang.

1484: 1452: 1424: 1417: 1386: 1355: 1339: 150: 52: 45: 4014: 2920:"COMPLETING THE CENSUS OF Lyα EMITTERS AT THE REIONIZATION EPOCH $ ^,$ " 5295: 3036:"LAGER Lyα Luminosity Function at z ∼ 7: Implications for Reionization" 1962: 1882: 1831: 1803:

Subsequently, motivated, a series of surveys have been conducted using

1793: 1613: = 7. This is in much better agreement with the quasar data. 1054: 1511:

is large, meaning that even for low levels of neutral hydrogen in the

35: 5129:, website of the group researching Epoch of Reionization using LOFAR. 4266:"Lyman continuum leakage from low-mass galaxies with M ⋆ < 108 M⊙" 1986: 1933: 1914: 1874: 1843: 1759: 1682: 1488: 1432: 1428: 1382: 1378: 1262: 969: 5141: 3838: 3480: 1959:

Galaxies in the local universe that 'leak' Lyman continuum photons.

1742:

is required, which corresponds to photons with a wavelength of 91.2

1677:, meaning it occurs extremely rarely. The transition is also highly 5042: 5003: 4950: 4870: 4796: 4743: 4697: 4672: 4637: 4575: 4523: 4463: 4397: 4337: 4282: 4223: 4172: 4121: 4070: 3997: 3871: 3736: 3677: 3612: 3457: 3301: 3231: 3171: 3052: 2838: 2623: 2566: 2502: 2466: 2413: 2307: 2235: 2139: 2093: 2068: 2045: 1435:

rate. The universe was opaque before the recombination, due to the

3938: 3788: 3554: 3337: 3111: 2994: 2936: 2878: 2764: 2707: 2663: 2183: 2028: 1861: 1724: 1492: 1403: 1329: 1286: 846: 2161:

Becker, George D.; Bolton, James S.; Madau, Piero; Pettini, Max;

5086:"Astronomers Report Finding Earliest Stars That Enriched Cosmos" 1937: 1839: 1755: 1496: 5345: 5151: 1733:

image to answer the question of how the Universe was reionised.

1691:

Experiment to Detect the Global Epoch of Reionization Signature

1385:, reionization usually refers strictly to the reionization of 1370: 1282: 613: 5341: 5132: 2748:"RAPID DECLINE OF Lyα EMISSION TOWARD THE REIONIZATION ERA" 2069:"On the Density of Neutral Hydrogen in Intergalactic Space" 1631:

provides an estimate of the mean redshift of reionization.

3377:"Astronomers detect light from the Universe's first stars" 1655:

pinpointed by identifying groups of Lyman alpha emitters.

1899:

on their own in some reionization models with reasonable

1729:

Astronomers hope to use observations such as this 2018

1709:(GMRT), Mapper of the IGM Spin Temperature (MIST), the 1412:

The first phase change of hydrogen in the universe was

5704: 5137:

Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization

2588:

Miralda-Escude, Jordi; Rees, Martin J. (1998-04-10).

1695:

Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization

5628: 5582: 5546: 5525: 5484: 5448: 5415: 5379: 5281: 5185: 2803:Malhotra, Sangeeta; Rhoads, James E. (2004-12-10). 2012:"The History and Morphology of Helium Reionization" 2541:Partridge, R. B.; Peebles, P. J. E. (March 1967). 4511:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4270:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4160:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4109:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 4058:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3925:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3769: 3767: 3765: 3724:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 3099:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 2651:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 2171:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 1715:Large-Aperture Experiment to Detect the Dark Ages 3827: 3825: 3823: 2010:Furlanetto, Steven R.; Oh, S. Peng (July 2008). 1906:In June 2015, astronomers reported evidence for 1536:Gunn-Peterson trough (though they may show the 1431:to form neutral hydrogen was higher than the re 1381:in the universe is in the form of hydrogen and 3534: 3532: 3421: 3419: 2862:"AN ATLAS OF z = 5.7 AND z = 6.5 Lyα EMITTERS" 1594:reionization occurred can then be calculated. 5357: 5163: 1977:List of the most distant astronomical objects 1784:In 2014, two separate studies identified two 642: 595: 8: 1609: = 11 and the universe ionized by 1483:One means of studying reionization uses the 4325:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 3665:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 2437:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 2384:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 1932:that are needed for the later formation of 1552: = 6.28. While the quasars above 5364: 5350: 5342: 5170: 5156: 5148: 2067:Gunn, J. E. & Peterson, B. A. (1965). 649: 635: 602: 588: 202: 76: 34: 18: 5435:Religious interpretations of the Big Bang 5041: 4985: 4932: 4852: 4823: 4778: 4725: 4696: 4636: 4574: 4532: 4522: 4480: 4462: 4396: 4354: 4336: 4291: 4281: 4240: 4222: 4181: 4171: 4130: 4120: 4079: 4069: 3996: 3955: 3937: 3870: 3837: 3787: 3753: 3735: 3694: 3676: 3611: 3553: 3496: 3439: 3336: 3283: 3230: 3188: 3170: 3128: 3110: 3095:"Studying reionization with Lyα emitters" 3069: 3051: 2993: 2935: 2877: 2820: 2763: 2706: 2672: 2662: 2605: 2501: 2448: 2395: 2342: 2289: 2252: 2234: 2192: 2182: 2121: 2092: 2027: 5425:Discovery of cosmic microwave background 3215:"A Lyman-α protocluster at redshift 6.9" 1365:Reionization is the second of two major 5711: 2002: 1519:at those wavelengths is highly likely. 1503:of light at the energies of one of the 233: 205: 97: 26: 4313: 4311: 3918:Nakajima, K. & Ouchi, M. (2014). 1446:cosmic microwave background radiation 7: 5144:, Mapper of the IGM Spin Temperature 1850:(number of quasars as a function of 1599:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 1479:Quasars and the Gunn-Peterson trough 1358:to reionize after the lapse of the " 1271: 1251: 1231: 1207: 1187: 1167: 1147: 1127: 1107: 1083: 1063: 1043: 1023: 1003: 983: 956: 936: 916: 896: 5330:Graphical timeline of the Big Bang 2165:; Venemans, Bram P. (2015-03-11). 330:2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey ("2dF") 14: 5440:Timeline of cosmological theories 3776:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 3542:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 3325:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 3159:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 1762:were the main sources of energy. 545:Timeline of cosmological theories 310:Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 5714: 5688: 5323: 3130:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12085.x 2674:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17227.x 1807:'s Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( 569: 558: 557: 5533:Future of an expanding universe 1707:Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope 1572:CMB anisotropy and polarization 325:Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) 178:Future of an expanding universe 5747:Physical cosmological concepts 5430:History of the Big Bang theory 3479:Barkana, R.; Loeb, A. (2001). 