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667:. It was intended that the journal would fill the gap between journals in astronomy and physics, providing a venue for publication of articles on astronomical applications of the spectroscope; on laboratory research closely allied to astronomical physics, including wavelength determinations of metallic and gaseous spectra and experiments on radiation and absorption; on theories of the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, meteors, and nebulae; and on instrumentation for telescopes and laboratories.
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Eddington had realized that there would be a mass loss if four hydrogen atoms combined to form a single helium atom. Einstein's equivalence of mass and energy led directly to the suggestion that this could be the long-sought process that produces the energy in the stars! It was an inspired guess, all
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Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a
1603:
The great majority of astronomers working in the early nineteenth century were not interested in stars as physical objects. Far from being bodies with physical properties to be investigated, the stars were seen as markers measured in order to construct an accurate, detailed and precise background
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The roots of astrophysics can be found in the seventeenth century emergence of a unified physics, in which the same laws applied to the celestial and terrestrial realms. There were scientists who were qualified in both physics and astronomy who laid the firm foundation for the current science of
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to stellar atmospheres to relate the spectral classes to the temperature of stars. Most significantly, she discovered that hydrogen and helium were the principal components of stars, not the composition of Earth. Despite
Eddington's suggestion, discovery was so unexpected that her dissertation
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The study of the Sun has a special place in observational astrophysics. Due to the tremendous distance of all other stars, the Sun can be observed in a kind of detail unparalleled by any other star. Understanding the Sun serves as a guide to understanding of other stars.
998:
Topics studied by theoretical astrophysicists include stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology, including
990:
Theorists in astrophysics endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the observational consequences of those models. This helps allow observers to look for data that can refute a model or help in choosing between several alternate or conflicting models.
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By the end of the 20th century, studies of astronomical spectra had expanded to cover wavelengths extending from radio waves through optical, x-ray, and gamma wavelengths. In the 21st century, it further expanded to include observations based on
550:
For much of the nineteenth century, astronomical research was focused on the routine work of measuring the positions and computing the motions of astronomical objects. A new astronomy, soon to be called astrophysics, began to emerge when
987:. Each has some advantages. Analytical models of a process are generally better for giving insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that would otherwise not be seen.
1003:
cosmology and astroparticle physics. Relativistic astrophysics serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large-scale structures for which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena investigated and as the basis for
606:
to investigate the spectra of elements at various temperatures and pressures, he could not associate a yellow line in the solar spectrum with any known elements. He thus claimed the line represented a new element, which was called
930:
Observations can also vary in their time scale. Most optical observations take minutes to hours, so phenomena that change faster than this cannot readily be observed. However, historical data on some objects is available, spanning
642:, classified the spectra recorded on photographic plates. By 1890, a catalog of over 10,000 stars had been prepared that grouped them into thirteen spectral types. Following Pickering's vision, by 1924 Cannon expanded the
746:
Supernova remnant LMC N 63A imaged in x-ray (blue), optical (green) and radio (red) wavelengths. The X-ray glow is from material heated to about ten million degrees
Celsius by a shock wave generated by the supernova
852:
are used to obtain the highest possible image quality. In this wavelength range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies, and
822:
studies radiation with a wavelength that is too long to be visible to the naked eye but is shorter than radio waves. Infrared observations are usually made with telescopes similar to the familiar
1163:
883:, and many others. These kinds of radiation do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere well. There are two methods in use to observe this part of the electromagnetic spectrum—
1153:
1072:. The efforts of the early, late, and present scientists continue to attract young people to study the history and science of astrophysics. The television sitcom show
927:
observatories have also been built, primarily to study the Sun. Cosmic rays consisting of very high-energy particles can be observed hitting the Earth's atmosphere.
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515:. Consequently, it was held that the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found in the terrestrial sphere; either
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Fundamental particles and interactions: Frontiers in contemporary physics an international lecture and workshop series. AIP Conference
Proceedings
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The topic of how stars change, or stellar evolution, is often modeled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on the
698:. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of
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in the Solar atmosphere. In this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun and stars were also found on Earth.
