Classical conditioning

906:"Comparator" theories of conditioning are "performance based", that is, they stress what is going on at the time of the test. In particular, they look at all the stimuli that are present during testing and at how the associations acquired by these stimuli may interact. To oversimplify somewhat, comparator theories assume that during conditioning the subject acquires both CS-US and context-US associations. At the time of the test, these associations are compared, and a response to the CS occurs only if the CS-US association is stronger than the context-US association. After a CS and US are repeatedly paired in simple acquisition, the CS-US association is strong and the context-US association is relatively weak. This means that the CS elicits a strong CR. In "zero contingency" (see above), the conditioned response is weak or absent because the context-US association is about as strong as the CS-US association. Blocking and other more subtle phenomena can also be explained by comparator theories, though, again, they cannot explain everything. 959:

the CS and the US are in the A1 state at the same time, an association is learned between the two stimuli. This means that if, at a later time, the CS is presented ahead of the US, and some CS elements enter A1, these elements will activate some US elements. However, US elements activated indirectly in this way only get boosted to the A2 state. (This can be thought of the CS arousing a memory of the US, which will not be as strong as the real thing.) With repeated CS-US trials, more and more elements are associated, and more and more US elements go to A2 when the CS comes on. This gradually leaves fewer and fewer US elements that can enter A1 when the US itself appears. In consequence, learning slows down and approaches a limit. One might say that the US is "fully predicted" or "not surprising" because almost all of its elements can only enter A2 when the CS comes on, leaving few to form new associations.

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the nature of the US (e.g. its intensity). The amount of learning that happens during any single CS-US pairing depends on the difference between the total associative strengths of CS and other stimuli present in the situation (ΣV in the equation), and a maximum set by the US (λ in the equation). On the first pairing of the CS and US, this difference is large and the associative strength of the CS takes a big step up. As CS-US pairings accumulate, the US becomes more predictable, and the increase in associative strength on each trial becomes smaller and smaller. Finally, the difference between the associative strength of the CS (plus any that may accrue to other stimuli) and the maximum strength reaches zero. That is, the US is fully predicted, the associative strength of the CS stops growing, and conditioning is complete.

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animal neuroscience experiments, a CS for reward may trigger a more frenzied pulse of increased instrumental efforts to obtain that associated UCS reward in situations that purify the measurement of incentive salience, such as in Pavlovian-Instrumental Transfer (PIT) experiments ... Similarly, including a CS can often spur increased consumption of a reward UCS by rats or people, compared to consumption of the same UCS when CSs are absent ... Thus Pavlovian cues can elicit pulses of increased motivation to consume their UCS reward, whetting and intensifying the appetite. However, the motivation power is never simply in the cues themselves or their associations, since cue-triggered motivation can be easily modulated and reversed by drugs, hungers, satieties, etc., as discussed below.

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important part of our life that continuously influence and guide our actions. Hearing the sound of a horn makes us stop before we attempt to cross the street. Seeing an advertisement for fast food might make us hungry and lead us to seek out a specific type and source of food. In general, cues can both prompt us towards or stop us from engaging in a certain course of action. They can be adaptive (saving our life in crossing the street) or maladaptive, leading to suboptimal choices, e.g. making us eat when we are not really hungry (Colagiuri and Lovibond, 2015). In extreme cases they can even play a part in pathologies such as in addiction, where drug associated cues produce craving and provoke relapse (Belin et al., 2009).

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piece of dry bread, and dry bread is likely to work better than a piece of cardboard. A key idea behind the R–W model is that a CS signals or predicts the US. One might say that before conditioning, the subject is surprised by the US. However, after conditioning, the subject is no longer surprised, because the CS predicts the coming of the US. (The model can be described mathematically and that words like predict, surprise, and expect are only used to help explain the model.) Here the workings of the model are illustrated with brief accounts of acquisition, extinction, and blocking. The model also predicts a number of other phenomena, see main article on the model.

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is provided by assuming that a stimulus is internally represented by a collection of elements, each of which may change from one associative state to another. For example, the similarity of one stimulus to another may be represented by saying that the two stimuli share elements in common. These shared elements help to account for stimulus generalization and other phenomena that may depend upon generalization. Also, different elements within the same set may have different associations, and their activations and associations may change at different times and at different rates. This allows element-based models to handle some otherwise inexplicable results.

877:, the speed of conditioning depends on the amount of attention devoted to the CS, and this amount of attention depends in turn on how well the CS predicts the US. Pearce and Hall proposed a related model based on a different attentional principle Both models have been extensively tested, and neither explains all the experimental results. Consequently, various authors have attempted hybrid models that combine the two attentional processes. Pearce and Hall in 2010 integrated their attentional ideas and even suggested the possibility of incorporating the Rescorla-Wagner equation into an integrated model. 886:

experimental CS itself, because the room is also there between experimental trials, when the US is absent. The role of such context is illustrated by the fact that the dogs in Pavlov's experiment would sometimes start salivating as they approached the experimental apparatus, before they saw or heard any CS. Such so-called "context" stimuli are always present, and their influence helps to account for some otherwise puzzling experimental findings. The associative strength of context stimuli can be entered into the Rescorla-Wagner equation, and they play an important role in the

809: 552:. Then, in a series of trials, the rat is exposed to a CS, a light or a noise, followed by the US, a mild electric shock. An association between the CS and US develops, and the rat slows or stops its lever pressing when the CS comes on. The rate of pressing during the CS measures the strength of classical conditioning; that is, the slower the rat presses, the stronger the association of the CS and the US. (Slow pressing indicates a "fear" conditioned response, and it is an example of a conditioned emotional response; see section below.) 817:

As a result of this "surprising" outcome, the associative strength of the CS takes a step down. Extinction is complete when the strength of the CS reaches zero; no US is predicted, and no US occurs. However, if that same CS is presented without the US but accompanied by a well-established conditioned inhibitor (CI), that is, a stimulus that predicts the absence of a US (in R-W terms, a stimulus with a negative associate strength) then R-W predicts that the CS will not undergo extinction (its V will not decrease in size).

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the strengths of all stimuli present in the situation. λ is the maximum associative strength that a given US will support; its value is usually set to 1 on trials when the US is present, and 0 when the US is absent. α and β are constants related to the salience of the CS and the speed of learning for a given US. How the equation predicts various experimental results is explained in following sections. For further details, see the main article on the model.

268: 354: 332: 1150:. If so, a drug user may increase the amount of drug consumed in order to feel its effects, and end up taking very large amounts of the drug. In this case a dangerous overdose reaction may occur if the CS happens to be absent, so that the conditioned compensatory effect fails to occur. For example, if the drug has always been administered in the same room, the stimuli provided by that room may produce a conditioned compensatory effect; then an 319: 1268: 389: 836:

followed by the US. Finally CS2 is tested and shown to produce no response because learning about CS2 was "blocked" by the initial learning about CS1. The R–W model explains this by saying that after the initial conditioning, CS1 fully predicts the US. Since there is no difference between what is predicted and what happens, no new learning happens on the additional trials with CS1+CS2, hence CS2 later yields no response.

