247:
interfering RNA (siRNA), chromatin remodelers, histone variants, and other epigenetic factors. However, TEs play a wide variety of important biological functions. When TEs are introduced into a new host, such as from a virus, they increase genetic diversity. In some cases, host organisms find new functions for the proteins which arise from expressing TEs in an evolutionary process called TE exaptation. Recent research also suggests that TEs serve to maintain higher-order chromatin structure and 3D genome organization. Furthermore, TEs contribute to regulating the expression of other genes by serving as distal
372:
536:
that can stably incorporate tandem repeats up to 30kb. Expression of repeats is prohibited by the transcriptional terminators in the vector. The second step involves the use of exonuclease III. The enzyme can delete nucleotide at the 3' end which results in the production of a unidirectional deletion of SSR fragments. Finally, this product which has deleted fragments is multiplied and analyzed with colony PCR. The sequence is then built by an ordered sequencing of a set of clones containing different deletions.
404:
128:. Discoveries of deleterious repetitive DNA-related diseases stimulated further interest in this area of study. In the 2000s, the data from full eukaryotic genome sequencing enabled the identification of different promoters, enhancers, and regulatory RNAs which are all coded by repetitive regions. Today, the structural and regulatory roles of repetitive DNA sequences remain an active area of research.
239:) are typically 100-300 base pairs and no longer than 600 base pairs. Long-terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTRs) are a third major class of retrotransposons and are characterized by highly repetitive sequences as the ends of the repeat. When a transposable element does not proceed through RNA as an intermediate, it is called a
200:
246:
Transposable elements are estimated to constitute 45% of the human genome. Since uncontrolled propagation of TEs could wreak havoc on the genome, many regulatory mechanisms have evolved to silence their spread, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including small
163:
are repeated sequences which are directly adjacent to each other in the genome. Tandem repeats may vary in the number of nucleotides comprising the repeated sequence, as well as the number of times the sequence repeats. When the repeating sequence is only 2β10 nucleotides long, the repeat is referred
219:
are identical or similar DNA sequences which are found in different locations throughout the genome. Interspersed repeats are distinguished from tandem repeats in that the repeated sequences are not directly adjacent to each other but instead may be scattered among different chromosomes or far apart
179:
in eukaryotic organisms. Recombination is when two homologous chromosomes align, break, and rejoin to swap pieces. Recombination is important as a source of genetic diversity, as a mechanism for repairing damaged DNA, and a necessary step in the appropriate segregation of chromosomes in meiosis. The
479:
is a disorder that presents as muscle weakness and consists of two main types: DM1 and DM2. Both types of myotonic dystrophy are due to expanded DNA sequences. In DM1 the DNA sequence that is expanded is CTG while in DM2 it is CCTG. These two sequences are found on different genes with the expanded
76:
While some repeated DNA sequences are important for cellular functioning and genome maintenance, other repetitive sequences can be harmful. Many repetitive DNA sequences have been linked to human diseases such as
Huntington's disease and Friedreich's ataxia. Some repetitive elements are neutral and
531:
from short reads simply cannot determine the length of a repetitive part. This issue is particularly serious for microsatellites, which are made of tiny 1-6bp repeat units. Although they are difficult to sequence, these short repeats have great value in DNA fingerprinting and evolutionary studies.
463:
is a type of ataxia that has an expanded repeat sequence GAA in the frataxin gene. The frataxin gene is responsible for producing the frataxin protein, which is a mitochondrial protein involved in energy production and cellular respiration. The expanded GAA sequence results in the silencing of the
102:
at the Cold Spring Harbor
Symposium. McClintock's work set the stage for the discovery of repeated sequences because transposition, centromere structure, and telomere structure are all possible through repetitive elements, yet this was not fully understood at the time. The term "repeated sequence"
535:
Bustos. et al. proposed one method of sequencing long stretches of repetitive DNA. The method combines the use of a linear vector for stabilization and exonuclease III for deletion of continuing simple sequence repeats (SSRs) rich regions. First, SSR-rich fragments are cloned into a linear vector
297:
occur when a nucleotide sequence is repeated in the inverse direction. For example, a direct repeat of "CATCAT" would be another repetition of "CATCAT". In contrast, the inverted repeated would be "ATGATG". When there are no nucleotides separating the inverted repeat, such as "CATCATATGATG", the
107:
and D. E. Kohne in 1968; they found out that more than half of the eukaryotic genomes were repetitive DNA through their experiments on reassociation of DNA. Although the repetitive DNA sequences were conserved and ubiquitous, their biological role was yet unknown. In the 1990s, more research was
400:. In Huntington's disease the expansion of the trinucleotide sequence CAG encodes for a mutant huntingtin protein with an expanded polyglutamine domain. This domain causes the protein to form aggregates in nerve cells preventing normal cellular function and resulting in neurodegeneration.
195:
are the highly compact regions of chromosomes which join sister chromatids together and also allow the mitotic spindle to attach and separate sister chromatids during cell division. Centromeres are composed of a 177 base pair tandem repeat named the Ξ±-satellite repeat. Pericentromeric
207:
Some repetitive sequences, such as those with structural roles discussed above, play roles necessary for proper biological functioning. Other tandem repeats have deleterious roles which drive diseases. Many other tandem repeats, however, have unknown or poorly understood functions.