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began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same
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1239:(November 1897), "The Importance of Astrophysical Research and the Relation of Astrophysics to the Other Physical Sciences",
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301:, said, astrophysics "seeks to ascertain the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather than their positions or motions in space–
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Other than electromagnetic radiation, few things may be observed from the Earth that originate from great distances. A few
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the more remarkable because the structure of the nucleus and the mechanisms of these reactions were not fully understood.
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and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of
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690:. At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was
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Case, Stephen (2015), "'Land-marks of the universe': John
Herschel against the background of positional astronomy",
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Stellar
Atmospheres; A Contribution to the Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars
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is a division of the astronomical science that is concerned with recording and interpreting data, in contrast with
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1725:"Ueber das Verhältniss zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für Wärme und Licht"
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astrophysics. In modern times, students continue to be drawn to astrophysics due to its popularization by the
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popularized the field of astrophysics with the general public, and featured some well known scientists like
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against which solar, lunar and planetary motions could be charted, primarily for terrestrial applications.
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2161:(1998), "Frontiers of Astrophysics: Workshop Summary", in Panvini, Robert S.; Weiler, Thomas J. (eds.),
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whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthly world was the realm which underwent
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In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms of
547:. Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove these assertions.
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telescopes. Objects colder than stars (such as planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies.
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1109: – Study of astronomy using spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
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958:, which can be viewed as representing the state of a stellar object, from birth to destruction.
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observatories have been constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect.
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and in which natural motion was in a straight line and ended when the moving object reached its
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1127: – Scatter plot of stars showing the relationship of luminosity to stellar classification
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661:, along with a group of ten associate editors from Europe and the United States, established
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Astronomy is an ancient science, long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the
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1133: – Study of astronomical objects that release highly energetic electromagnetic radiation
602:, who in 1868 detected radiant, as well as dark lines in solar spectra. Working with chemist
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The
Astrophysical Journal: An International Review of Spectroscopy and Astronomical Physics
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Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astrophysics, now included in the
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939:. On the other hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale (
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independently discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of
381:
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170:
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studies). The information obtained from these different timescales is very different.
3838:
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2211:
Roth, H. (1932), "A Slowly
Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability",
1641:
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1294:
1159:
Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure
1069:
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1000:
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758:, which is mainly concerned with finding out the measurable implications of physical
694:
of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to
Einstein's equation
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321:
1492:(second revised ed.), Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, pp. 30, 41, 241–2,
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1855:, American Institute of Physics, Center for the History of Physics, archived from
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1961:
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483:(the physical study of the largest-scale structures of the universe), including
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McCracken, Garry; Stott, Peter (2013). McCracken, Garry; Stott, Peter (eds.).
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2019:
1994:
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587:. Kirchhoff deduced that the dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by
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528:
500:
428:
361:
290:
188:
150:
115:
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1977:
1618:"On the boredom of science: positional astronomy in the nineteenth century"
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1024:
924:
880:
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and dust clouds; the cosmic microwave background radiation which is the
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368:
apply concepts and methods from many disciplines of physics, including
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286:
53:
1828:
1514:"Galileo, Descartes, and Newton – Founders of the Language of Physics"
972:
Theoretical astrophysicists use a wide variety of tools which include
646:
to nine volumes and over a quarter of a million stars, developing the
583:
in the spectra of known gases, specific lines corresponding to unique
37:
3708:
2738:
2494:
List and directory of peer-reviewed
Astronomy / Astrophysics Journals
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805:
622:
undertook an ambitious program of stellar spectral classification at
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608:
460:
329:
165:
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2188:
1969:
1937:
1724:
1683:
598:
Among those who extended the study of solar and stellar spectra was
344:. Emissions from these objects are examined across all parts of the
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1904:
1784:
1617:
1456:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1980), pp.