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approach to prediction is suggested by models such as that proposed by Gallistel & Gibbon (2000, 2002). Here the response is not determined by associative strengths. Instead, the organism records the times of onset and offset of CSs and USs and uses these to calculate the probability that the US will follow the CS. A number of experiments have shown that humans and animals can learn to time events (see

288:: In delay conditioning, the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US. For example, if a person hears a buzzer for five seconds, during which time air is puffed into their eye, the person will blink. After several pairings of the buzzer and the puff, the person will blink at the sound of the buzzer alone. This is delay conditioning. 1317:. In a typical experiment, a rat is presented with sound-food pairings (classical conditioning). Separately, the rat learns to press a lever to get food (operant conditioning). Test sessions now show that the rat presses the lever faster in the presence of the sound than in silence, although the sound has never been associated with lever pressing. 1225:. A common example is conditioned nausea, in which the CS is the sight or smell of a particular food that in the past has resulted in an unconditioned stomach upset. Similarly, when the CS is the sight of a dog and the US is the pain of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is 4347: 177: 4335: 486:: Spontaneous recovery is defined as the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. That is, if the CS is tested at a later time (for example an hour or a day) after extinction it will again elicit a CR. This renewed CR is usually much weaker than the CR observed prior to extinction. 437:

and there is a gradual increase in the conditioned response to the CS. This repeated number of trials increase the strength and/or frequency of the CR gradually. The speed of conditioning depends on a number of factors, such as the nature and strength of both the CS and the US, previous experience and the animal's

221:) and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. Pavlov concluded that if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food then that stimulus could become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. 832:

by the sum of the associative strengths of all stimuli present in the conditioning situation. Learning is controlled by the difference between this total associative strength and the strength supported by the US. When this sum of strengths reaches a maximum set by the US, conditioning ends as just described.

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UR. The CR is sometimes even the opposite of the UR. For example: the unconditional response to electric shock is an increase in heart rate, whereas a CS that has been paired with the electric shock elicits a decrease in heart rate. (However, it has been proposed that only when the UR does not involve the

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One of the main reasons for the importance of the R–W model is that it is relatively simple and makes clear predictions. Tests of these predictions have led to a number of important new findings and a considerably increased understanding of conditioning. Some new information has supported the theory,

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The R–W explanation of the blocking phenomenon illustrates one consequence of the assumption just stated. In blocking (see "phenomena" above), CS1 is paired with a US until conditioning is complete. Then on additional conditioning trials a second stimulus (CS2) appears together with CS1, and both are

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The associative process described by the R–W model also accounts for extinction (see "procedures" above). The extinction procedure starts with a positive associative strength of the CS, which means that the CS predicts that the US will occur. On an extinction trial the US fails to occur after the CS.

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In this model, the degree of learning is measured by how well the CS predicts the US, which is given by the "associative strength" of the CS. In the equation, V represents the current associative strength of the CS, and ∆V is the change in this strength that happens on a given trial. ΣV is the sum of

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During acquisition, the CS and US are paired as described above. The extent of conditioning may be tracked by test trials. In these test trials, the CS is presented alone and the CR is measured. A single CS-US pairing may suffice to yield a CR on a test, but usually a number of pairings are necessary

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In this procedure, the CS is paired with the US, but the US also occurs at other times. If this occurs, it is predicted that the US is likely to happen in the absence of the CS. In other words, the CS does not "predict" the US. In this case, conditioning fails and the CS does not come to elicit a CR.

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The example below shows the temporal conditioning, as US such as food to a hungry mouse is simply delivered on a regular time schedule such as every thirty seconds. After sufficient exposure the mouse will begin to salivate just before the food delivery. This then makes it temporal conditioning as it

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Backward conditioning occurs when a CS immediately follows a US. Unlike the usual conditioning procedure, in which the CS precedes the US, the conditioned response given to the CS tends to be inhibitory. This presumably happens because the CS serves as a signal that the US has ended, rather than as a

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As noted earlier, it is often thought that the conditioned response is a replica of the unconditioned response, but Pavlov noted that saliva produced by the CS differs in composition from that produced by the US. In fact, the CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be clearly

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response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is repeated the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. (A conditioned response may occur after only one pairing.) Thus, unlike the UR, the CR is acquired through experience,

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that attempts to eliminate phobias and anxieties by repeated exposure to highly distressing stimuli until the lack of reinforcement of the anxiety response causes its extinction. "Flooding" usually involves actual exposure to the stimuli, whereas the term "implosion" refers to imagined exposure, but

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The model can explain the findings that are accounted for by the Rescorla-Wagner model and a number of additional findings as well. For example, unlike most other models, SOP takes time into account. The rise and decay of element activation enables the model to explain time-dependent effects such as

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is said to occur if, after a particular CS has come to elicit a CR, a similar test stimulus is found to elicit the same CR. Usually the more similar the test stimulus is to the CS the stronger the CR will be to the test stimulus. Conversely, the more the test stimulus differs from the CS, the weaker

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In the extinction procedure, the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of a US. This is done after a CS has been conditioned by one of the methods above. When this is done, the CR frequency eventually returns to pre-training levels. However, extinction does not eliminate the effects of the prior

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Incentive salience or 'wanting' is a specific form of Pavlovian-related motivation for rewards mediated by mesocorticolimbic brain systems ...Incentive salience integrates two separate input factors: (1) current physiological neurobiological state; (2) previously learned associations about the

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This paper reviews one of the experimental paradigms used to study the effects of cues, the Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer paradigm. In this paradigm, cues associated with rewards through Pavlovian conditioning alter motivation and choice of instrumental actions. ... Predictive cues are an

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Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy designed to make patients cease an undesirable habit by associating the habit with a strong unpleasant unconditioned stimulus. For example, a medication might be used to associate the taste of alcohol with stomach upset. Systematic desensitization is a

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A number of other powerful models have appeared in recent years which incorporate element representations. These often include the assumption that associations involve a network of connections between "nodes" that represent stimuli, responses, and perhaps one or more "hidden" layers of intermediate

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The Rescorla-Wagner model treats a stimulus as a single entity, and it represents the associative strength of a stimulus with one number, with no record of how that number was reached. As noted above, this makes it hard for the model to account for a number of experimental results. More flexibility

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The most important and novel contribution of the R–W model is its assumption that the conditioning of a CS depends not just on that CS alone, and its relationship to the US, but also on all other stimuli present in the conditioning situation. In particular, the model states that the US is predicted

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response. This explanation is called the stimulus-substitution theory of conditioning. A critical problem with the stimulus-substitution theory is that the CR and UR are not always the same. Pavlov himself observed that a dog's saliva produced as a CR differed in composition from that produced as a

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Second-order or higher-order conditioning follow a two-step procedure. First a neutral stimulus ("CS1") comes to signal a US through forward conditioning. Then a second neutral stimulus ("CS2") is paired with the first (CS1) and comes to yield its own conditioned response. For example: A bell might

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As an adaptive mechanism, emotional conditioning helps shield an individual from harm or prepare it for important biological events such as sexual activity. Thus, a stimulus that has occurred before sexual interaction comes to cause sexual arousal, which prepares the individual for sexual contact.