64:
Repeated sequences are categorized into different classes depending on features such as structure, length, location, origin, and mode of multiplication. The disposition of repetitive elements throughout the genome can consist either in directly adjacent arrays called
427:
Because the gene resides on the X chromosome, females who have two X chromosomes are less effected than males who only have on X chromosome and one Y chromosome because the second X chromosome can compensate for the silencing of the gene on the other X chromosome.
224:(TEs), mobile sequences which can be "cut and pasted" or "copied and pasted" into different places in the genome. TEs were originally called "jumping genes" for their ability to move, yet this term is somewhat misleading as not all TEs are discrete genes.
81:
occurs. However, an abundance of neutral repeats can still influence genome evolution as they accumulate over time. Overall, repeated sequences are an important area of focus because they can provide insight into human diseases and genome evolution.
196:
heterochromatin, the DNA which surrounds the centromere and is important for structural maintenance, is composed of a mixture of different satellite subfamilies including the Ξ±-, Ξ²- and Ξ³-satellites as well as HSATII, HSATIII, and sn5 repeats.
280:
strands. This increase in recombination was attributed to increased intrachromosomal recombinational repair. By this process, mitomycin C damaged DNA in one sequence is repaired using intact information from the other repeated sequence.
488:
gene. The two genes don't encode for proteins unlike other disorders like
Huntington's disease or Fragile X syndrome. It has been shown, however, that there is a link between RNA toxicity and the repeat sequences in DM1 and DM2.
254:
The prevalence of interspersed elements in the genome has garnered attention for more research on their origins and functions. Some specific interspersed elements have been characterized, such as the Alu repeat and LINE1.
362:
response and that repeat expansions may impair specific DNA repair pathways. Faulty repair of DNA damages in repeat sequences may cause further expansion of these sequences, thus setting up a vicious cycle of pathology.
452:). Similar to Huntington's disease, the polyglutamine tail created due to this trinucleotide expansion causes aggregation of proteins, preventing normal cellular function and causing neurodegeneration.
3042:
53:
is repetitive, with over two-thirds of the sequence consisting of repetitive elements in humans. Some of these repeated sequences are necessary for maintaining important genome structures such as
289:
While tandem and interspersed repeats are distinguished based on their location in the genome, direct and inverted repeats are distinguished based on the ordering of the nucleotide bases.
423:
gene on the X chromosome. This gene produces the RNA-binding protein FMRP. In the case of
Fragile X syndrome the repeated sequence makes the gene unstable and therefore silences the gene
231:. Just as tandem repeats are further subcategorized based on the length of the repeating sequence, there are many different types of retrotransposons. Long interspersed nuclear elements (
774:
Britten RJ, Kohne DE (August 1968). "Repeated sequences in DNA. Hundreds of thousands of copies of DNA sequences have been incorporated into the genomes of higher organisms".
3035:
1737:
Pearson CE, Zorbas H, Price GB, Zannis-Hadjopoulos M (October 1996). "Inverted repeats, stem-loops, and cruciforms: significance for initiation of DNA replication".
1405:
Wicker T, Sabot F, Hua-Van A, Bennetzen JL, Capy P, Chalhoub B, et al. (December 2007). "A unified classification system for eukaryotic transposable elements".
73:. Tandem repeats and interspersed repeats are further categorized into subclasses based on the length of the repeated sequence and/or the mode of multiplication.
2341:"How do C9ORF72 repeat expansions cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia: can we learn from other noncoding repeat expansion disorders?"
3028:
576:
2541:
172:. For minisatellites and microsatellites, the number of times the sequence repeats at a single locus can range from twice to hundreds of times.
532:
Many researchers have historically left out repetitive sequences when analyzing and publishing whole genome data due to technical limitations.
396:). This gene is responsible for encoding the protein huntingtin which plays a role in preventing apoptosis, otherwise known as cell death, and
191:
structures which protect the ends of chromosomal DNA from degradation. Repetitive elements are enriched in the middle of chromosomes as well.
556:
183:
In addition to playing an important role in recombination, tandem repeats also play important structural roles in the genome. For example,
180:
presence of repeated sequence DNA makes it easier for areas of homology to align, thereby controlling when and where recombination occurs.
298:
sequence is called a palindromic repeat. Inverted repeats can play structural roles in DNA and RNA by forming stem loops and cruciforms.
2727:
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232:
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Tandem repeats have a wide variety of biological functions in the genome. For example, minisatellites are often hotspots of meiotic
1750:
1892:
Cattaneo E, Zuccato C, Tartari M (December 2005). "Normal huntingtin function: an alternative approach to
Huntington's disease".
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gene leads to issues with mitochondrial functioning as a whole and can present phenotypically in patients as difficulty walking.
359:
227:
Transposable elements that are transcribed into RNA, reverse-transcribed into DNA, then reintegrated into the genome are called
2534:
243:. Other classification systems refer to retrotransposons as "Class I" and DNA transposons as "Class II" transposable elements.