1261:
1166: – Chronological list of developments in knowledge and records
674:
still used as the basis for classifying stars and their evolution,
2165:, vol. 423, American Institute of Physics, pp. 236–248,
741:
520:
512:
36:
1031:, dark matter, dark energy and fundamental theories of physics.
896:
683:
563:(regions where there was less or no light) were observed in the
325:
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2859:
2507:
41:
Early 1900s comparison of elemental, solar, and stellar spectra
3150:
2958:
1098: – Study of molecules in the Universe and their reactions
317:
832:
was the earliest kind of astronomy. Telescopes paired with a
435:. Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include
2974:
2386:
The Cosmic
Century: A History of Astrophysics and Cosmology
2330:"Hubert Reeves – Astronomy, Astrophysics and Space Science"
788:
greater than a few millimeters. Example areas of study are
364:
composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject,
812:
frequencies. The study of these waves requires very large
297:
and phenomena. As one of the founders of the discipline,
1763:
Cortie, A. L. (1921), "Sir Norman Lockyer, 1836 – 1920",
1658:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–29.
1398:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 21, 47,
2454:
531:. During the 17th century, natural philosophers such as
285:
is a science that employs the methods and principles of
2259:(1341), New York: Cambridge University Press: 233–240,
2040:(Second ed.). Boston: Academic Press. p. 13.
1164:
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
503:
worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging
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1121: – Branch of astronomy using gravitational waves
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3418:
3301:
3241:
3162:
3124:
3085:
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2682:
2598:
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773:Most astrophysical observations are made using the
2383:
2101:"Payne-Gaposchkin [Payne], Cecilia Helena"
1449:
1344:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1340:Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought
1337:
844:interferes somewhat with optical observations, so
840:are the most common instruments used. The Earth's
2470:Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology
1999:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2140:"Cecilia Payne and the Composition of the Stars"
1154:Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity
713:) wrote an influential doctoral dissertation at
1622:The British Journal for the History of Science
1489:The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science
1380:. Indianapolis: Bobbs Merrill Co. p. 118.
1378:of Plato translated, with a running commentary
650:which was accepted for worldwide use in 1922.
2990:
2871:
2519:
2138:Steven Soter and Neil deGrasse Tyson (2000).
263:
8:
1150: – Observing low-mass stellar particles
980:to approximate the behaviors of a star) and
670:Around 1920, following the discovery of the
1995:"On the radiative equilibrium of the stars"
1875:
1873:
1190:. Princeton University Press. p. 272.
678:anticipated the discovery and mechanism of
3082:
2997:
2983:
2975:
2878:
2864:
2856:
2526:
2512:
2504:
1852:Spectroscopy and the Birth of Astrophysics
1452:Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton
1396:Sidereus Nuncius or The Sidereal Messenger
1281:
1279:
792:, usually emitted by cold objects such as
270:
256:
44:
2484:International Journal of Modern Physics D
2390:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2170:
2018:
1748:
1521:Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
1260:
2305:"Famous Astronomers and Astrophysicists"
2111:, New York: Springer, pp. 876–878,
2109:Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
2077:(PhD Thesis), Cambridge, Massachusetts:
1938:"The Internal Constitution of the Stars"
1478:
1476:
3759:
1176:
871:study very energetic processes such as
52:
2724:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
2479:from the American Institute of Physics
1543:
1532:
1137:Important publications in astrophysics
688:The Internal Constitution of the Stars
579:in the solar spectrum corresponded to
348:, and the properties examined include
2499:Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial, UCLA
1883:(1895), "The Astrophysical Journal",
7:
3736:
2249:"Internal Constitution of the Stars"
709:In 1925 Cecilia Helena Payne (later
437:Solar System formation and evolution
1684:"Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien"
1425:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
316:Among the subjects studied are the
2144:American Museum of Natural History
2046:10.1016/b978-0-12-384656-3.00002-7
1616:Donnelly, Kevin (September 2014),
1394:(1989), Van Helden, Albert (ed.),
1144: – (includes astrophysicists)
1115: – Branch of particle physics
770:and other astronomical apparatus.