1373:in the universe (the first is 540:History of the Big Bang theory 336:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 1: 5538:Ultimate fate of the universe 5466:Gravitational wave background 3515:10.1016/S0370-1573(01)00019-9 2543:"Are Young Galaxies Visible?" 1499:along the line of sight. For 532:Discovery of cosmic microwave 183:Ultimate fate of the universe 4563:Astronomy & Astrophysics 4385:Astronomy & Astrophysics 3859:Astronomy & Astrophysics 3399:"Hubble opens its eye again" 2490:Astronomy & Astrophysics 1544:with redshifts ranging from 5456:Cosmic microwave background 5060:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139 4671:& Giroux, Mark (1987). 4655:10.1051/0004-6361/202347884 4593:10.1051/0004-6361/202345866 4415:10.1051/0004-6361/202141864 3889:10.1051/0004-6361/202039772 3806:10.1088/2041-8205/791/2/L19 3355:10.1088/2041-8205/723/1/L17 3012:10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/869 2954:10.1088/0004-637X/734/2/119 2896:10.1088/0004-637X/725/1/394 2725:10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/132 2520:10.1051/0004-6361/201833910 1746:or shorter. This is in the 1578:cosmic microwave background 1350:is the process that caused 300:Black Hole Initiative (BHI) 5768: 5461:Cosmic neutrino background 5397:Chronology of the universe 5291:Heat death of the universe 5187:Chronology of the universe 4894:ASP Conference Proceedings 4625:Astronomy and Astrophysics 3630:10.1088/0004-637X/814/1/69 3572:10.1088/2041-8205/752/1/L5 3249:10.1038/s41550-020-01291-y 2361:10.1103/PhysRevD.76.043002 1955:Chronology of the universe 1779:James Webb Space Telescope 1334:Phases of the reionization 63:Chronology of the universe 5684: 5507:Expansion of the universe 5319: 5133:Official website of PAPER 5029:The Astrophysical Journal 4677:The Astrophysical Journal 4451:The Astrophysical Journal 4211:The Astrophysical Journal 3600:The Astrophysical Journal 3428:The Astrophysical Journal 3272:The Astrophysical Journal 3040:The Astrophysical Journal 2982:The Astrophysical Journal 2924:The Astrophysical Journal 2866:The Astrophysical Journal 2809:The Astrophysical Journal 2782:10.1088/0004-637X/794/1/5 2752:The Astrophysical Journal 2695:The Astrophysical Journal 2594:The Astrophysical Journal 2547:The Astrophysical Journal 2278:The Astrophysical Journal 2223:The Astrophysical Journal 2073:The Astrophysical Journal 2016:The Astrophysical Journal 1703:Murchison Widefield Array 1687:Wouthuysen-Field coupling 1668:during reionization. The 1525:expansion of the universe 1377:). While the majority of 1315: 627: 616: 156:Expansion of the universe 5247:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 5179:Timeline of the Big Bang 4714:The Astronomical Journal 4482:10.3847/1538-4357/ac61e4 4356:10.3847/1538-4365/ac5331 4242:10.3847/1538-4357/ab418f 3696:10.3847/1538-4365/acaaa9 3190:10.3847/2041-8213/ab75ec 3071:10.3847/1538-4357/ac4997 2254:10.3847/1538-4357/ac6e60 1971:– second of two galaxies 1879:Big Bang nucleosynthesis 1752:electromagnetic spectrum 1713:(DARE) mission, and the 1711:Dark Ages Radio Explorer 1542:Sloan Digital Sky Survey 1509:scattering cross-section 1392:It is believed that the 320:Planck space observatory 106:Gravitational wave (GWB) 5661:Observational cosmology 5205:Grand unification epoch 4647:2024A&A...685A...3M 4585:2023A&A...672A.155M 4407:2022A&A...663A..59S 3881:2021A&A...646A.138I 2512:2020A&A...641A...6P 1965:– first of two galaxies 173:Inhomogeneous cosmology 5512:Accelerating expansion 4534:10.1093/mnras/stac2874 3755:10.1093/mnras/stad3471 3403:www.spacetelescope.org 1901:initial mass functions 1896:gravitationally lensed 1867: 1836:active galactic nuclei 1805:Hubble Space Telescope 1734: 1731:Hubble Space Telescope 1576:The anisotropy of the 1416:, which occurred at a 1409: 1335: 692:−10 — 682:−11 — 672:−12 — 662:−13 — 5615:Shape of the universe 5605:Large-scale structure 5418:cosmological theories 4974:Astrophysical Journal 4921:Astrophysical Journal 4841:Astrophysical Journal 4767:Astrophysical