306:
For humans, some repeated DNA sequences are associated with diseases. Specifically, tandem repeat sequences, underlie several
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2601:
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Hagerman RJ, Berry-Kravis E, Hazlett HC, Bailey DB, Moine H, Kooy RF, et al. (September 2017). "Fragile X syndrome".
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445:
441:
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2100:"DNA repair and neurological disease: From molecular understanding to the development of diagnostics and model organisms"
1459:"The Evolutionary Volte-Face of Transposable Elements: From Harmful Jumping Genes to Major Drivers of Genetic Innovation"
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2243:"Frataxin gene editing rescues Friedreich's ataxia pathology in dorsal root ganglia organoid-derived sensory neurons"
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524:
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343:
1556:"Role of transposable elements in genomic rearrangement, evolution, gene regulation and epigenetics in primates"
3548:
3449:
3366:
2513:
1646:"Epigenetic regulation of transcription and possible functions of mammalian short interspersed elements, SINEs"
1296:
Miga KH (September 2015). "Completing the human genome: the progress and challenge of satellite DNA assembly".
263:
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176:
1114:"Meiotic recombination hotspots: shaping the genome and insights into hypervariable minisatellite DNA change"
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is a neurodegenerative disorder which is due to the expansion of repeated trinucleotide sequence CAG in
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78:
2865:
1978:"The biological function of the Huntingtin protein and its relevance to Huntington's Disease pathology"
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occur when there is an absence of selection for specific sequences depending on how transposition or
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Not all diseases caused by repeated DNA sequences are trinucleotide repeat diseases. The diseases
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323:
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125:
91:
1339:
Padeken J, Zeller P, Gasser SM (April 2015). "Repeat DNA in genome organization and stability".
2017:
Penagarikano O, Mulle JG, Warren ST (2007-09-01). "The pathophysiology of fragile x syndrome".
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1999:
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1597:"New insights into the functional role of retrotransposon dynamics in mammalian somatic cells"
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1133:
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998:
963:
904:
861:
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Shapiro JA, von
Sternberg R (May 2005). "Why repetitive DNA is essential to genome function".
791:
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268:
121:
117:
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2241:
Mazzara PG, Muggeo S, Luoni M, Massimino L, Zaghi M, Valverde PT, et al. (August 2020).
981:
Joly-Lopez Z, Bureau TE (April 2018). "Exaptation of transposable element coding sequences".
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first intron resulting in loss of function in the frataxin protein. The loss of a functional
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Abugable AA, Morris JL, Palminha NM, Zaksauskaite R, Ray S, El-Khamisy SF (September 2019).
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1989:
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containing pathogenic CAG repeats often encode proteins that themselves have a role in the
338:
over successive generations can lead to increasingly severe manifestations of the disease.
3781:
3475:
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2030:
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347:
294:
228:
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1016:
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168:. When the repeating sequence is 10β60 nucleotides long, the repeat is referred to as a
3771:
3658:
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3176:
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2835:
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2610:
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1994:
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187:
are composed mainly of tandem TTAGGG repeats. These repeats fold into highly organized
165:
113:
3020:
1937:"Huntingtin is a scaffolding protein in the ATM oxidative DNA damage response complex"
1272:
1129:
120:. DNA-dispersed repeats were increasingly recognized as a potential source of genetic
3854:
3811:
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3619:
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3580:
3213:
3206:
2942:
2682:
2605:
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2588:
1714:
1689:
1540:
586:
571:
442:
trinucleotide repeat sequences that underlie several types of spinocerebellar ataxias
290:
169:
160:
109:
66:
1921:
1774:
1434:
1325:
1206:
1042:"Short Tandem Repeat Expansions and RNA-Mediated Pathogenesis in Myotonic Dystrophy"
838:
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916:
188:
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752:
273:
50:
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2157:
1612:
1172:
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3422:
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3113:
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2778:
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2208:
1935:
Maiuri T, Mocle AJ, Hung CL, Xia J, van Roon-Mom WM, Truant R (January 2017).
1352:
1309:
994:
822:
397:
388:
351:
235:) are typically 3β7 kilobases in length. Short interspersed nuclear elements (
192:
149:
95:
58:
17:
1758:
27:
Patterns of nucleic acids that occur in multiple copies throughout the genome
3735:
3720:
3707:
3459:
3247:
3166:
3161:
3151:
3139:
3078:
2880:
2571:
136:
Many repeat sequences are likely to be non-functional, decaying remnants of
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2176:
2125:
2073:
2038:
2003:
1962:
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1532:
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1426:
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1317:
1258:
1198:
1077:
1002:
967:
830:
760:
739:
McClintock B (1951-01-01). "Chromosome organization and genic expression".
700:
644:
407:
Fragile X repeated CCG DNA sequence in comparison to a normal X chromosome.
293:
occur when a nucleotide sequence is repeated with the same directionality.
1766:
1705:
1475:
1157:
908:
865:
795:
681:
45:) are short or long patterns that occur in multiple copies throughout the
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3712:
3614:
3558:
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3444:
3405:
3361:
3263:
3068:
3004:
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1953:
1936:
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1240:
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335:
184:
141:
99:
54:
3748:
3626:
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3395:
3098:
3073:
2900:
2339:
van
Blitterswijk M, DeJesus-Hernandez M, Rademakers R (December 2012).