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into the stomach and the secretion of certain hormones into the blood stream, and they induce a state of hunger. An example of conditioned hunger is the "appetizer effect." Any signal that consistently precedes a meal, such as a clock indicating that it is time for dinner, can cause people to feel

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input directly from thalamic afferents, as well as indirectly from prefrontal projections. The direct projections are sufficient for delay conditioning, but in the case of trace conditioning, where the CS needs to be internally represented despite a lack of external stimulus, indirect pathways are

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Pavlov proposed that conditioning involved a connection between brain centers for conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. His physiological account of conditioning has been abandoned, but classical conditioning continues to be used to study the neural structures and functions that underlie learning

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When a stimulus first appears, some of its elements jump from inactivity I to primary activity A1. From the A1 state they gradually decay to A2, and finally back to I. Element activity can only change in this way; in particular, elements in A2 cannot go directly back to A1. If the elements of both

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To find out what has been learned, we must somehow measure behavior ("performance") in a test situation. However, as students know all too well, performance in a test situation is not always a good measure of what has been learned. As for conditioning, there is evidence that subjects in a blocking

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Latent inhibition might happen because a subject stops focusing on a CS that is seen frequently before it is paired with a US. In fact, changes in attention to the CS are at the heart of two prominent theories that try to cope with experimental results that give the R–W model difficulty. In one of

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The R–W model measures conditioning by assigning an "associative strength" to the CS and other local stimuli. Before a CS is conditioned it has an associative strength of zero. Pairing the CS and the US causes a gradual increase in the associative strength of the CS. This increase is determined by

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The Rescorla-Wagner model argues that there is a limit to the amount of conditioning that can occur in the pairing of two stimuli. One determinant of this limit is the nature of the US. For example: pairing a bell with a juicy steak is more likely to produce salivation than pairing the bell with a

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The Rescorla–Wagner (R–W) model is a relatively simple yet powerful model of conditioning. The model predicts a number of important phenomena, but it also fails in important ways, thus leading to a number of modifications and alternative models. However, because much of the theoretical research on

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A brief CS encounter (or brief UCS encounter) often primes a pulse of elevated motivation to obtain and consume more reward UCS. This is a signature feature of incentive salience. In daily life, the smell of food may make you suddenly feel hungry, when you hadn't felt that way a minute before. In

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As stated earlier, a key idea in conditioning is that the CS signals or predicts the US (see "zero contingency procedure" above). However, for example, the room in which conditioning takes place also "predicts" that the US may occur. Still, the room predicts with much less certainty than does the

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During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time. For example: If a person hears a bell and has air puffed into their eye at the same time, and repeated pairings like this led to the person blinking when they hear the bell despite the puff of air being

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Usually the conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response, but sometimes it is quite different. For this and other reasons, most learning theorists suggest that the conditioned stimulus comes to signal or predict the unconditioned stimulus, and go on to analyse the consequences of

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A prominent example of the element approach is the "SOP" model of Wagner. The model has been elaborated in various ways since its introduction, and it can now account in principle for a very wide variety of experimental findings. The model represents any given stimulus with a large collection of

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drinkers may find that the smell of coffee gives them a feeling of alertness. In other cases, the conditioned response is a compensatory reaction that tends to offset the effects of the drug. For example, if a drug causes the body to become less sensitive to pain, the compensatory conditioned

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An organism's need to predict future events is central to modern theories of conditioning. Most theories use associations between stimuli to take care of these predictions. For example: In the R–W model, the associative strength of a CS tells us how strongly that CS predicts a US. A different

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in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs' anticipatory salivation "psychic secretion". Putting these informal observations to an experimental test, Pavlov presented a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a

1007:, a sea-slug. Both fear and eyeblink conditioning involve a neutral stimulus, frequently a tone, becoming paired with an unconditioned stimulus. In the case of eyeblink conditioning, the US is an air-puff, while in fear conditioning the US is threatening or aversive such as a foot shock. 853:

The R–W model reduces conditioning to the association of a CS and US, and measures this with a single number, the associative strength of the CS. A number of experimental findings indicate that more is learned than this. Among these are two phenomena described earlier in this article

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This is the Rescorla-Wagner equation. It specifies the amount of learning that will occur on a single pairing of a conditioning stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). The above equation is solved repeatedly to predict the course of learning over many such trials.

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CS+/US trials are continued, but these are interspersed with trials on which the CS+ is paired with a second CS, (the CS-) but not with the US (i.e. CS+/CS- trials). Typically, organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but stop responding on CS+/CS− trials.

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The SOP account of simple conditioning exemplifies some essentials of the SOP model. To begin with, the model assumes that the CS and US are each represented by a large group of elements. Each of these stimulus elements can be in one of three states:

423:– when there is a sudden appearance of the (CR) after extinction occurs – and other related phenomena (see "Recovery from extinction" below). These phenomena can be explained by postulating accumulation of inhibition when a weak stimulus is presented. 349:

be paired with food until the bell elicits salivation. If a light is then paired with the bell, then the light may come to elicit salivation as well. The bell is the CS1 and the food is the US. The light becomes the CS2 once it is paired with the CS1.

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but much has not, and it is generally agreed that the theory is, at best, too simple. However, no single model seems to account for all the phenomena that experiments have produced. Following are brief summaries of some related theoretical issues.

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Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US in order to signal that the US will follow. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

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the fact that conditioning is strongest when the CS comes just before the US, and that when the CS comes after the US ("backward conditioning") the result is often an inhibitory CS. Many other more subtle phenomena are explained as well.

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elements. The time of presentation of various stimuli, the state of their elements, and the interactions between the elements, all determine the course of associative processes and the behaviors observed during conditioning experiments.

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Several procedures lead to the recovery of a CR that had been first conditioned and then extinguished. This illustrates that the extinction procedure does not eliminate the effect of conditioning. These procedures are the following:

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provided a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its implications, in his 1988 article "Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is". Despite its widespread acceptance, Rescorla's thesis may not be defensible.

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According to Pavlov, conditioning does not involve the acquisition of any new behavior, but rather the tendency to respond in old ways to new stimuli. Thus, he theorized that the CS merely substitutes for the US in evoking the

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areas contain neurons that alter their activity during conditioning – these regions are critical for the acquisition and performance of this simple learning task. It appears that other regions of the brain, including the

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Latent inhibition: If a subject is repeatedly exposed to the CS before conditioning starts, then conditioning takes longer. The R–W model cannot explain this because preexposure leaves the strength of the CS unchanged at

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when one stimulus ("CS1") elicits one CR and another stimulus ("CS2") elicits either another CR or no CR at all. This can be brought about by, for example, pairing CS1 with an effective US and presenting CS2 with no US.

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In temporal conditioning, a US is presented at regular intervals, for instance every 10 minutes. Conditioning is said to have occurred when the CR tends to occur shortly before each US. This suggests that animals have a

168:: in classical conditioning, behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli as described above, whereas in operant conditioning behaviors are modified by the effect they produce (i.e., reward or punishment). 495:

Reinstatement: If the US used in conditioning is presented to a subject in the same place where conditioning and extinction occurred, but without the CS being present, the CS often elicits a response when it is tested

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in dogs, Pavlov developed a procedure that enabled him to study the digestive processes of animals over long periods of time. He redirected the animals' digestive fluids outside the body, where they could be measured.

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linked to experience with the conditional relationship of CS and US. It was also thought that repeated pairings are necessary for conditioning to emerge, but many CRs can be learned with a single trial, especially in

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A separate test for each CS (CS1 and CS2) is performed. The blocking effect is observed in a lack of conditional response to CS2, suggesting that the first phase of training blocked the acquisition of the second CS.