Journal 4293:10.1093/mnras/stab612 4183:10.1093/mnras/sty1378 4132:10.1093/mnras/stx3115 4081:10.1093/mnras/stw1205 2194:10.1093/mnras/stu2646 1865: 1728: 1616:Results in 2018 from 1548: = 5.82 to 1407: 1333: 837:Accelerated expansion 782:−1 — 772:−2 — 762:−3 — 752:−4 — 742:−5 — 732:−6 — 722:−7 — 712:−8 — 702:−9 — 264:Large-scale structure 242:Shape of the universe 5695:astronomy portal 5283:Fate of the universe 5115:End of the Dark Ages 3957:10.1093/mnras/stu902 2110:Astronomical Journal 1998:Notes and references 1908:Population III stars 1887:intergalactic medium 1871:Population III stars 1858:Population III stars 1635:Lyman alpha emission 1530:Gunn-Peterson trough 1513:intergalactic medium 1352:electrically neutral 1055:NGC 188 star cluster 576:Astronomy portal 534:background radiation 511:List of cosmologists 5620:Structure formation 5583:Structure formation 5497:Friedmann equations 5407:Observable universe 5387:Age of the universe 5052:2015ApJ...808..139S 4996:2006ApJ...639..621A 4943:2003ApJ...584..621V 4906:2002ASPC..267..433T 4863:2003ApJ...596..797F 4789:1997ApJ...486..581G 4736:2001AJ....122.2833F 4689:1987ApJ...321L.107S 4473:2022ApJ...930..126F 4347:2022ApJS..260....1F 4233:2019ApJ...885...57W 4015:10.1038/nature16456 4007:2016Natur.529..178I 3948:2014MNRAS.442..900N 3798:2014ApJ...791L..19J 3746:2024MNRAS.527.5004M 3687:2023ApJS..265....5H 3622:2015ApJ...814...69A 3564:2012ApJ...752L...5B 3507:2001PhR...349..125B 3450:1999ApJ...514..648M 3347:2010ApJ...723L..17A 3294:2005ApJ...626....1B 3241:2021NatAs...5..485H 3181:2020ApJ...891L..10T 3121:2007MNRAS.381...75M 3062:2022ApJ...927...36W 3004:2010ApJ...723..869O 2946:2011ApJ...734..119K 2888:2010ApJ...725..394H 2831:2004ApJ...617L...5M 2774:2014ApJ...794....5T 2717:2011ApJ...743..132P 2616:1998ApJ...497...21M 2559:1967ApJ...147..868P 2459:2007ApJS..170..377S 2406:2003ApJS..148..161K 2353:2007PhRvD..76d3002D 2300:2003ApJ...583...24K 2245:2022ApJ...932...76Z 2163:Ryan-Weber, Emma V. 2132:2001AJ....122.2850B 2085:1965ApJ...142.1633G 2038:2008ApJ...681....1F 1848:luminosity function 1788:(GPs) to be likely 1775:luminosity function 1699:Low Frequency Array 1666:structure formation 1179:Sexual reproduction 1119:Earliest known life 276:Structure formation 168:Friedmann equations 58:Age of the universe 22:Part of a series on 5600:Large quasar group 5214:Inflationary epoch 5120:2005-03-09 at the 5091:The New York Times 3379:. 28 February 2018 1868: 1786:Green Pea galaxies 1735: 1645:Lyman break galaxy 1582:Thomson scattering 1538:Lyman-alpha forest 1410: 1336: 1243:Cambrian explosion 1159:Atmospheric oxygen 858:Single-celled life 315:Dark Energy Survey 259:Large quasar group 28:Physical cosmology 5702: 5701: 5656:Illustris project 5339: 5338: 5251:Matter domination 5210:Electroweak epoch 3991:(7585): 178–180. 2331:Physical Review D 1926:chemical elements 1912:Cosmos Redshift 7 1889:at an early era. 1507:of hydrogen, the 1505:Lyman transitions 1471:Detection methods 1394:primordial helium 1367:phase transitions 1338:In the fields of 1328: 1327: 1320:billion years ago 1294: 1293: 1270: 1269: 1250: 1249: 1230: 1229: 1206: 1205: 1186: 1185: 1166: 1165: 1146: 1145: 1126: 1125: 1106: 1105: 1082: 1081: 1062: 1061: 1042: 1041: 1035:Milky Way spirals 1022: 1021: 1002: 1001: 982: 981: 955: 954: 935: 934: 915: 914: 908:Earliest Universe 612: 611: 283: 282: 125: 124: 5759: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5710: 5693: 5692: 5691: 5595:Galaxy formation 5574:Lambda-CDM model 5485:Present universe 5366: 5359: 5352: 5343: 5327: 5172: 5165: 5158: 5149: 5103: 5102: 5100: 5098: 5084:(17 June 2015). 5078: 5072: 5071: 5045: 5022: 5016: 5015: 4989: 4987:astro-ph/0507684 4969: 4963: 4962: 4936: 4934:astro-ph/0206390 4916: 4910: 4909: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4856: 4854:astro-ph/0307162 4836: 4830: 4829: 4827: 4825:astro-ph/9802189 4815: 4809: 4808: 4782: 4780:astro-ph/9612127 4762: 4756: 4755: 4729: 4727:astro-ph/0108063 4720:(6): 2833–2849. 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4665: 4659: 4658: 4640: 4619: 4613: 4612: 4578: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4536: 4526: 4517:(4): 5104–5120. 