1860:
1375:"Interspersed repetitive sequences - Latest research and news | Nature"
507:
2417:
1751:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4644(199610)63:1<1::AID-JCB1>3.0.CO;2-3
1690:"Stress-induced intrachromosomal recombination in plant somatic cells"
1662:
1645:
609:"Repetitive elements may comprise over two-thirds of the human genome"
607:
de Koning AP, Gu W, Castoe TA, Batzer MA, Pollock DD (December 2011).
94:
first observed DNA transposition and illustrated the functions of the
3839:
3817:
3514:
3437:
3432:
3197:
3088:
3083:
2999:
900:
551:
46:
1905:
1524:
1418:
1793:"Repeat instability during DNA repair: Insights from model systems"
3321:
3313:
3131:
3093:
2745:
1845:"The central role of DNA damage and repair in CAG repeat diseases"
3827:
3519:
3060:
546:
383:
355:
3024:
2523:
2504:
879:
Orgel LE, Crick FH, Sapienza C (December 1980). "Selfish DNA".
116:
repeats because of their importance in DNA-based forensics and
663:
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1595:
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1688:
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1225:"Covalent ligation studies on the human telomere quadruplex"
511:
gene, causing RNA toxicity that leads to neurodegeneration.
505:
are caused by hexanucleotide GGGGCC repeat sequences in the
375:
Image of the repeated DNA sequence in
Huntington's disease.
266:
between chromosomal repeated sequences in somatic cells of
2141:"Genetic and molecular aspects of spinocerebellar ataxias"
419:
is caused by the expansion of the DNA sequence CCG in the
811:
Biological
Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
493:
2192:"Friedreich Ataxia: current status and future prospects"
1797:
Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
1791:
Usdin K, House NC, Freudenreich CH (22 January 2015).
220:
on the same chromosome. Most interspersed repeats are
148:" DNA. Nevertheless, occasionally some repeats may be
310:, particularly trinucleotide repeat diseases such as
69:
or in repeats dispersed throughout the genome called
1171:
Janssen A, Colmenares SU, Karpen GH (October 2018).
108:
conducted to elucidate the evolutionary dynamics of
3759:
3687:
3600:
3468:
3350:
3339:
3312:
3284:
3234:
3223:
3196:
3185:
3130:
3059:
2970:
2923:
2791:
2759:
2736:
2713:
2704:
2695:
2670:
2630:
2587:
2578:
1092:"Minisatellite Repeats (MeSH Descriptor Data 2024)"
852:Ohno S (1972). "So much "junk" DNA in our genome".
741:
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology
484:gene and the expanded sequence in DM1 found on the
49:. In many organisms, a significant fraction of the
2391:De Bustos A, Cuadrado A, Jouve N (November 2016).
1457:Nicolau M, Picault N, Moissiard G (October 2021).
2393:"Sequencing of long stretches of repetitive DNA"
2093:
2091:
1786:
1784:
1177:Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology
2452:"The case for not masking away repetitive DNA"
3036:
2535:
1838:
1836:
1506:
1504:
1341:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
983:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
8:
2019:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
1683:
1681:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
577:Polymorphic simple sequence repeats database
1511:Kramerov DA, Vassetzky NS (2011). "SINEs".
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1046:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
3347:
3231:
3193:
3043:
3029:
3021:
2710:
2701:
2584:
2542:
2528:
2520:
1107:
1105:
2512:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
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1993:
1952:
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1816:
1713:
1661:
1620:
1571:
1554:Lee HE, Ayarpadikannan S, Kim HS (2015).
1484:
1474:
1248:
1188:
1173:"Heterochromatin: Guardian of the Genome"
1147:
1067:
1057:
957:
947:
690:
680:
665:"Special Issue: Repetitive DNA Sequences"
658:
656:
654:
634:
624:
272:was found to be increased by exposure to
1976:Schulte J, Littleton JT (January 2011).
1098:. National Library of Medicine. D018598.
402:
370:
251:and transcription factor binding sites.
198:
1218:
1216:
1118:Current Topics in Developmental Biology
715:"Repeated Sequence (DNA) β an overview"
599:
276:, a bifunctional alkylating agent that
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2298:Hahn C, Salajegheh MK (January 2016).
2145:Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment
1343:. Genome architecture and expression.
2386:
2384:
2031:10.1146/annurev.genom.8.080706.092249
1190:10.1146/annurev-cellbio-100617-062653
1040:Sznajder ΕJ, Swanson MS (July 2019).
340:These trinucleotide repeat expansions
164:to as a short tandem repeat (STR) or
7:
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557:Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure
450:SCA2; SCA3; SCA6; SCA7; SCA12; SCA17
1843:Massey TH, Jones L (January 2018).
930:Palazzo AF, Gregory TR (May 2014).
480:sequence in DM2 being found on the
302:Repeated sequences in human disease
2611:Short tandem repeat/Microsatellite
354:synthesis. It has been noted that
25:
1739:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
2139:Honti V, VΓ©csei L (June 2005).
2054:Nature Reviews. Disease Primers
1849:Disease Models & Mechanisms
332:Trinucleotide repeat expansions
3697:Last universal common ancestor
3292:Defective interfering particle
2615:Trinucleotide repeat disorders
1223:Qi J, Shafer RH (2005-06-02).