762:. It is the practice of observing
25:
1218:from the original on 10 June 2011
1214:. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.
3822:
3810:
3798:
3786:
3774:
3762:
3735:
3724:
3723:
3494:Southern African Large Telescope
2099:Haramundanis, Katherine (2007),
889:imaging air Cherenkov telescopes
706:), had not yet been discovered.
237:
236:
223:
60:
2845:Timeline of physics discoveries
909:High Energy Stereoscopic System
808:, which were first detected at
309:they are", which is studied in
2107:; Williams, Thomas R. (eds.),
449:galaxy formation and evolution
30:For the academic journal, see
1:
1809:Journal of Chemical Education
1583:10.1080/00033790.2015.1034588
1048:such as prominent professors
905:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
648:Harvard Classification Scheme
433:ultimate fate of the universe
3850:Astronomical sub-disciplines
2445:Resources in other libraries
2328:The science.ca team (2015).
1287:"Focus Areas – NASA Science"
1119:Gravitational-wave astronomy
943:) or combine years of data (
907:. Examples of IACTs are the
575:, had demonstrated that the
402:atomic and molecular physics
2809:Quantum information science
2273:10.1126/science.52.1341.233
1962:10.1126/science.52.1341.233
1802:"Why Helium Ends in "-ium""
1519:. Institute of Philosophy,
1370:Cornford, Francis MacDonald
1125:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
956:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
672:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
624:Harvard College Observatory
463:in the universe; origin of
342:cosmic microwave background
3866:
2640:Classical electromagnetism
2456:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1841:Hetherington, Norriss S.;
1187:Astrophysics in a Nutshell
1102:Astronomical observatories
1054:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
1042:Royal Astronomical Society
1012:)physics and the study of
965:
738:Observational astrophysics
29:
3718:
3487:Large Binocular Telescope
3452:Extremely Large Telescope
3445:Extremely large telescope
3012:
2894:
2440:Resources in your library
2247:Eddington, A.S. (1988) ,
1917:The Astrophysical Journal
1885:The Astrophysical Journal
1765:The Astrophysical Journal
1656:The analysis of starlight
1634:10.1017/S0007087413000915
1241:The Astrophysical Journal
1107:Astronomical spectroscopy
901:Chandra X-ray Observatory
784:studies radiation with a
567:. By 1860 the physicist,
209:List of unsolved problems
18:Relativistic astrophysics
3459:Gran Telescopio Canarias
2746:Condensed matter physics
1750:10.1002/andp.18601850205
1708:10.1002/andp.18601850115
1654:Hearnshaw, J.B. (1986).
962:Theoretical astrophysics
775:electromagnetic spectrum
756:theoretical astrophysics
719:Saha's ionization theory
711:Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin
346:electromagnetic spectrum
3554:Astrology and astronomy
3264:Gravitational radiation
2929:Extragalactic astronomy
2303:D. Mark Manley (2012).
1512:Ladislav Kvasz (2013).
1418:Edward Slowik (2013) .
1374:Plato's Cosmology: The
1320:Encyclopædia Britannica
752:Observational astronomy
717:, in which she applied
615:, the Sun personified.
3473:Hubble Space Telescope
2830:Nobel Prize in Physics
2692:Relativistic mechanics
2332:. GCS Research Society
2235:10.1103/PhysRev.39.525
1942:The Scientific Monthly
1542:Cite journal requires
895:of the first type are
885:space-based telescopes
748:
553:William Hyde Wollaston
305:they are, rather than
199:List of physics awards
42:
32:Astrophysics (journal)
3577:Astroparticle physics
3312:Australian Aboriginal
2835:Philosophy of physics
2464:Astrophysical Journal
2351:"Neil deGrasse Tyson"
2309:Kent State University
2103:, in Hockey, Thomas;
2073:Payne, C. H. (1925),
2020:10.1093/mnras/77.1.16
1131:High-energy astronomy
1113:Astroparticle physics
985:numerical simulations
968:Theoretical astronomy
834:charge-coupled device
745:
626:, in which a team of
557:Joseph von Fraunhofer
489:astroparticle physics
457:large-scale structure
378:statistical mechanics
40:
27:Subfield of astronomy
3569:Astronomers Monument
3501:Very Large Telescope
3048:Astronomical symbols
2794:Mathematical physics
2458:, a European Journal
2157:Biermann, Peter L.;
1859:on September 7, 2015
1446:Westfall, Richard S.