4501: 4495: 4494: 4484: 4466: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4400: 4375: 4369: 4368: 4358: 4340: 4315: 4306: 4305: 4295: 4285: 4276:(2): 1734–1752. 4261: 4255: 4254: 4244: 4226: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4185: 4175: 4166:(4): 4851–4865. 4151: 4145: 4144: 4134: 4124: 4115:(4): 4514–4527. 4100: 4094: 4093: 4083: 4073: 4064:(4): 3683–3701. 4049: 4043: 4042: 4000: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3959: 3941: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3874: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3829: 3818: 3817: 3791: 3771: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3739: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3698: 3680: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3615: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3557: 3536: 3527: 3526: 3500: 3498:astro-ph/0010468 3476: 3470: 3469: 3443: 3441:astro-ph/9809058 3423: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3340: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3287: 3285:astro-ph/0410129 3267: 3261: 3260: 3234: 3219:Nature Astronomy 3209: 3203: 3202: 3192: 3174: 3149: 3143: 3142: 3132: 3114: 3090: 3084: 3083: 3073: 3055: 3030: 3024: 3023: 2997: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2939: 2914: 2908: 2907: 2881: 2857: 2851: 2850: 2824: 2822:astro-ph/0407408 2800: 2794: 2793: 2767: 2743: 2737: 2736: 2710: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2666: 2657:(3): 1628–1648. 2642: 2636: 2635: 2609: 2607:astro-ph/9707193 2585: 2579: 2578: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2505: 2485: 2479: 2478: 2452: 2450:astro-ph/0603449 2432: 2426: 2425: 2399: 2397:astro-ph/0302213 2379: 2373: 2372: 2346: 2344:astro-ph/0701784 2326: 2320: 2319: 2293: 2291:astro-ph/0207591 2273: 2267: 2266: 2256: 2238: 2213: 2207: 2206: 2196: 2186: 2177:(4): 3402–3419. 2158: 2152: 2151: 2125: 2123:astro-ph/0108097 2116:(6): 2850–2857. 2105: 2099: 2098: 2096: 2064: 2058: 2057: 2031: 2007: 1992:Strömgren sphere 1923: 1568: = 6. 1308: 1277: 1272: 1263:Earliest mammals 1257: 1252: 1237: 1232: 1219:Earliest animals 1213: 1208: 1193: 1188: 1173: 1168: 1153: 1148: 1133: 1128: 1113: 1108: 1089: 1084: 1069: 1064: 1049: 1044: 1029: 1024: 1015:Andromeda Galaxy 1009: 1004: 989: 984: 976: 962: 957: 942: 937: 922: 917: 902: 897: 889: 849: 838: 827: 824:Matter-dominated 814: 803: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 651: 644: 637: 631: 621: 614: 604: 597: 590: 574: 573: 572: 561: 560: 254:Galaxy formation 214:Lambda-CDM model 203: 195:Components 77: 38: 19: 5767: 5766: 5762: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5757: 5756: 5727: 5726: 5725: 5715: 5713: 5705: 5703: 5698: 5689: 5687: 5680: 5624: 5590:Galaxy filament 5578: 5542: 5526:Future universe 5521: 5480: 5476:Nucleosynthesis 5444: 5417: 5411: 5375: 5370: 5340: 5335: 5315: 5277: 5266:Habitable epoch 5181: 5176: 5142:Website of MIST 5122:Wayback Machine 5111: 5106: 5096: 5094: 5082:Overbye, Dennis 5080: 5079: 5075: 5026:Confirmation". 5024: 5023: 5019: 4971: 4970: 4966: 4918: 4917: 4913: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4838: 4837: 4833: 4817: 4816: 4812: 4764: 4763: 4759: 4711: 4710: 4706: 4667: 4666: 4662: 4621: 4620: 4616: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4503: 4502: 4498: 4443: 4442: 4438: 4377: 4376: 4372: 4317: 4316: 4309: 4263: 4262: 4258: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4153: 4152: 4148: 4102: 4101: 4097: 4051: 4050: 4046: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3831: 3830: 3821: 3773: 3772: 3763: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3538: 3537: 3530: 3485:Physics Reports 3478: 3477: 3473: 3425: 3424: 3417: 3407: 3405: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3382: 3380: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3322: 3321: 3317: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3211: 3210: 3206: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3032: 3031: 3027: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2687: 2686: 2682: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2540: 2539: 2535: 2487: 2486: 2482: 2434: 2433: 2429: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2328: 2327: 2323: 2275: 2274: 2270: 2215: 2214: 2210: 2160: 2159: 2155: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2066: 2065: 2061: 2009: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1969:Tololo-1247-232 1946: 1940:as we know it. 1918: 1860: 1829: 1798:Tololo-1247-232 1790:Lyman Continuum 1768: 1723: 1661: 1637: 1630: 1626: 1574: 1481: 1473: 1402: 1389:, the element. 