1465:, have critiqued it for not sticking to Mao's philosophies. He writes: "Mao's insistence on the protracted nature of revolution was not taken to heart; at one point they suggested that the war for liberation would probably take ninety days. And because RAM's leaders focused their work on confronting the state head on and attacking black leaders whom they deemed reformists, they failed to build a strong base in black urban communities. Furthermore, despite their staunch internationalism, they did not reach out to other oppressed 'nationalities' in the United States."
1061:, where he argues that the black nation in America is just one faction of what he refers to as the "Land of the Blacks," a conglomeration of all racially subjugated groups around the world. RAM spokesman Malcolm X later described the black revolution in the United States as part of a "worldwide struggle of the oppressed against the oppressor." Several other political figures openly supported black internationalism, calling for people to join the revolution and be fully in conjunction "with the people in the great struggle for Africa and of suffering humanity".
930:' "adopted" kids, youth who spent a lot of time at the Boggs household and connected with their circle of activists. Prior to joining them, Stanford had been involved with militant civil rights activism since his teenage years. Through the lively discussions of revolutionary politics that thrived in the Boggs household, he developed a sharp critical consciousness and an impressive grasp of theory by adulthood. In 1962, Stanford engaged with Malcolm X and told him he was a revolutionary interested in following Malcolm in the
1006:
Americans had to gain control of land and political power through national liberation and establish revolutionary socialism in sovereign, liberated lands. They emphasized creating a black nation on land in
Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, Virginia, South Carolina, and North Carolina that, in their eyes, rightfully belonged to black people. This push for a sovereign black nation was in some ways a reiteration of an old black leftist line from the 1930s.
1274:'s incarceration. Mallory was a Black woman arrested for her relationship with Robert F. Williams, the future international chairman of RAM who, at the time, had fled to Cuba after being exiled from the United States. Working with the institute and its allies, RAM petitioned the governor of Ohio to revoke the extradition warrant against Mallory and held a large demonstration in front of the county jail, insisting on Mallory's immediate release.
1065:
952:
Cleveland, and
Detroit went by pseudonyms so as to decrease public scrutiny, while the Philadelphia chapter continued to operate under RAM's name. The decision to go underground was made by leadership after they judged that the ultra-right was preparing to crush the movement and that they could no longer be public without endangering noninvolved people and exposing them to violence.
1354:
1213:
1309:. It was a radical black culture magazine edited by future black power activists Bobby Seale, Huey Newton, and Ernie Allen, among others. The Soul Students' Advisory Council, in its interaction with RAM, exposed Seale and Newton to anti-imperialism, socialism, and revolutionary nationalism for the first time, which was critical in their political development.
1165:
youth as possible to their organization, particularly gang members. RAM thought gang members had the most revolutionary potential of the population, because they could be trained to fight not against each other but against white power structures. They believed they could create a fighting force of former gang members on the model of the
220:
898:'s essay "Revolutionary Nationalism and the Afro-American" and thereafter shifted its focus from educating their participants to creating a mass black working-class nationalist movement in the North. After this drastic change of agenda, Challenge soon evolved into the Reform Action Movement, as they believed use of the word
1150:, after it had been banned within the United States. They also took a two-pronged approach to advocating their policies among other civil rights groups: disparaging those that did not advocate for armed self-defense and, simultaneously, infiltrating them to try to spread their revolutionary ideology.
1130:
from black people in the United States. They were for the creation of a new, revolutionary culture through the reclamation of
African aesthetics, creation of art only in the service of the revolution, and active attempt to root out habits, traditions, customs, and philosophies taught to black people
955:
RAM implemented a "system of rotating chairmen" to foster veteran leadership that would help educate the younger, less experienced members. There were three levels of membership in RAM. The first consisted of members who were "professional, full-time field organizers." The second level was made up of
1468:
Amidst the sectarianism of the New Left, other activists and black liberation organizations also criticized RAM. In particular, the Black
Panther Party said that although RAM led the development of black nationalist thought in the US, examples of their application of revolutionary ideas was few and
973:
The
Afroamerican revolutionary, being inside the citadel of world imperialism and being the Vanguard against the most highly developed capitalist complex has problems no other revolutionary has had. His position is so strategic that victory means the downfall of the arch enemy of the oppressed (U.S.