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The CS- from phase 2 is paired with the US. If conditioned inhibition has occurred, the rate of acquisition to the previous CS− should be less than the rate of acquisition that would be found without the phase 2

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Recovery of responding after extinction: It appears that something remains after extinction has reduced associative strength to zero because several procedures cause responding to reappear without further

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Latent inhibition refers to the observation that it takes longer for a familiar stimulus to become a CS than it does for a novel stimulus to become a CS, when the stimulus is paired with an effective US.

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Renewal: Renewal is a reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment (or similar environment) in which the conditioned response was acquired.

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The CS- from phase 2 is presented together with a new CS+ that was conditioned as in phase 1. Conditioned inhibition is found if the response is less to the CS+/CS- pair than it is to the CS+ alone.

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Pavlov reported many basic facts about conditioning; for example, he found that learning occurred most rapidly when the interval between the CS and the appearance of the US was relatively short.

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For example, sexual arousal has been conditioned in human subjects by pairing a stimulus like a picture of a jar of pennies with views of an erotic film clip. Similar experiments involving blue

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This is one of the most common ways to measure the strength of learning in classical conditioning. A typical example of this procedure is as follows: a rat first learns to press a lever through

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Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a

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or conditional stimulus; because its effects depend on its association with food. Likewise, the responses of the dog follow the same conditioned-versus-unconditioned arrangement. The

302:. If in the above buzzer example, the puff came a second after the sound of the buzzer stopped, that would be trace conditioning, with a trace or conditioning interval of one second. 97:

are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human

492:: If the CS is tested just after extinction and an intense but associatively neutral stimulus has occurred, there may be a temporary recovery of the conditioned response to the CS. 449:

If the CS is presented without the US, and this process is repeated often enough, the CS will eventually stop eliciting a CR. At this point the CR is said to be "extinguished."

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treatment for phobias in which the patient is trained to relax while being exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli (e.g. angry words). This is an example of

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may be observed if a strong or unfamiliar stimulus is presented just before, or at the same time as, the CS. This causes a reduction in the conditioned response to the CS.

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primary activity (A1) - Roughly speaking, the stimulus is "attended to." (References to "attention" are intended only to aid understanding and are not part of the model.)

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have shown that such conditioning can increase the number of offspring. These results suggest that conditioning techniques might help to increase fertility rates in

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is administered or consumed may eventually evoke a conditioned physiological response that mimics the effect of the drug. This is sometimes the case with

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Reacquisition: If the CS is again paired with the US, a CR is again acquired, but this second acquisition usually happens much faster than the first one.

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Pearce JM, Hall G (November 1980). "A model for Pavlovian learning: variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli".

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and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning has been applied in other areas as well. For example, it may affect the body's response to

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Fear and eyeblink conditioning involve generally non overlapping neural circuitry, but share molecular mechanisms. Fear conditioning occurs in the

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Pavlovian-instrumental transfer is a phenomenon that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS, also known as a "cue") that has been associated with

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Signals that consistently precede food intake can become conditioned stimuli for a set of bodily responses that prepares the body for food and

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conditioning in the past 40 years has been instigated by this model or reactions to it, the R–W model deserves a brief description here.

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signal that the US is about to appear. For example, a puff of air directed at a person's eye could be followed by the sound of a buzzer.

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experiment do learn something about the "blocked" CS, but fail to show this learning because of the way that they are usually tested.

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Of the elements that represent a single stimulus at a given moment, some may be in state A1, some in state A2, and some in state I.

90:. However, classical conditioning can affect operant conditioning; classically conditioned stimuli can reinforce operant responses. 1596: 4496: 3394: 676:

experiments have also been used, and the strength of classical conditioning is often measured through its operant effects, as in

35: 1113:, intended to associate the feared stimuli with a response (relaxation) that is incompatible with anxiety Flooding is a form of 1051:

is one candidate for intermediate trace conditioning, but the hippocampus may also play a major role. Presynaptic activation of

3328: 3022: 1990: 1364: 1258: 98: 4506: 3882: 2980: 1200: 124:, the regulation of hunger, research on the neural basis of learning and memory, and in certain social phenomena such as the 2480: 2285:

Miller RR, Escobar M (August 2001). "Contrasting acquisition-focused and performance-focused models of acquired behavior".

86:(instrumental conditioning), through which the strength of a voluntary behavior is modified, either by reinforcement or by 57: 4501: 3930: 3831: 3718: 2748: 1321: 1114: 2138:

Miller R, Escobar M (2004-02-05). "Learning: Laws and Models of Basic Conditioning". In Pashler H, Gallistel R (eds.).

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rather than CS-US pairing is the key to conditioning – greatly influenced subsequent conditioning research and theory.

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Kirsch I, Lynn SJ, Vigorito M, Miller RR (April 2004). "The role of cognition in classical and operant conditioning".

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Wagner AR (1981). "SOP: A model of automatic memory processing in animal behavior.". In Spear NE, Miller RR (eds.).

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reaction may happen if the drug is administered in a different location where the conditioned stimuli are absent.

717: 82:, Pavlov observed that the experimental dogs salivated when fed red meat. Pavlovian conditioning is distinct from 1048: 968: 343: 808: 56:(e.g. food, a puff of air on the eye, a potential rival) is paired with a neutral stimulus (e.g. the sound of a 4094: 4039: 4014: 3844: 3821: 3771: 3676: 1349: 1003: 2608: 2198:

Mackintosh NJ (1975). "A theory of attention: Variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement".

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was the food because its effects did not depend on previous experience. The metronome's sound is originally a

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Golkar A, Bellander M, Öhman A (February 2013). "Temporal properties of fear extinction--does time matter?".

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reaction may be one that makes the user more sensitive to pain. This compensatory reaction may contribute to

4437: 3781: 3547: 1837: 1379: 972: 413: 87: 2109:"A theory of Pavlovan conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement." 4442: 4377: 4188: 4148: 4049: 4018: 3656: 3444: 2336: 2207: 1666: 705: 125: 3173:"A theory of Pavlovian conditioning. Variations in effectiveness of reinforcement and non-reinforcement." 2270:

Gibbon J, Balsam P (1981). "Spreading association in time.". In Locurto CM, Terrace HS, Gibbon J (eds.).

2085: 666:, and very important data on the neural basis of conditioning has come from experiments on the sea slug, 237:

because it does not elicit salivation in the dogs. After conditioning, the metronome's sound becomes the

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recruits both NMDA receptor-dependent enhancement and NMDA receptor-dependent depression of the reflex"

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Chang RC, Stout S, Miller RR (January 2004). "Comparing excitatory backward and forward conditioning".

2936: 642: 101:), a number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs. 4516: 4447: 4087: 4071: 3950: 3708: 3661: 3651: 3439: 3387: 3121: 1529: 1344: 1184: 1172: 1039: 1035:, contribute to the conditioning process, especially when the demands of the task get more complex." 681: 673: 549: 483: 420: 158: 105: 83: 64:

refers to the process of an automatic, conditioned response that is paired with a specific stimulus.