1379:baryonic matter 1324: 1323: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1290: 1289: 1275: 1266: 1265: 1255: 1246: 1245: 1235: 1226: 1225: 1211: 1202: 1201: 1191: 1182: 1181: 1171: 1162: 1161: 1151: 1142: 1141: 1139:Earliest oxygen 1131: 1122: 1121: 1111: 1102: 1101: 1087: 1078: 1077: 1067: 1058: 1057: 1047: 1038: 1037: 1027: 1018: 1017: 1007: 998: 997: 987: 978: 977: 967: 960: 951: 950: 948:Earliest galaxy 940: 931: 930: 920: 911: 910: 900: 893: 892: 891: 887: 882: 881: 880: 877: 871: 870: 869: 862: 861: 860: 853: 852: 851: 847: 842: 841: 840: 836: 831: 830: 829: 825: 823: 818: 817: 816: 812: 807: 806: 805: 801: 794: 791: 789: 786: 784: 781: 779: 776: 774: 771: 769: 766: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 655: 629: 623: 620:Nature timeline 619: 608: 570: 568: 550: 549: 536: 533: 526: 524:Subject history 516: 515: 507: 352: 344: 343: 340: 337: 295: 285: 284: 247:Galaxy filament 200: 188: 187: 139: 134:Expansion 127: 126: 111:Microwave (CMB) 90:Nucleosynthesis 74: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5765: 5763: 5755: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5729: 5728: 5724: 5723: 5700: 5699: 5685: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5632: 5630: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5586: 5584: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5550: 5548: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5540: 5535: 5529: 5527: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5488: 5486: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5452: 5450: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5421: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5410: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5383: 5381: 5377: 5376: 5371: 5369: 5368: 5361: 5354: 5346: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5333: 5320: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5287: 5285: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5275: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5258: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5191: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5175: 5174: 5167: 5160: 5152: 5146: 5145: 5139: 5130: 5124: 5110: 5109:External links 5107: 5105: 5104: 5073: 5017: 5004:10.1086/499578 4980:(2): 621–632. 4964: 4951:10.1086/345738 4927:(2): 621–632. 4911: 4884: 4871:10.1086/378228 4847:(1): 797–809. 4831: 4810: 4797:10.1086/304548 4773:(2): 581–598. 4757: 4744:10.1086/324111 4704: 4698:10.1086/185015 4660: 4614: 4548: 4496: 4436: 4370: 4307: 4256: 4197: 4146: 4095: 4044: 3971: 3932:(1): 900–916. 3910: 3845: 3819: 3761: 3710: 3651: 3585: 3528: 3491:(2): 125–238. 3471: 3458:10.1086/306975 3434:(2): 648–659. 3415: 3390: 3368: 3331:(1): L17–L21. 3315: 3302:10.1086/429954 3262: 3225:(5): 485–490. 3204: 3144: 3085: 3025: 2988:(1): 869–894. 2967: 2909: 2872:(1): 394–423. 2852: 2839:10.1086/427182 2795: 2738: 2680: 2637: 2624:10.1086/305458 2580: 2567:10.1086/149079 2533: 2480: 2467:10.1086/513700 2443:(2): 377–408. 2427: 2414:10.1086/377219 2390:(1): 161–173. 2374: 2321: 2308:10.1086/344927 2268: 2208: 2153: 2140:10.1086/324231 2100: 2094:10.1086/148444 2059: 2046:10.1086/588546 2001: 1999: 1996: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1973: 1972: 1966: 1957: 1952: 1945: 1942: 1859: 1856: 1828: 1825: 1771:Dwarf galaxies 1767: 1766:Dwarf galaxies 1764: 1722: 1721:Energy sources 1719: 1660: 1657: 1636: 1633: 1628: 1624: 1573: 1570: 1480: 1477: 1472: 1469: 1401: 1398: 1326: 1325: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1281: 1280: 1278: 1268: 1267: 1261: 1260: 1258: 1248: 1247: 1241: 1240: 1238: 1228: 1227: 1217: 1216: 1214: 1204: 1203: 1199:Earliest fungi 1197: 1196: 1194: 1184: 1183: 1177: 1176: 1174: 1164: 1163: 1157: 