959:
The overall structure of RAM was organized into three types of cells or units: area units, work units, and political units. Area units were designed to gain community influence by organizing around local issues. Work units were set up in factories or other industrial type settings, and the League of
942:
Don
Freeman was black student at Case Western who originally organized Challenge at Central State and then went on to be one of the leaders of the Cleveland branch of RAM. He questioned, however, during RAM's early years, the validity of RAM as a Marxist organization since traditional Marxist theory
1323:
The purpose of this new counterintelligence endeavor is to expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize the activities of black nationalist, hate-type organizations and groupings, their leadership, spokesmen, membership, and supporters, and to counter their propensity for violence
1005:
The revolutionary nationalists of RAM believed that colonized peoples around the world must rise up and destroy the "universal slavemaster". They also believed that all people have a right to self-determination, including the "internal black colony" of the United States. In their opinion, African
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particularly embodied the contradictions of racial capitalism, and if properly brought into the movement, this group could form a "revolutionary intelligentsia capable of leading black
America to true liberation." They also used public street meetings to try to attract as many black working-class
1192:
was a national armed youth self-defense group run by RAM that argued for protecting the interests of black
America by fighting directly against its enemies. The Black Guard, in Max Stanford's words, " to stop our youth from fighting amongst themselves, teach them a knowledge of history ... and
951:
Though it initially started as a small student group at
Central State College and Case Western Reserve University in Ohio, RAM at its peak had chapters all over the nation. The full spread of RAM remains hard to discern because RAM was semi-clandestine in nature. Chapters in New York, Oakland,
1237:
Throughout its existence, RAM supported mass action all over
Philadelphia, canvassed to try to listen to community needs, and provided public services that they thought were lacking. These actions ranged from responding to local residents' medical emergencies to providing weekly black history
1042:
through a conjoined effort of all oppressed groups to overthrow pan-European racism and the exploitative global capitalist system. The movement had a global vision, bigger than just the race relations of the United States. They saw the main battle as being between Western imperialism and the
1262:
The Afro-American Institute organized lectures by revolutionary black artists and intellectuals, and distributed leaflets to inform and inculcate the public in their revolutionary opinions. The subjects of the leaflets were wide-ranging, from elections to the arms race to the Black struggle.
1037:
The revolutionary spirit of black Americans in the 1960s was by no means the sole example of rebellion in the world at that time. The decade brought forth revolutions and mass uprisings in countries all over the world, and though the people were protesting in different regions, most of these
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was founded in Cleveland. Through this organization, RAM members held free public lectures and worked with other activists to improve the black community in Cleveland. The following year, Max Stanford and other RAM members traveled to Cleveland and joined CORE to assist in demanding better
1234:. During their time in the city, RAM actively supported Leon Sullivan's 1962 selective patronage campaign. This was the beginning of the "don't buy where you can't work" method of direct boycott action that serves as an example of the effectiveness of the black masses to black liberation.
1038:
movements sought to achieve a similar goal: the universal elimination of racism and capitalism. Members of RAM understood that black nationalism, the formation of an independent nation of blacks in the US, was a concept inseparable from black internationalism, which had the goal of ending
1116:, chairman of RAM, came back from his exile in China, he also emphasized that all young black revolutionaries must "...undergo personal and moral transformation. There is a need for a stringent revolutionary code of moral ethics. Revolutionaries are instruments of righteousness."
1047:
within US borders and around the world. The context of black liberation was the entire world revolution, rather than cultural nationalism, which RAM considered reactionary and bourgeois. RAM members saw themselves as colonial subjects fighting a "colonial war at home."
1253:
In Cleveland, Ohio, RAM was governed by a secret committee named the "Soul Circle", which was essentially a small selection of black men involved in the local community, as well as civil rights, and student groups. In 1962, a policy-oriented think tank named the
1201:
and less on actual community organizing. As a result, RAM has received less attention from historians than the Black Panther Party, even though they blazed the 1960s revolutionary black nationalist ideological trail and heavily influenced the Panthers.
1184:
in their fight against imperialism. At the same time RAM was explicitly anti-draft, arguing and organizing around the hypocrisy of drafting black Americans to fight in a war against, in their eyes, other people victimized by US imperialism.
1238:
classes. By making their presence known throughout the streets and establishing a consistent presence throughout black neighborhoods in the city, RAM was able to effectively mobilize people for anti-union discrimination protests in 1963.