3193:. Translated by Marguerite A. Biederman-Thorson (Second, completely revised ed.). Berlin etc.: 2341: 2212: 2142:. Vol. 3: Learning, Motivation & Emotion (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 47–102. 1671: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4218: 4118: 3809: 3693: 3641: 3609: 3589: 1110: 874: 693: 464: 993:

and memory. Forms of classical conditioning that are used for this purpose include, among others,

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which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of

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that can serve as a CS. This method has also been used to study timing ability in animals (see

30:"Pavlov's dog" and "Pavlovian" redirect here. For the Pavlovian Upper Paleolithic culture, see 4521: 4370: 4351: 4339: 4310: 4158: 4029: 4004: 3960: 3887: 3865: 3766: 3703: 3671: 3646: 3614: 3599: 3509: 3479: 3417: 3282: 3241: 3222: 3198: 3147: 3096: 3056: 3001: 2960: 2897: 2844: 2771: 2729: 2676: 2645: 2569: 2518: 2501:

Fanselow MS, Poulos AM (February 2005). "The neuroscience of mammalian associative learning".

2470: 2441: 2418: 2354: 2252: 2180: 2143: 2069: 2028: 1982: 1938: 1892: 1733: 1684: 1565: 1547: 1496: 1471: 1443: 1204: 1032: 994: 534: 375: 257: 121: 31: 3357: 3342: 3110:"Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex" 1877:

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B, Comparative and Physiological Psychology

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Papini MR, Bitterman ME (July 1990). "The role of contingency in classical conditioning".

1079:. STDP constrains LTP to situations where the CS predicts the US, and LTD to the reverse. 1064: 826: 610: 271:

Diagram representing forward conditioning. The time interval increases from left to right.

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Miller RR, Barnet RC, Grahame NJ (May 1995). "Assessment of the Rescorla-Wagner model".

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and its signal transduction pathway are necessary for conditioning related plasticity.

318: 197: 17: 2951:. Vol. 2. Translated by Ludmila Aksenova; translation edited by H. C. Creighton. 1434:

Rehman, Ibraheem; Mahabadi, Navid; Sanvictores, Terrence; Rehman, Chaudhry I. (2023),

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Tarantola, Tor; Kumaran, Dharshan; Dayan, Peter; De Martino, Benedetto (2017-10-10).

1399: 1299: 1188: 1151: 1056: 672:. Most relevant experiments have used the classical conditioning procedure, although 489: 117: 3013: 2988:

Dayan P, Kakade S, Montague PR (November 2000). "Learning and selective attention".

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The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses such as

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interconnections. Such models make contact with a current explosion of research on

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The best-known and most thorough early work on classical conditioning was done by

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Mind in evolution; an East-West synthesis of learned behavior and cognition

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Experiments on theoretical issues in conditioning have mostly been done on

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published some related findings a year earlier. During his research on the

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with dogs, and published the experimental results in 1897. In the study of

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the CR will be, or the more it will differ from that previously observed.

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absent, this demonstrates that simultaneous conditioning has occurred.

3023:"Differential classical conditioning of the gill-withdrawal reflex in 3133: 2952: 2414: 2221: 1978: 1354: 1218: 1210: 1142: 1075:

block), they are a potential coincidence detector that could mediate

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secondary activity (A2) - The stimulus is "peripherally attended to."

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Schmidt RF (1989). "Behavior Memory (Learning by Conditioning)". In

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performed experiments that demonstrated "...discrete regions of the

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Pavlovian-instrumental transfer is suggested to play a role in the

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would appear that the mouse is conditioned to the passage of time.

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The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical Conditioning

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Theoretical issues and alternatives to the Rescorla–Wagner model

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Classical conditioning is a basic behavioral mechanism, and its

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Cartoni E, Puglisi-Allegra S, Baldassarre G (November 2013).

2671:. New Jersey, United States: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 2640:. New Jersey, United States: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 2049: 2747:

Geurts DE, Huys QJ, den Ouden HE, Cools R (September 2013).

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Scholarpedia Computational models of classical conditioning

52:) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent 1960:"Pavlovian conditioning and its proper control procedures" 1093:

Some therapies associated with classical conditioning are

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Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior

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Comparing the associate strength by R-W model in Learning

777:{\displaystyle \Delta V=\alpha \beta (\lambda -\Sigma V)} 615:

This form of classical conditioning involves two phases.

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is the response to the conditioned stimulus, whereas the

1652:"Pavlovian conditioning. It's not what you think it is" 1279: 3312:

Classical conditioning II: current research and theory

2813:"Appetitive Pavlovian-instrumental Transfer: A review" 2811:

Cartoni E, Balleine B, Baldassarre G (December 2016).

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Classical Conditioning II: Current Theory and Research

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state. The process slows down as it nears completion.

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have been shown to be involved in hunger motivation.

1166:. These reflexive responses include the secretion of 740: 3266:

Abnormal Psychology and Life: A Dimensional Approach

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Abnormal Psychology and Life: A Dimensional Approach

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Information processing in animals: Memory mechanisms

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First published in Russian as «Физиология человека»