854:Brookhaven Symposia in Biology
398:repair of oxidative DNA damage
259:Intrachromosomal recombination
203:Tandem and interspersed repeat
1:
3833:Clonally transmissible cancer
3269:Satellite-like nucleic acids
2602:Variable number tandem repeat
1130:10.1016/s0070-2153(08)60171-4
499:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
2357:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32835a3efb
2345:Current Opinion in Neurology
2304:Iranian Journal of Neurology
2117:10.1016/j.dnarep.2019.102669
1894:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1809:10.3109/10409238.2014.999192
949:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004351
788:10.1126/science.161.3841.529
626:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002384
140:, these have been labelled "
1982:Current Trends in Neurology
1650:Genes & Genetic Systems
1560:Genes & Genetic Systems
753:10.1101/sqb.1951.016.01.004
285:Direct and inverted repeats
3877:
3389:Class II or DNA transposon
3384:Class I or retrotransposon
2505:Function of Repetitive DNA
2267:10.1038/s41467-020-17954-3
2158:10.2147/nedt.1.2.125.61044
1613:10.1007/s00018-021-03851-5
525:next-generation sequencing
519:Repetitive DNA is hard to
3702:Earliest known life forms
3576:Repeated sequences in DNA
2569:
2469:10.1186/s13100-018-0120-9
2450:Slotkin RK (1 May 2018).
2209:10.1186/s40673-017-0062-x
1353:10.1016/j.gde.2015.03.009
1310:10.1007/s10577-015-9488-2
995:10.1016/j.gde.2018.02.011
823:10.1017/s1464793104006657
3861:Repetitive DNA sequences
3549:Endogenous viral element
3367:Horizontal gene transfer
2514:Medical Subject Headings
2196:Cerebellum & Ataxias
1941:Human Molecular Genetics
1694:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
1407:Nature Reviews. Genetics
1096:Medical Subject Headings
308:human disease conditions
264:Homologous recombination
177:homologous recombination
3246:dsDNA satellite virus (
932:"The case for junk DNA"
503:frontotemporal dementia
438:spinocerebellar ataxias
432:Spinocerebellar ataxias
366:
320:spinocerebellar ataxias
3804:Helper dependent virus
3120:Biological dark matter
3010:Protein tandem repeats
2938:Tandemly arrayed genes
2510:DNA+Repetitious+Region
1229:Nucleic Acids Research
455:
408:
376:
204:
3564:Endogenous retrovirus
3537:Origin of replication
3253:ssDNA satellite virus
3243:ssRNA satellite virus
2247:Nature Communications
1706:10.1073/pnas.90.2.422
1644:Ichiyanagi K (2013).
1476:10.3390/cells10112952
682:10.3390/genes10110896
406:
374:
222:transposable elements
202:
152:for other functions.
138:Transposable elements
3508:Secondary chromosome
3503:Extrachromosomal DNA
3379:Transposable element
2983:Pathogenicity island
2066:10.1038/nrdp.2017.65
1573:10.1266/ggs.15-00016
1059:10.3390/ijms20133365
719:ScienceDirect Topics
380:Huntington's disease
367:Huntington's disease
312:Huntington's disease
217:Interspersed repeats
212:Interspersed repeats
71:interspersed repeats
3744:Model lipid bilayer
3586:Interspersed repeat
2409:2016NatSR...636665D
2259:2020NatCo..11.4178M
1298:Chromosome Research
893:1980Natur.288..645O
527:techniques because
461:Friedreich's ataxia
456:Friedreich's Ataxia
328:Friedreich's ataxia
132:Types and functions
35:repetitive elements
3054:organic structures
2933:Gene amplification
2397:Scientific Reports
1954:10.1093/hmg/ddw395
1861:10.1242/dmm.031930
1241:10.1093/nar/gki632
477:Myotonic dystrophy
472:Myotonic dystrophy
417:Fragile X syndrome
412:Fragile X syndrome
409:
377:
342:may occur through
324:myotonic dystrophy
316:fragile X syndrome
205:
103:was first used by
92:Barbara McClintock
31:Repeated sequences
3848:
3847:
3789:Non-cellular life
3596:
3595:
3335:
3334:
3308:
3307:
3262:ssRNA satellite (
3018:
3017:
2919:
2918:
2787:
2786:
2691:
2690:
2580:Repeated sequence
2555:repeated sequence
2418:10.1038/srep36665
1663:10.1266/ggs.88.19
1112:Wahls WP (1998).
782:(3841): 529β540.
567:Intergenic region
529:sequence assembly
269:Nicotiana tabacum
118:molecular ecology
16:(Redirected from
3868:
3525:Gene duplication
3348:
3344:self-replication
3232:
3194:
3052:Self-replicating
3045:
3038:
3031:
3022:
2995:Low copy repeats
2988:Symbiosis island
2925:Gene duplication
2711:
2702:
2585:
2563:gene duplication
2544:
2537:
2530:
2521:
2492:
2491:
2481:
2471:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2430:
2420:
2388:
2379:
2378:
2368:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2319:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2278:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2221:
2211:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2170:
2160:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2119:
2095:
2086:
2085:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2014:
2008:
2007:
1997:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1956:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1872:
1855:(1): dmm031930.