1420:"Descartes' Physics"
891:(IACT). Examples of
453:magnetohydrodynamics
295:astronomical objects
3642:List of astronomers
3055:Astronomical object
2886:Major subfields of
2769:Atmospheric physics
2608:Classical mechanics
2536:branches of physics
2380:Longair, Malcolm S.
2265:1920Sci....52..233E
2227:1932PhRv...39..525R
2181:1998AIPC..423..236B
2087:1925PhDT.........1P
2011:1916MNRAS..77...16E
1954:1920Sci....52..233E
1897:1895ApJ.....1...80H
1881:Hale, George Ellery
1821:2004JChEd..81..944J
1777:1921ApJ....53..233C
1741:1860AnP...185..275K
1700:1860AnP...185..148K
1575:2015AnSci..72..417C
1484:Burtt, Edwin Arthur
1253:1897ApJ.....6..271K
1142:List of astronomers
1084:Neil deGrasse Tyson
1075:The Big Bang Theory
1014:gravitational waves
945:pulsar deceleration
941:millisecond pulsars
911:(H.E.S.S.) and the
869:gamma ray astronomy
732:gravitational waves
722:readers (including
620:Edward C. Pickering
571:, and the chemist,
370:classical mechanics
338:interstellar medium
311:celestial mechanics
48:Part of a series on
3628:Physical cosmology
2944:Physical cosmology
2934:Galactic astronomy
2825:History of physics
2475:2008-10-21 at the
2355:Hayden Planetarium
1843:McCray, W. Patrick
1798:Jensen, William B.
1729:Annalen der Physik
1688:Annalen der Physik
1184:Maoz, Dan (2016).
1148:Neutrino astronomy
921:gravitational wave
820:Infrared astronomy
749:
655:George Ellery Hale
632:Williamina Fleming
611:, after the Greek
481:physical cosmology
473:special relativity
469:general relativity
334:extrasolar planets
230:Physics portal
43:
3750:
3749:
3635:Quantum cosmology
3621:Planetary geology
3414:
3413:
3125:Celestial subject
2972:
2971:
2964:Stellar astronomy
2954:Planetary science
2949:Planetary geology
2939:Orbital mechanics
2853:
2852:
2840:Physics education
2789:Materials science
2756:Interdisciplinary
2714:Quantum mechanics
2421:Library resources
2397:978-0-521-47436-8
2282:978-0-521-33708-3
2118:978-0-387-30400-7
2105:Trimble, Virginia
2079:Radcliffe College
2055:978-0-12-384656-3
1847:Weart, Spencer R.
1829:10.1021/ed081p944
1721:Kirchhoff, Gustav
1680:Kirchhoff, Gustav
1665:978-0-521-39916-6
1563:Annals of Science
1499:978-0-486-42551-1
1467:978-0-521-27435-7
1405:978-0-226-27903-9
1355:978-0-521-09456-6
974:analytical models
887:and ground-based
830:Optical astronomy
764:celestial objects
715:Radcliffe College
640:Annie Jump Cannon
593:chemical elements
585:chemical elements
527:as maintained by
519:as maintained by
386:quantum mechanics
280:
279:
136:Classical physics
16:(Redirected from
3857:
3827:
3826:
3825:
3815:
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3803:
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3791:
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3656:Medieval Islamic
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3616:
3609:
3600:
3593:
3586:
3579:
3572:
3563:
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3549:
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3540:Astroinformatics
3535:
3528:
3521:
3519:Archaeoastronomy
3503:
3496:
3489:
3482:
3480:Keck Observatory
3475:
3468:
3461:
3454:
3447:
3440:
3433:
3407:
3398:
3391:
3384:
3377:
3375:Medieval Islamic
3370:
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2999:
2992:
2985:
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2880:
2873:
2866:
2857:
2779:Chemical physics
2719:Particle physics
2645:Classical optics
2528:
2521:
2514:
2505:
2489:World Scientific
2400:
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2366:
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2172:astro-ph/9711066
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2125:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2070:
2064:
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2031:
2025:
2024:
2022:
1991:Eddington, A. S.