1627: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1121:Conditioning therapies usually take less time than 3309: 3274: 3238:A Neuroscientist's Guide to Classical Conditioning 3171: 2107: 1175:(LH) is involved in the initiation of eating. The 776: 560:Typically, three phases of conditioning are used. 108:, classical conditioning became the foundation of 951:inactive (I) – The stimulus is "not attended to." 2538:"A history of spike-timing-dependent plasticity" 2388:The Symbolic Foundations of Conditioned Behavior 2012: 2010: 1495:. Malden. MA: John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. 2587: 2585: 2583: 1776:Learning and Behavior: A Contemporary Synthesis 1645: 1643: 1491:McSweeney, Frances K.; Murphy, Eric S. (2014). 1442:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 1118:the two terms are sometimes used synonymously. 3277:Hilgard and Marquis' Conditioning and learning 3021:Jami SA, Wright WG, Glanzman DL (March 2007). 1928: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1769: 1767: 4378: 3388: 2274:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 219–235. 1870: 1868: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1747: 631:A compound CS (CS1+CS2) is paired with a US. 322:Classical conditioning procedures and effects 74:studied classical conditioning with detailed 8: 2140:Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology 1226: 597:Retardation test for conditioned inhibition: 3519:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 2536:Markram H, Gerstner W, Sjöström PJ (2011). 2287:Current Directions in Psychological Science 1063:is also necessary for conditioning related 1001:, and the foot contraction conditioning of 249:corresponds to the unconditioned stimulus. 145:and it is also less permanent than the UR. 4385: 4371: 4363: 4108: 3457: 3395: 3381: 3373: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 1360:Measures of conditioned emotional response 591:Summation test for conditioned inhibition: 338:Second-order and higher-order conditioning 3240:. Springer Science & Business Media. 3141: 3120:(3052). Translated by Anrep GV: 662–664. 3050: 2891: 2838: 2828: 2723: 2713: 2563: 2553: 2440:. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 5–47. 2340: 2211: 1787: 1785: 1670: 1559: 1541: 739: 2463:"Neural Basis of Classical Conditioning" 1778:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. 1636:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1466:Coon, Dennis; Mitterer, John O. (2008). 175: 2467:Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience 2116:. New York: Appleton-Century. pp. 1845:Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach 1426: 3255:Medin DL, Ross BH, Markman AB (2009). 2972: 2817:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2515:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070213 2056:. SQAB 2016: Persistence and Relapse. 1821:Medin DL, Ross BH, Markmen AB (2009). 419:conditioning. This is demonstrated by 212:Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to 3281:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 2320:Gallistel CR, Gibbon J (April 2000). 1171:hungrier than before the signal. The 568:A CS (CS+) is paired with a US until 7: 3180:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 2907:reward cue, or Pavlovian CS ... 2872:The European Journal of Neuroscience 2702:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 2668:Psychology: The Science of Behaviour 2637:Psychology: The Science of Behaviour 2469:. Academic Press. pp. 313–319. 157:Classical conditioning differs from 3358:Scholarpedia Classical conditioning 2909:Cue-triggered 'wanting' for the UCS 2272:Autoshaping and conditioning theory 1370:Placebo (origins of technical term) 988:Neural basis of learning and memory 674:instrumental (operant) conditioning 3176:. In Black A, Prokasky WF (eds.). 2615:from the original on 24 March 2012 2542:Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience 2112:. In Black AH, Prokasy WF (eds.). 2048:Chan CK, Harris JA (August 2017). 1634:Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior 1309:via classical conditioning alters 1133:A stimulus that is present when a 765: 741: 708:are the CR and the UR opposites.) 680:(see Phenomena section above) and 25: 3800:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm 2756:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1585:"What Is a Conditioned Response?" 1470:. Cengage Learning. p. 220. 1410:Conditioned compensatory response 1395:Quantitative analysis of behavior 1077:spike timing dependent plasticity 4345: 4333: 2884:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x 1798:. New York: Dover Publications. 1266: 641: 623:A CS (CS1) is paired with a US. 452: 387: 352: 330: 306: 3273:Hilgard ER, Marquis DG (1961). 3170:Rescorla RA, Wagner AR (1972). 3158:from the original on 2020-09-21 3067:from the original on 2015-09-23 2830:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.020 2793:from the original on 2019-05-01 2483:from the original on 2021-08-30 2368:from the original on 2015-05-05 2106:Rescorla RA, Wagner AR (1972). 2088:from the original on 2021-06-27 1996:from the original on 2014-04-07 1854:from the original on 2012-04-16 1802:from the original on 2020-09-21 1698:from the original on 2014-06-11 1599:from the original on 2013-01-21 1365:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 1259:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 1253:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 1055:and postsynaptic activation of 4010:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model 3883:Memory and social interactions 3081:Journal of Clinical Psychology 3043:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2581-06.2007 2386:Gallistel R, Gibbon J (2002). 2322:"Time, rate, and conditioning" 1201:Conditioned emotional response 1195:Conditioned emotional response 771: 756: 183:research on dog's reflex setup 1: 3308:Black AH, Prokasy WF (1972). 868:Role of attention in learning 36:Pavlov's dog (disambiguation) 3719:Retrieval-induced forgetting 3348:Resources in other libraries 3212:wiki book on Animal behavior 2066:10.1016/j.beproc.2017.04.017 1958:Rescorla RA (January 1967). 1322:differential outcomes effect 1010:The American neuroscientist 688:Stimulus-substitution theory 229:In Pavlov's experiments the 27:Aspect of learning procedure 3303:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 3264:Kearney CA (January 2011). 3031:The Journal of Neuroscience 2949:Human Physiology, in 2 vols 2592:Kearney CA (January 2011). 2503:Annual Review of Psychology 2351:10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.289 2177:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.363 2023:. Catherine Woods. p. 247:unconditioned response (UR) 231:unconditioned stimulus (US) 4538: 4057:Levels of Processing model 3982:World Memory Championships 3815:Lost in the mall technique 3662:dissociative (psychogenic) 3316:. Appleton-Century-Crofts. 2979:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 2866:Berridge KC (April 2012). 2249:10.1037/0033-295X.87.6.532 1730:10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.396 1681:10.1037/0003-066X.43.3.151 1650:Rescorla RA (March 1988). 1543:10.1038/s41467-017-00826-8 1390:Psychological manipulation 1385:Proboscis extension reflex 1256: 1198: 1099:systematic desensitization 1086: 824: 715: 691: 608: 532: 411: 395:Zero contingency procedure 341: 29: 4328: 3343:Resources in your library 3221:. Belmont/CA: Wadsworth. 3178:Classical Conditioning II 1937:. Belmont/CA: Wadsworth. 1889:10.1080/02724990344000015 1659:The American Psychologist 1129:Conditioned drug response 894:theories outlined below. 344:Second-order conditioning 314:Simultaneous conditioning 243:conditioned response (CR) 239:conditioned stimulus (CS) 4402:Non-associative learning 4095:The Seven Sins of Memory 4040:Intermediate-term memory 3845:Indirect tests of memory 3822:Recovered-memory therapy 3772:Misattribution of memory 3368:Scholarpedia Hermissenda 2715:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00153 2555:10.3389/fnsyn.2011.00004 1632:Shettleworth SJ (2010). 1436:"Classical Conditioning" 1350:Little Albert experiment 1004:Hermissenda crassicornis 471:Recovery from extinction 187: 4497:Experimental psychology 3782:Source-monitoring error 2609:"Behavior Modification" 2403:Behavioral Neuroscience 2299:10.1111/1467-8721.00135 1415:Stimulus–response model 1380:Preparedness (learning) 1227:conditioned suppression 1071:(thereby releasing the 973:artificial intelligence 678:conditioned suppression 572:CR levels are reached. 544:Conditioned suppression 522:stimulus discrimination 516:Stimulus discrimination 509:Stimulus generalization 504:Stimulus generalization 414:Extinction (psychology) 46:respondent conditioning 18:Respondent conditioning 4443:Observational learning 4433:Classical conditioning 4189:George Armitage Miller 4149:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 3334:Classical conditioning 2390:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 2165:Psychological Bulletin 813: 795:R–W model: acquisition 778: 706:central nervous system 556:Conditioned inhibition 323: 272: 184: 126:false consensus effect 62:classical conditioning 50:Pavlovian conditioning 42:Classical conditioning 34:. For other uses, see 4507:History of psychology 4352:Philosophy portal 4340:Psychology portal 4204:Henry L. Roediger III 3805:False memory syndrome 3777:Misinformation effect 3757:Imagination inflation 3219:Learning and Behavior 2611:. Wellness.com, Inc. 2461:Steinmetz JE (2010). 