1840:
1831:
1830:
1820:
1788:
1779:
1778:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1717:
1685:
1676:
1675:
1665:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1624:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1575:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1508:
1499:
1498:
1488:
1478:
1454:
1439:
1438:
1402:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1284:
1283:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1252:
1220:
1211:
1210:
1192:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1151:
1109:
1100:
1099:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1071:
1061:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1027:
1013:
1007:
1006:
978:
972:
971:
961:
951:
927:
921:
920:
901:10.1038/288645a0
876:
870:
869:
849:
843:
842:
806:
800:
799:
771:
765:
764:
736:
730:
729:
727:
726:
711:
705:
704:
694:
684:
660:
649:
648:
638:
628:
619:(12): e1002384.
604:
295:Inverted repeats
229:retrotransposons
105:Roy John Britten
21:
3876:
3875:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3866:
3865:
3851:
3850:
3849:
3844:
3794:Synthetic virus
3782:Artificial cell
3755:
3683:
3592:
3481:RNA replication
3476:DNA replication
3464:
3455:Group II intron
3353:
3343:
3331:
3322:Mammalian prion
3304:
3280:
3259:dsRNA satellite
3256:ssDNA satellite
3226:
3219:
3188:
3181:
3126:
3055:
3049:
3019:
3014:
2966:
2915:
2783:
2755:
2732:
2706:Retrotransposon
2687:
2678:Inverted repeat
2666:
2651:DNA transposon
2647:Retrotransposon
2642:Gene conversion
2633:
2626:
2623:
2574:
2565:
2548:
2501:
2496:
2495:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2390:
2389:
2382:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2190:BΓΌrk K (2017).
2189:
2188:
2184:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2097:
2096:
2089:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2016:
2015:
2011:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1906:10.1038/nrn1806
1900:(12): 919β930.
1891:
1890:
1886:
1842:
1841:
1834:
1790:
1789:
1782:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1687:
1686:
1679:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1607:(13): 5245β56.
1594:
1593:
1589:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1525:10.1002/wrna.91
1510:
1509:
1502:
1456:
1455:
1442:
1419:10.1038/nrg2165
1413:(12): 973β982.
1404:
1403:
1392:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1372:
1368:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1281:
1279:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1235:(10): 3185β92.
1222:
1221:
1214:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1140:
1111:
1110:
1103:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1039:
1038:
1034:
1025:
1023:
1017:"Tandem Repeat"
1015:
1014:
1010:
980:
979:
975:
942:(5): e1004351.
929:
928:
924:
887:(5792): 645β6.
878:
877:
873:
851:
850:
846:
808:
807:
803:
773:
772:
768:
738:
737:
733:
724:
722:
721:. ScienceDirect
713:
712:
708:
662:
661:
652:
606:
605:
601:
596:
591:
542:
517:
495:
474:
458:
434:
414:
369:
348:DNA replication
344:strand slippage
304:
287:
261:
214:
158:
134:
88:
39:repeating units
33:(also known as
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3874:
3872:
3864:
3863:
3853:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3830:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3806:
3801:
3791:
3786:
3785:
3784:
3779:
3769:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3746:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3704:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3681:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3661:
3659:Kappa organism
3656:
3655:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3617:
3606:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3589:
3588:
3583:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3546:
3545:
3544:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3530:Non-coding DNA
3527:
3522:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3472:
3470:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3450:Group I intron
3447:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3416:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3386:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3372:Genomic island
3369:
3358:
3356:
3352:Mobile genetic
3345:
3337:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3318:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3297:
3288:
3286:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3267:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3244:
3240:
3238:
3229:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3210:
3202:
3200:
3191:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3177:dsDNA-RT virus
3174:
3172:ssRNA-RT virus
3169:
3167:(β)ssRNA virus
3164:
3162:(+)ssRNA virus
3159:
3154:
3149:
3148:
3147:
3136:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3107:Incertae sedis
3103:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3076:
3071:
3065:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3040:
3033:
3025:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2978:Genomic island
2974:
2972:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2935:
2929:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2797:
2795:
2793:DNA transposon
2789:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2725:
2719:
2717:
2708:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2667:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2649:
2644:
2638:
2636:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2621:Macrosatellite
2618:
2608:
2599:
2593:
2591:
2589:Tandem repeats
2582:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2539:
2532:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2507:
2500:
2499:External links
2497:
2494:
2493:
2442:
2380:
2351:(6): 689β700.
2331:
2290:
2233:
2182:
2151:(2): 125β133.
2131:
2087:
2044:
2025:(1): 109β129.
2009:
1968:
1947:(2): 395β406.
1927:
1884:
1832:
1803:(2): 142β167.
1780:
1729:
1677:
1636:
1587:
1566:(5): 245β257.
1546:
1519:(6): 772β786.
1500:
1440:
1390:
1379:www.nature.com
1366:
1331:
1288:
1264:
1212:
1183:(1): 265β288.
1163:
1138:
1101:
1083:
1032:
1008:
973:
922:
871:
844:
817:(2): 227β250.