1987:
1981:
1980:
1936:(October 1920),
1934:Eddington, A. S.
1930:
1924:
1914:
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1392:Galilei, Galileo
1388:
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1360:
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1330:
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1323:
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1293:. Archived from
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1264:
1237:Keeler, James E.
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1208:
1202:
1201:
1181:
1029:cosmic inflation
1021:Lambda-CDM model
850:space telescopes
814:radio telescopes
794:interstellar gas
676:Arthur Eddington
604:Edward Frankland
569:Gustav Kirchhoff
509:growth and decay
441:stellar dynamics
425:celestial bodies
398:particle physics
374:electromagnetism
293:in the study of
272:
265:
258:
245:
240:
239:
232:
228:
227:
204:List of journals
141:Electromagnetism
64:
45:
21:
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3686:X-ray telescope
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3292:Multi-messenger
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3115:Space telescope
3113:
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2959:Solar astronomy
2890:
2884:
2854:
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2813:
2799:Medical physics
2750:
2709:Nuclear physics
2678:
2672:Non-equilibrium
2594:
2566:
2538:
2532:
2477:Wayback Machine
2451:
2450:
2449:
2429:
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2417:
2410:Expert articles
2398:
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2373:Further reading
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2214:Physical Review
2210:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2189:10.1063/1.55085
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2132:
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1989:
1988:
1984:
1932:
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1911:
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1334:Lloyd, G. E. R.
1332:
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1309:
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1178:
1173:
1092:
1080:Stephen Hawking
1058:Stephen Hawking
1050:Lawrence Krauss
1037:
970:
964:
846:adaptive optics
800:light from the
782:Radio astronomy
740:
686:, in his paper
659:James E. Keeler
628:woman computers
497:
366:astrophysicists
276:
235:
222:
221:
214:
213:
184:
176:
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161:Nuclear physics
111:
101:
87:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3603:
3602:
3601:
3587:
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3573:
3564:
3557:
3550:
3543:
3536:
3533:Astrochemistry
3529:
3522:
3514:
3512:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3483:
3476:
3469:
3466:Hale Telescope
3462:
3455:
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3426:
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3199:Visible-light
3195:
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3160:
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3156:
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3154:
3140:
3128:
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2919:Cosmochemistry
2916:
2911:
2906:
2904:Astrochemistry
2901:
2895:
2892:
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2883:
2882:
2875:
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2674:
2669:
2662:Thermodynamics
2659:
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2415:External links
2413:
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2281:
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2221:(3): 525–529,
2203:
2197:
2149:
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2117:
2091:
2065:
2054:
2026:
1982:
1948:(4): 297–303,
1925:
1909:
1905:10.1086/140011
1869:
1833:
1815:(7): 944–945,
1789:
1785:10.1086/142602
1755:
1735:(2): 275–301,
1712:
1694:(1): 148–150,
1671:
1664:
1646:
1628:(3): 479–503,
1608:
1569:(4): 417–434,
1553:
1544:|journal=
1504:
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1472:
1466:
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1410:
1404:
1383:
1361:
1354:
1325:
1322:. 29 May 2023.