1156: 1154: 1144: 1143: 1137: 1136: 1134: 1124: 1123: 1117: 1116: 1114: 1104: 1103: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1080: 1079: 1075:Alpha Centauri 1073: 1072: 1070: 1060: 1059: 1053: 1052: 1050: 1040: 1039: 1033: 1032: 1030: 1020: 1019: 1013: 1012: 1010: 1000: 999: 995:Omega Centauri 993: 992: 990: 980: 979: 966: 965: 963: 953: 952: 946: 945: 943: 933: 932: 928:Earliest stars 926: 925: 923: 913: 912: 906: 905: 903: 894: 885: 884: 883: 874: 873: 872: 867:Photosynthesis 865: 864: 863: 856: 855: 854: 848:Water on Earth 845: 844: 843: 834: 833: 832: 821: 820: 819: 810: 809: 808: 799: 798: 797: 795: 792:0 — 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 657: 656: 654: 653: 646: 639: 628: 625: 624: 617: 610: 609: 607: 606: 599: 592: 584: 581: 580: 579: 578: 566: 552: 551: 548: 547: 542: 537: 530: 527: 522: 521: 518: 517: 514: 513: 506: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 354: 353: 350: 349: 346: 345: 342: 341: 334: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 296: 291: 290: 287: 286: 281: 280: 279: 278: 266: 261: 256: 244: 236: 235: 231: 230: 229: 228: 216: 208: 207: 201: 194: 193: 190: 189: 186: 185: 180: 175: 170: 158: 153: 140: 133: 132: 129: 128: 123: 122: 121: 120: 118:Neutrino (CNB) 108: 100: 99: 95: 94: 93: 92: 75: 73:Early universe 72: 71: 68: 67: 66: 65: 60: 55: 40: 39: 31: 30: 24: 23: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5764: 5753: 5752:Space plasmas 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5722: 5712: 5708: 5697: 5696: 5683: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5633: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5581: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5524: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5483: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5449:Past universe 5447: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5362: 5360: 5355: 5353: 5348: 5347: 5344: 5332: 5331: 5326: 5322: 5321: 5318: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5259: 5256: 5255:Recombination 5252: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5173: 5168: 5166: 5161: 5159: 5154: 5153: 5150: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5093: 5092: 5087: 5083: 5077: 5074: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5030: 5021: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4965: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4888: 4885: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4835: 4832: 4826: 4821: 4814: 4811: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4758: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4708: 4705: 4699: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4669:Shapiro, Paul 4664: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4618: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4552: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4500: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4440: 4437: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4374: 4371: 4366: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4314: 4312: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4260: 4257: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4147: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4096: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4048: 4045: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3975: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3914: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3849: 3846: 3840: 3835: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3762: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3711: 3706: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3589: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3535: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3472: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3420: 3416: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3391: 3378: 3372: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3319: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3266: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3208: 3205: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3148: 