801:
766:
731:
706:
650:
598:
597:
595:
592:
590:
589:
584:
582:Regulator gene
579:
574:
569:
564:
562:Genetic marker
559:
554:
549:
543:
541:
538:
516:
513:
494:
491:
473:
470:
457:
454:
433:
430:
413:
410:
368:
365:
303:
300:
291:Direct repeats
286:
283:
278:crosslinks DNA
260:
257:
241:DNA transposon
213:
210:
166:microsatellite
161:Tandem repeats
157:
156:Tandem repeats
154:
133:
130:
114:microsatellite
90:In the 1950s,
87:
84:
67:tandem repeats
26:
24:
18:Repeat element
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3873:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3841:
3838:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3815:
3813:
3812:Nanobacterium
3809:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3777:Cell division
3775:
3774:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3758:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3711:
3710:
3709:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3686:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3625:
3621:
3620:Hydrogenosome
3618:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3610:Mitochondrion
3608:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3602:Endosymbiosis
3599:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3581:Tandem repeat
3579:
3578:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3538:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3489:
3486:
3482:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3469:Other aspects
3467:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3397:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3215:
3214:Avsunviroidae
3211:
3209:
3208:
3207:Pospiviroidae
3204:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3184:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3061:Cellular life
3058:
3053:
3046:
3041:
3039:
3034:
3032:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2943:Ribosomal DNA
2941:
2940:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
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2683:Direct repeat
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2606:Minisatellite
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2597:Satellite DNA
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936:PLOS Genetics
933:
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898:
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613:PLOS Genetics
610:
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588:
587:Satellite DNA
585:
583:
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572:Noncoding DNA
570:
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515:Biotechnology
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170:minisatellite
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110:minisatellite
106:
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97:
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85:
83:
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79:crossing over
74:
72:
68:
62:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3799:Viral vector
3642:Gerontoplast
3575:
3569:Transpoviron
3341:Nucleic acid
3327:Fungal prion
3225:Helper-virus
3212:
3205:
3112:
3105:
2955:Gene cluster
2723:Alu sequence
2632:Interspersed
2579:
2554:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2403:(1): 36665.
2400:
2396:
2348:
2344:
2334:
2310:(1): 46β53.
2307:
2303:
2293:
2250:
2246:
2236:
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2195:
2185:
2148:
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2134:
2107:
2103:
2060:(1): 17065.
2057:
2053:
2047:
2022:
2018:
2012:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1852:
1848:
1800:
1796:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1700:(2): 422β6.
1697:
1693:
1656:(1): 19β29.
1653:
1649:
1639:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1563:
1559:
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1512:
1469:(11): 2952.
1466:
1462:
1410:
1406:
1382:. Retrieved
1378:
1369:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1304:(3): 421β6.
1301:
1297:
1291:
1280:. Retrieved
1276:
1273:"Centromere"
1267:
1232:
1228:
1180:
1176:
1166:
1121:
1117:
1095:
1086:
1052:(13): 3365.
1049:
1045:
1035:
1024:. Retrieved
1020:
1011:
986:
982:
976:
939:
935:
925:
884:
880:
874:
857:
853:
847:
814:
810:
804:
779:
775:
769:
744:
740:
734:
723:. Retrieved
718:
709:
672:
668:
616:
612:
602:
534:
518:
506:
496:
485:
481:
475:
465:
459:
436:The disease
435:
424:
420:
415:
393:
387:
378:
305:
288:
267:
262:
253:
245:
226:
215:
206:
189:G quadruplex
182:
174:
159:
135:
89:
75:
63:
42:
38:
34:
30:
29:
3823:Cancer cell
3689:Abiogenesis
3637:Chromoplast
3632:Chloroplast
3415:Degradative
3157:dsRNA virus
3152:ssDNA virus
3145:Giant virus
3140:dsDNA virus
2950:Gene family
2861:Tc1/mariner
2816:EnSpm/CACTA
2253:(1): 4178.
1745:(1): 1β22.
860:: 366β370.
675:(11): 896.
274:mitomycin C
193:Centromeres
59:centromeres
51:genomic DNA
3731:Proteinoid
3726:Coacervate
3679:Nitroplast
3672:Trophosome
3667:Bacteriome
3652:Apicoplast
3647:Leucoplast
3488:Chromosome
3406:Resistance
3114:Parakaryon
2962:Pseudogene
2779:retroposon
2697:Transposon
2559:transposon
2456:Mobile DNA
2110:: 102669.
2104:DNA Repair
1384:2022-09-30
1282:2022-09-30
1277:Genome.gov
1026:2022-09-30
1021:Genome.gov
725:2022-10-04
594:References
389:huntingtin
360:DNA damage
352:DNA repair
350:or during
318:, several
126:regulation
96:centromere
3740:Research
3721:Protocell
3460:Retrozyme
3419:Virulence
3401:Fertility
3248:Virophage
3236:Satellite
3227:dependent
3079:Eukaryota
2881:P element
2831:Harbinger
2572:Repeatome
2462:(1): 15.
1988:: 65β78.
1759:1097-4644
1541:222199613
1347:: 12β19.
1124:: 37β75.
989:: 34β42.
747:: 13β47.