1307:
1275:
1262:10.1086/140401
1247:(4): 271–288,
1228:
1212:"astrophysics"
1203:
1197:978-1400881178
1196:
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1096:Astrochemistry
1091:
1088:
1036:
1035:Popularization
1033:
976:(for example,
963:
960:
917:
916:
873:binary pulsars
858:
827:
817:
739:
736:
680:nuclear fusion
600:Norman Lockyer
496:
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487:cosmology and
382:thermodynamics
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171:Thermodynamics
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126:Atomic physics
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3242:Other methods
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3196:
3191:
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3178:Submillimetre
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3161:
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3148:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3138:
3137:Extragalactic
3134:
3130:
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3123:
3116:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3102:
3101:Observational
3098:
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2920:
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2804:Ocean physics
2802:
2800:
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2782:
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2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
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2759:
2757:
2753:
2747:
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2740:
2739:Modern optics
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2726:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
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2588:Computational
2586:
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2284:
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2270:
2266:
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2254:
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2194:
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2159:Falcke, Heino
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2004:
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1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
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1926:
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1297:on 2017-05-16
1296:
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910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
893:Observatories
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
859:
856:
851:
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838:spectroscopes
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660:
656:
651:
649:
645:
641:
637:
636:Antonia Maury
633:
629:
625:
621:
616:
614:
610:
605:
601:
596:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
573:Robert Bunsen
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
548:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
494:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
322:solar physics
319:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
273:
268:
266:
261:
259:
254:
253:
251:
250:
244:
234:
231:
226:
220:
219:
218:
217:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
194:
190:
187:
186:
180:
179:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
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144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
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129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
113:
110:
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3845:Astrophysics
3829:Solar System
3567:
3547:Astrophysics
3546:
3526:Astrobiology
3190:Far-infrared
3144:Local system
3079:Astronomy by
3069:... in space
2914:Astrophysics
2913:
2899:Astrobiology
2764:Astrophysics
2763:
2578:Experimental
2483:
2463:
2455:
2435:Online books
2426:Astrophysics
2425:
2408:Scholarpedia
2404:Astrophysics
2385:
2359:. Retrieved
2345:
2334:. Retrieved
2323:
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2298:
2256:
2252:
2242:
2218:
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1998:
1985:
1945:
1941:
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1920:
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1888:
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1857:the original
1851:
1836:
1812:
1808:
1792:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1732:
1728:
1715:
1691:
1687:
1674:
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1611:
1602:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1535:cite journal
1524:. Retrieved
1507:
1488:
1451:
1440:
1429:. Retrieved
1423:
1413:
1395:
1386:
1377:
1373:
1372:(c. 1957) .
1364:
1339:
1328:
1319:
1310:
1299:. Retrieved
1295:the original
1290:
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1231:
1220:. Retrieved
1206:
1186:
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1073:
1044:and notable
1038:
1018:
1009:
997:
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728:
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663:
652:
617:
597:
581:bright lines
549:
545:natural laws
501:Aristotelian
498:
423:, and other
406:
365:
315:
306:
302:
299:James Keeler
283:Astrophysics
282:
281:
121:Astrophysics
120:
3817:Outer space
3805:Spaceflight
3614:Planetarium
3271:High-energy
3257:Cosmic rays
3209:Ultraviolet
2667:Statistical
2583:Theoretical
2560:Engineering
1771:: 233–248,
1316:"astronomy"
877:black holes
861:Ultraviolet
790:radio waves
704:metallicity
465:cosmic rays
421:black holes
417:dark energy
413:dark matter
409:theoretical
358:temperature
3839:Categories
3607:Photometry
3584:Binoculars
3561:Astrometry
3422:telescopes
3319:Babylonian
3163:EM methods
3041:Astronomer
2909:Astrometry
2784:Geophysics
2774:Biophysics
2618:Analytical
2571:Approaches
2361:2015-07-17
2336:2015-07-17
2314:2015-07-17
1526:2015-07-18
1431:2015-07-18
1301:2017-07-12
1222:2011-05-22
1171:References
1066:Carl Sagan
1023:, are the
1006:black hole
978:polytropes
966:See also:
915:telescope.
842:atmosphere
798:redshifted
786:wavelength
768:telescopes
747:explosion.