3145: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3086: 3081: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3029: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2913: 2910: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2799: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2742: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2684: 2681: 2675: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2584: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2537: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2504: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2481: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2428: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2378: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2337:(4): 043002. 2336: 2332: 2325: 2322: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2272: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2157: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2104: 2101: 2095: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2079:: 1633–1641. 2078: 2074: 2070: 2063: 2060: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2006: 2003: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1928:heavier than 1927: 1921: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1864: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1834:, a class of 1833: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1732: 1727: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1646: 1641: 1634: 1632: 1621: 1619: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1592: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1533: 1531: 1526: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1478: 1476: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1442:excited state 1440:rising to an 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1414:recombination 1406: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1375:recombination 1372: 1368: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1354:atoms in the 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1332: 1321: 1314: 1307: 1288: 1284: 1283:Earliest apes 1279: 1274: 1273: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1253: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1233: 1224: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1209: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1189: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1169: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1149: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1129: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1109: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1085: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1065: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1045: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1025: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1005: 996: 991: 986: 985: 975: 971: 964: 959: 958: 949: 944: 939: 938: 929: 924: 919: 918: 909: 904: 899: 898: 895: 890: 879: 876:Multicellular 868: 859: 850: 839: 828: 815: 804: 796: 659: 658: 652: 647: 645: 640: 638: 633: 632: 626: 622: 615: 605: 600: 598: 593: 591: 586: 585: 583: 582: 577: 567: 565: 556: 555: 554: 553: 546: 543: 541: 538: 535: 529: 528: 525: 520: 519: 512: 509: 508: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 355: 348: 347: 339: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 297: 294: 289: 288: 277: 274: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 248: 245: 243: 240: 239: 238: 237: 232: 227: 224: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 210: 209: 204: 198: 192: 191: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 145: 142: 141: 137: 131: 130: 119: 116: 112: 109: 107: 104: 103: 102: 101: 96: 91: 88: 84: 81: 80: 79: 78: 70: 69: 64: 61: 59: 56: 54: 51: 47: 44: 43: 42: 41: 37: 33: 32: 29: 25: 21: 20: 5742:Astrophysics 5686: 5610:Reionization 5609: 5569:Quintessence 5502:Hubble's law 5328: 5273:Reionization 5272: 5243:Photon epoch 5238:Lepton epoch 5233:Hadron epoch 5222:Baryogenesis 5200:Planck epoch 5095:. 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