2054:Behavioural Processes 1935:Learning and Behavior 1522:Nature Communications 1311:motivational salience 1199:Further information: 1179:, which includes the 1177:nigrostriatal pathway 999:eyeblink conditioning 811: 804:R–W model: extinction 779: 718:Rescorla–Wagner model 712:Rescorla–Wagner model 692:Further information: 369:Temporal conditioning 360:Backward conditioning 321: 300:conditioning interval 270: 235:neutral stimulus (NS) 179: 118:psychological therapy 4448:Operant conditioning 4425:Associative learning 3709:Motivated forgetting 3257:Cognitive Psychology 3197:. pp. 155–156. 2992:. 3 Suppl: 1218–23. 2959:. pp. 330–357. 2768:10.1162/jocn_a_00425 2329:Psychological Review 2237:Psychological Review 2200:Psychological Review 2017:Schacter DL (2009). 1967:Psychological Review 1823:Cognitive Psychology 1795:Conditional Reflexes 1718:Psychological Review 1345:Learned helplessness 1185:lateral hypothalamus 1173:lateral hypothalamus 1083:Behavioral therapies 1040:basolateral amygdala 923:Element-based models 910:Computational theory 738: 550:operant conditioning 484:Spontaneous recovery 421:spontaneous recovery 400:This finding – that 276:Forward conditioning 106:operant conditioning 84:operant conditioning 4502:Behavioral concepts 4476:Inductive reasoning 4471:Deductive reasoning 4466:Abductive reasoning 4219:Arthur P. Shimamura 4119:Richard C. Atkinson 3936:Effects of exercise 3810:Memory implantation 3694:Interference theory 3610:Selective retention 3590:Meaningful learning 3126:1928Natur.121..662D 2990:Nature Neuroscience 2665:Carlson NR (2010). 2634:Carlson NR (2010). 1792:Pavlov IP (1960) . 1534:2017NatCo...8..817T 1111:counterconditioning 875:Nicholas Mackintosh 873:these, proposed by 849:Content of learning 821:R–W model: blocking 694:Counterconditioning 465:External inhibition 460:External inhibition 4512:Russian inventions 4316:Andriy Slyusarchuk 4139:Hermann Ebbinghaus 4045:Involuntary memory 3946:Memory improvement 3931:Effects of alcohol 3893:Transactive memory 3871:Politics of memory 3840:Exceptional memory 3189:, Thews G (eds.). 3108:Pavlov IP (1927). 3093:10.1002/jclp.10251 1847:. pp. 97–98. 1838:"Unit 6: Learning" 1774:Bouton ME (2016). 1340:Conversion therapy 1278:. You can help by 1247:endangered species 1239:domesticated quail 1158:Conditioned hunger 1049:anterior cingulate 1012:David A. McCormick 814: 774: 427:Phenomena observed 324: 292:Trace conditioning 286:Delay conditioning 273: 185: 151:Robert A. Rescorla 122:psychoactive drugs 99:associative memory 4484: 4483: 4360: 4359: 4324: 4323: 4311:Cosmos Rossellius 4159:Marcia K. Johnson 4030:Exosomatic memory 4015:Context-dependent 4005:Absent-mindedness 3888:Memory conformity 3866:Collective memory 3767:Memory conformity 3704:Memory inhibition 3623: 3622: 3615:Tip of the tongue 3329:Library resources 3236:Moore JW (2012). 3228:978-0-495-09564-4 3217:Chance P (2008). 3204:978-3-540-19432-3 2966:978-5-03-000776-2 2682:978-0-205-64524-4 2651:978-0-205-64524-4 2607:McGee DL (2006). 2447:978-1-317-75770-2 2149:978-0-471-65016-4 2034:978-1-4292-3719-2 1944:978-0-495-09564-4 1933:Chance P (2008). 1836:Brink TL (2008). 1825:. pp. 50–53. 1296: 1295: 1205:Fear conditioning 1042:, which receives 1033:prefrontal cortex 995:fear conditioning 898:Comparator theory 535:Latent inhibition 529:Latent inhibition 258:fear conditioning 188:Pavlov's research 95:neural substrates 32:Pavlovian culture 16:(Redirected from 4529: 4458:Insight learning 4387: 4380: 4373: 4364: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4338: 4337: 4336: 4291:Jonathan Hancock 4244:Robert Stickgold 4214:Richard Shiffrin 4169:Elizabeth Loftus 4109: 4025:Childhood memory 3832:Research methods 3714:Repressed memory 3689:Forgetting curve 3677:transient global 3548:Autobiographical 3458: 3397: 3390: 3383: 3374: 3317: 3315: 3304: 3292: 3280: 3269: 3260: 3251: 3232: 3208: 3191:Human Physiology 3181: 3175: 3166: 3164: 3163: 3145: 3134:10.1038/121662a0 3104: 3075: 3073: 3072: 3054: 3017: 2984: 2978: 2970: 2915: 2914: 2895: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2842: 2832: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2799: 2798: 2792: 2753: 2744: 2738: 2737: 2727: 2717: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2662: 2656: 2655: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2589: 2578: 2577: 2567: 2557: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2489: 2488: 2458: 2452: 2451: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2415:10.1037/a0030892 2398: 2392: 2391: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2374: 2373: 2367: 2344: 2326: 2317: 2311: 2310: 2282: 2276: 2275: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2222:10.1037/h0076778 2215: 2195: 2189: 2188: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2135: 2122: 2121: 2111: 2103: 2097: 2096: 2094: 2093: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2014: 2005: 2004: 2002: 2001: 1995: 1979:10.1037/h0024109 1964: 1955: 1949: 1948: 1930: 1909: 1908: 1872: 1863: 1862: 1860: 1859: 1853: 1842: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1818: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1807: 1789: 1780: 1779: 1771: 1742: 1741: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1704: 1703: 1697: 1674: 1656: 1647: 1638: 1637: 1629: 1608: 1607: 1605: 1604: 1580: 1574: 1573: 1563: 1545: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1488: 1482: 1481: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1455: 1454: 1431: 1405:Stimulus control 1335:Carrot and stick 1315:operant behavior 1291: 1288: 1270: 1263: 1245:individuals and 1181:substantia nigra 1168:digestive juices 1095:aversion therapy 1089:Behavior therapy 1053:protein kinase A 977:machine learning 917:Animal cognition 783: 781: 780: 775: 645: 456: 391: 380:Animal cognition 376:biological clock 356: 334: 310: 58:musical triangle 21: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4452: 4419: 4396: 4391: 4361: 4356: 4346: 4344: 4334: 4332: 4320: 4301:Dominic O'Brien 4279: 4248: 4229:Susumu Tonegawa 4209:Daniel Schacter 4184:Eleanor Maguire 4174:Geoffrey Loftus 4129:Stephen J. Ceci 4124:Robert A. Bjork 4100: 4019:state-dependent 3993: 3965: 3897: 3878:Cultural memory 3854: 3850:Memory disorder 3826: 3786: 3728: 3619: 3529: 3504: 3449: 3406: 3401: 3354: 3353: 3352: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3320: 3307: 3295: 3289: 3272: 3263: 3254: 3248: 3235: 3229: 3216: 3205: 3195:Springer-Verlag 3184: 3169: 3161: 3159: 3107: 3078: 3070: 3068: 3020: 2987: 2971: 2967: 2927: 2923: 2921:Further reading 2918: 2910: 2908: 2865: 2864: 2860: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2796: 2794: 2790: 2751: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2695: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2652: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2606: 2605: 2601: 2591: 2590: 2581: 2535: 2534: 2530: 2500: 2499: 2495: 2486: 2484: 2477: 2460: 2459: 2455: 2448: 2435: 2434: 2430: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2371: 2369: 2365: 2342:10.1.1.407.1802 2324: 2319: 2318: 2314: 2284: 2283: 2279: 2269: 2268: 2264: 2234: 2233: 2229: 2213:10.1.1.556.1688 2197: 2196: 2192: 2162: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2137: 2136: 2125: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2091: 2089: 2060:(Pt 1): 19–25. 2047: 2046: 2042: 2035: 2016: 2015: 2008: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1962: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1945: 1932: 1931: 1912: 1874: 1873: 1866: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1840: 1835: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1805: 1803: 1791: 1790: 1783: 1773: 1772: 1745: 1715: 1714: 1710: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1672:10.1.1.156.1219 1654: 1649: 1648: 1641: 1631: 1630: 1611: 1602: 1600: 1589:About.com Guide 1582: 1581: 1577: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1503: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1478: 1465: 1464: 1460: 1452: 1450: 1433: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1330: 1292: 1286: 1283: 1276:needs expansion 1261: 1255: 1207: 1197: 1160: 1131: 1115:desensitization 1091: 1085: 1047:necessary. The 1018:and associated 990: 985: 969:neural networks 934: 925: 912: 900: 883: 870: 851: 842: 829: 827:Blocking effect 823: 806: 797: 736: 735: 733: 720: 714: 696: 690: 656: 651: 637: 629: 621: 613: 611:Blocking effect 607: 587: 578: 566: 558: 546: 537: 531: 518: 506: 473: 462: 447: 434: 429: 416: 410: 397: 371: 362: 346: 340: 316: 278: 227: 190: 174: 134: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4535: 4533: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4489: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4462: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4429: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4406: 4404: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4382: 4375: 4367: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4354: 4342: 4329: 4326: 4325: 4322: 4321: 4319: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4296:Paul R. McHugh 4293: 4287: 4285: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4256: 4254: 4250: 4249: 4247: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4154:Ivan Izquierdo 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4115: 4113: 4106: 4102: 4101: 4099: 4098: 4091: 4081: 4080: 4079: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4053: 4052: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4012: 