630:, notably
589:absorption
577:dark lines
561:dark lines
427:; and the
390:relativity
350:luminosity
146:Geophysics
131:Biophysics
3781:Astronomy
3679:Telescope
3285:Spherical
3232:Gamma-ray
3201:(optical)
3006:Astronomy
2924:Cosmology
2888:astronomy
2734:Molecular
2635:Acoustics
2628:Continuum
2623:Celestial
2613:Newtonian
2600:Classical
2543:Divisions
2005:: 16–35.
1642:146382057
1599:205397708
1486:(2003) ,
1046:educators
937:millennia
933:centuries
881:magnetars
810:microwave
766:by using
653:In 1895,
618:In 1885,
537:Descartes
529:Aristotle
445:evolution
324:), other
291:chemistry
189:Physicist
151:Mechanics
116:Acoustics
3729:Category
3438:Category
3333:Egyptian
3250:Neutrino
3185:Infrared
3133:Galactic
3108:Sidewalk
3062:Glossary
3032:Timeline
2473:Archived
2382:(2006),
2291:17747682
2124:July 19,
1993:(1916).
1978:17747682
1863:July 19,
1800:(2004),
1723:(1860),
1682:(1860),
1591:26221834
1448:(1983),
1336:(1968).
1291:nasa.gov
1271:17796068
1216:Archived
1090:See also
1025:Big Bang
925:Neutrino
903:and the
802:Big Bang
700:hydrogen
565:spectrum
362:chemical
340:and the
330:galaxies
243:Category
183:Research
109:Branches
96:timeline
83:Glossary
3769:Physics
3755:Portals
3741:Commons
3693:history
3663:Russian
3511:Related
3420:Optical
3405:Tibetan
3389:Serbian
3382:Persian
3326:Chinese
3303:Culture
3223:History
3094:Amateur
3025:History
3018:Outline
2818:Related
2702:General
2697:Special
2555:Applied
2261:Bibcode
2253:Science
2223:Bibcode
2177:Bibcode
2083:Bibcode
2007:Bibcode
1950:Bibcode
1893:Bibcode
1849:(ed.),
1817:Bibcode
1773:Bibcode
1737:Bibcode
1696:Bibcode
1571:Bibcode
1458:731–732
1376:Timaeus
1346:134–135
1249:Bibcode
995:model.
855:nebulae
824:optical
806:pulsars
724:Russell
644:catalog
533:Galileo
505:spheres
495:History
477:quantum
394:nuclear
354:density
287:physics
92:History
78:Outline
54:Physics
3709:Zodiac
3649:French
3354:Indian
3347:Hebrew
3086:Manner
2729:Atomic
2684:Modern
2534:Major
2423:about
2394:
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2195:
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2037:Fusion
1976:
1968:
1662:
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1001:string
899:, the
760:models
696:E = mc
692:fusion
638:, and
613:Helios
609:helium
541:Newton
539:, and
525:Aether
485:string
461:matter
429:origin
400:, and
360:, and
336:, the
241:
166:Optics
3793:Stars
3700:lists
3670:Women
3361:Inuit
3340:Greek
3278:Radar
3216:X-ray
3171:Radio
3151:Solar
2487:from
2167:arXiv
1966:JSTOR
1805:(PDF)
1638:S2CID
1595:S2CID
1517:(PDF)
1010:astro
913:MAGIC
865:X-ray
702:(see
684:stars
523:, or
521:Plato
326:stars
307:where
73:Index
3431:List
3396:folk
3368:Maya
2655:Wave
2550:Pure
2392:ISBN
2287:PMID
2277:ISBN
2193:ISBN
2126:2015
2113:ISBN
2050:ISBN
1974:PMID
1970:6491
1865:2015
1660:ISBN
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1548:help
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1267:PMID
1192:ISBN
1082:and
1068:and
897:RXTE
867:and
848:and
657:and
555:and
517:Fire
513:goal
479:and
443:and
431:and
396:and
303:what
289:and
193:list
3598:IAU
2650:Ray
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2185:doi
2042:doi
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1958:doi
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