386:1 of the
249:enhancers
185:telomeres
122:variation
55:telomeres
3855:Category
3767:Organism
3760:See also
3736:Sulphobe
3713:Ribozyme
3708:RNA life
3615:Mitosome
3559:Prophage
3554:Provirus
3542:Replicon
3498:Circular
3445:Phagemid
3362:Mobilome
3354:elements
3264:Virusoid
3187:Subviral
3099:Protista
3084:Animalia
3069:Bacteria
3005:Telomere
2971:See also
2911:Zisupton
2891:Polinton
2886:PiggyBac
2841:Helitron
2660:Helitron
2655:Polinton
2551:Genetics
2488:29743957
2437:27819354
2375:23160421
2326:27141276
2285:32826895
2228:28405347
2202:(1): 4.
2177:18568057
2126:31331820
2074:28960184
2039:17477822
2004:22180703
1963:28017939
1922:10119487
1914:16288298
1879:29419417
1827:25608779
1775:22204780
1724:11607349
1672:23676707
1631:33990851
1582:26781081
1533:21976282
1495:34831175
1435:32132898
1427:17984973
1361:25917896
1326:15229421
1318:26363799
1259:15933211
1207:51718804
1199:30044650
1078:31323950
1003:29525543
968:24809441
839:18866824
831:15921050
761:14942727
701:31698818
645:22144907
540:See also
521:sequence
440:has CAG
336:germline
100:telomere
3749:Jeewanu
3663:Organs
3627:Plastid
3427:Cryptic
3396:Plasmid
3094:Plantae
3074:Archaea
2901:Transib
2876:Novosib
2856:Kolobok
2826:Ginger2
2821:Ginger1
2806:Crypton
2479:5930866
2428:5098217
2405:Bibcode
2366:3923493
2317:4852070
2276:7442818
2255:Bibcode
2219:5383992
2168:2413192
1995:3237673
1870:5818082
1818:4454471
1767:8891900
1622:8257530
1486:8616336
1250:1142406
1158:9352183
1149:3151733
1069:6651174
959:4014423
917:4370178
909:7453798
889:Bibcode
866:5065367
796:4874239
776:Science
692:6895920
636:3228813
508:C9orf72
346:during
334:in the
150:exapted
146:selfish
86:History
43:repeats
3840:Virome
3818:Nanobe
3515:Genome
3493:Linear
3438:Fosmid
3433:Cosmid
3198:Viroid
3189:agents
3000:CRISPR
2866:Merlin
2851:ISL2EU
2801:Academ
2634:repeat
2516:(MeSH)
2486:
2476:
2435:
2425:
2373:
2363:
2324:
2314:
2283:
2273:
2226:
2216:
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2082:583204
2080:
2072:
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2002:
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1961:
1920:
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881:Nature
864:
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643:
633:
552:Genome
523:using
444:(SCAs-
392:gene (
144:" or "
47:genome
3314:Prion
3285:Other
3132:Virus
3089:Fungi
2906:Zator
2846:IS3EU
2751:LINE2
2746:LINE1
2738:LINEs
2715:SINEs
2671:Other
2078:S2CID
1918:S2CID
1771:S2CID
1755:eISSN
1715:45674
1537:S2CID
1463:Cells
1431:S2CID
1322:S2CID
1203:S2CID
913:S2CID
835:S2CID
669:Genes
425:FMR1.
356:genes
237:SINEs
233:LINEs
3828:HeLa
3772:Cell
3520:Gene
2896:Sola
2871:MuDR
2811:Dada
2774:MER4
2769:HERV
2761:LTRs
2484:PMID
2433:PMID
2371:PMID
2322:PMID
2281:PMID
2224:PMID
2173:PMID
2122:PMID
2070:PMID
2035:PMID
2000:PMID
1959:PMID
1910:PMID
1875:PMID
1823:PMID
1763:PMID
1720:PMID
1668:PMID
1627:PMID
1578:PMID
1529:PMID
1491:PMID
1423:PMID
1357:PMID
1314:PMID
1255:PMID
1195:PMID
1154:PMID
1134:ISBN
1074:PMID
999:PMID
964:PMID
905:PMID
862:PMID
827:PMID
792:PMID
757:PMID
697:PMID
641:PMID
547:FREP
501:and
486:DMPK
482:ZNF9
446:SCA1
421:FMR1
384:exon
326:and
142:junk
124:and
112:and
98:and
3411:Col
3299:DNA
3296:RNA
3275:DNA
3272:RNA
2836:hAT
2728:MIR
2474:PMC
2464:doi
2423:PMC
2413:doi
2361:PMC
2353:doi
2312:PMC
2271:PMC
2263:doi
2214:PMC
2204:doi
2163:PMC
2153:doi
2112:doi
2062:doi
2027:doi
1990:PMC
1949:doi
1902:doi
1865:PMC
1857:doi
1813:PMC
1805:doi
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1710:PMC
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1617:PMC
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1481:PMC
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1349:doi
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1237:doi
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1064:PMC
1054:doi
991:doi
954:PMC
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897:doi
885:288
819:doi
784:doi
780:161
749:doi
687:PMC
677:doi
631:PMC
621:doi
466:FXN
394:HTT
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41:or
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