4007: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3994: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3985: 3984: 3973: 3971: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3911: 3905: 3903: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3874: 3873: 3862: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3853: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3836: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3825: 3824: 3819: 3818: 3817: 3807: 3802: 3796: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3785: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3752:Hindsight bias 3749: 3744: 3738: 3736: 3730: 3729: 3727: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3699:Memory erasure 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3657:post-traumatic 3654: 3649: 3644: 3633: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3621: 3620: 3618: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3595:Personal-event 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3571: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3550: 3545: 3539: 3537: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3527: 3525:Working memory 3522: 3514: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3503: 3502: 3497: 3495:Motor learning 3492: 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3466: 3464: 3455: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3431: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3414: 3412: 3411:Basic concepts 3408: 3407: 3402: 3400: 3399: 3392: 3385: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3351: 3350: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3327: 3326: 3324: 3323:External links 3321: 3319: 3318: 3305: 3293: 3287: 3270: 3261: 3252: 3247:978-0387988054 3246: 3233: 3227: 3214: 3209: 3203: 3182: 3167: 3105: 3076: 3037:(12): 3064–8. 3018: 2985: 2965: 2957:Mir Publishers 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2916: 2878:(7): 1124–43. 2858: 2803: 2762:(9): 1428–41. 2739: 2688: 2681: 2657: 2650: 2626: 2599: 2579: 2528: 2493: 2475: 2453: 2446: 2428: 2393: 2378: 2335:(2): 289–344. 2312: 2277: 2262: 2227: 2206:(4): 276–298. 2190: 2155: 2148: 2123: 2098: 2040: 2033: 2006: 1950: 1943: 1910: 1864: 1828: 1813: 1781: 1743: 1724:(3): 396–403. 1708: 1639: 1609: 1575: 1508: 1501: 1483: 1476: 1458: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1375:Poison shyness 1372: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1294: 1293: 1273: 1271: 1257:Main article: 1254: 1251: 1223:sexual arousal 1196: 1193: 1159: 1156: 1148:drug tolerance 1130: 1127: 1087:Main article: 1084: 1081: 1057:NMDA receptors 989: 986: 984: 981: 953: 952: 949: 946: 933: 930: 924: 921: 911: 908: 899: 896: 882: 879: 869: 866: 865: 864: 860: 850: 847: 841: 838: 825:Main article: 822: 819: 805: 802: 796: 793: 773: 770: 767: 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 749: 746: 743: 732: 729: 716:Main article: 713: 710: 689: 686: 655: 652: 650: 647: 636: 633: 628: 625: 620: 617: 609:Main article: 606: 603: 602: 601: 594: 586: 583: 577: 574: 565: 562: 557: 554: 545: 542: 533:Main article: 530: 527: 517: 514: 505: 502: 501: 500: 497: 493: 487: 481: 472: 469: 461: 458: 446: 443: 433: 430: 428: 425: 412:Main article: 409: 406: 396: 393: 370: 367: 361: 358: 342:Main article: 339: 336: 315: 312: 304: 303: 296:trace interval 289: 277: 274: 262:taste aversion 226: 223: 198:Edwin Twitmyer 189: 186: 173: 170: 133: 130: 112:, a school of 104:Together with 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4534: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4455: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4415:Sensitization 4413: 4411: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4388: 4383: 4381: 4376: 4374: 4369: 4368: 4365: 4353: 4343: 4341: 4331: 4330: 4327: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4275:Clive Wearing 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4251: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4239:Endel Tulving 4237: 4235: 4234:Anne Treisman 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4194:Brenda Milner 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4179:James McGaugh 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4144:Sigmund Freud 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4107: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4089: 4088:retrospective 4085: 4082: 4078: 4075: 4074: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4067:Muscle memory 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4020: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3990: 3987: 3983: 3980: 3979: 3978: 3975: 3974: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3914:Art of memory 3912: 3910: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3872: 3869: 3868: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3820: 3816: 3813: 3812: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3762:Memory biases 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3742:Confabulation 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3734:Memory errors 3731: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3652:post-hypnotic 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3638: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3626: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3605:Rote learning 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3580:Hyperthymesia 3578: 3576: 3573: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3555: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3543:Active recall 3541: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3532: 3526: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3507: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3467: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3440:Consolidation 3438: 3436: 3433: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3393: 3391: 3386: 3384: 3379: 3378: 3375: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3322: 3314: 3313: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3288:9780390510730 3284: 3279: 3278: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3213: 3210: 3206: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3168: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3087:(4): 369–92. 3086: 3082: 3077: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3026: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2998:10.1038/81504 2995: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2976: 2968: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2920: 2913: 2903: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2804: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2750: 2743: 2740: 2735: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2692: 2689: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2669: 2661: 2658: 2653: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2638: 2630: 2627: 2614: 2610: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2561: 2556: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2532: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2509:(1): 207–34. 2508: 2504: 2497: 2494: 2482: 2478: 2476:9780080453965 2472: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2454: 2449: 2443: 2439: 2432: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2397: 2394: 2389: 2382: 2379: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2323: 2316: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2281: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2243:(6): 532–52. 2242: 2238: 2231: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2171:(3): 363–86. 2170: 2166: 2159: 2156: 2151: 2145: 2141: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2110: 2102: 2099: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2044: 2041: 2036: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2021: 2013: 2011: 2007: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1961: 1954: 1951: 1946: 1940: 1936: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1850: 1846: 1839: 1832: 1829: 1824: 1817: 1814: 1801: 1797: 1796: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1777: 1770: 1768: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1712: 1709: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1665:(3): 151–60. 1664: 1660: 1653: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1579: 1576: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1512: 1509: 1504: 1502:9781118468180 1498: 1494: 1487: 1484: 1479: 1477:9780495599111 1473: 1469: 1462: 1459: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1430: 1427: 1421: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1400:Reward system 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1290: 1281: 1277: 1274:This section 1272: 1269: 1265: 1264: 1260: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1221:, anger, and 1220: 1216: 1212: 1206: 1202: 1194: 1192: 1190: 1189:basal ganglia 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1165: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1119: 1116: 1112: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1090: 1082: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1044:glutaminergic 1041: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1005: 1000: 996: 987: 982: 980: 978: 974: 970: 964: 960: 956: 950: 947: 944: 943: 942: 938: 932:The SOP model 931: 929: 922: 920: 918: 909: 907: 904: 897: 895: 893: 892:computational 889: 880: 878: 876: 867: 863:conditioning. 861: 857: 856: 855: 848: 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