890:(SNCC). Largely made up of formerly expelled students and veteran activists, Challenge was created to further political awareness, particularly in relation to the black community. At the request of Donald Freeman, who was enrolled at
1225:
Despite numerous chapters all over the country, by 1964, RAM's home base in Philadelphia was the main branch available to the public eye. The Philadelphia chapter was responsible for the publication of RAM's bimonthly newspaper,
1372:
program targeted RAM for political destruction. However, RAM was just one of many civil rights or black nationalist groups targeted because of their politics. Tactics used to suppress RAM were also used to suppress and target
943:
focused on class, while ignoring racism. So although Freeman believed in collectively owned black enterprises, he also argued that white "socialists and Marxists do not possess the solutions to the ills of black America."
1196:
Everywhere except for Philadelphia, RAM operated as a semi-clandestine group, existing behind front organizations, and under multiple names and branches. Due to this underground status, RAM focused more on producing
1438:, and by 1969 had practically dissolved. Many of its members went back to their communities or joined other civil rights groups to continue pushing their ideology of black internationalism and armed self-defense.
1143:, Pennsylvania; and a west coast branch in Oakland, California. Though the branches all had different local goals and accomplished different things, RAM engaged in several unifying national political activities.
1153:
Because RAM was made up of mostly college-educated intellectuals (though many dropped out to organize full-time), they thought a lot about who they were trying to mobilize, eventually settling upon the black
1298:. He also coincidentally met and talked to Max Stanford, who was in Cuba visiting Robert Williams at the time. This confluence of events resulted in Allen establishing a branch of RAM in Oakland at
922:(now Muhammad Ahmad) was one of the founding members of RAM, and served as both its national chairman and Philadelphia head for much of the group's existence. He was a Philadelphia native, and one of
2310:
1324:
and civil disorder ... Intensified action under this program should be afforded to the activities of ... Revolutionary Action Movement ... Particular emphasis should be given to extremists such as
2270:
1411:
1081:, and related their black freedom struggle to Mao's strategy of encircling capitalist countries to challenge imperialism. In solidarity and fighting alongside anti-colonial struggles in
1450:
condemned RAM, describing the organization as a "militant black nationalist hate group." During its existence, RAM was the target of denigration from a wide range of critics, including
2245:
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members who paid their dues to the organization and "met the standards for the main criteria for cadre." The third group included undisclosed members who only donated money to RAM.
2255:
2305:
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1508:
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far between, and mostly limited to students, rather than the black underclass "lumpenproletariat" they claimed to represent. RAM often struggled to meld theory and practice.
1245:
in 1968 by providing protection and political education to students while they protested unequal conditions and a lack of community control in their educational environment.
964:, was eventually created through these units. Political units were used to gain access into the Civil Rights Movement and transform it into a movement for black liberation.
2290:
1426:. Stanford went underground to avoid arrest and indictment, but the rest of the Queens 17, as they were called, went to trial and had to pay a $ 200,000 bail bond.
2280:
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1078:
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would stir fear in the university administration. Led by Freeman, Wanda Marshall, and Maxwell Stanford, RAM became a study/action group that hoped to turn the
2300:
2060:
2285:
183:
1548:
RAM was a semi-clandestine organization and articulated a revolutionary program for Black Americans that fused Black Nationalism with Marxism-Leninism.
1374:
887:
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1378:
300:
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2235:
668:
1847:""RAM: A case study of an urban revolutionary movement in Western capitalist society" A thesis submitted to the faculty of Atlanta University"
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1109:
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443:
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into a coherent and applicable theory that called for revolution "inside the citadel of world imperialism," meaning the United States.
1390:
1291:
1959:
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RAM's Northern California branch operated under the name the "Soul Students' Advisory Council" and started after then-member of the
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imperialism) and the beginning of the birth of a new world. --"The African American War of National-Liberation," RAM's Black America
879:
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magazine, Max Stanford and 16 other RAM members were arrested on conspiracy charges and for allegedly plotting to assassinate the
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458:
403:
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and future-Black Panther, Ernie Allen, went on a trip to Cuba in 1964. There Allen traveled alongside the future organizers of
2105:
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891:
468:
453:
413:
1216:
Muhammad Ahmad (formerly Maxwell Stanford), the leader of the Philadelphia branch of RAM, discussing the Black Power movement
710:
1509:"The Black Revolutionary Organization That You Probably Never Heard Of: The Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM) 1962-1969"
408:
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120:
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healthcare for black hospital patients and more inclusion of Black history in the Cleveland public school curriculum.
883:
1920:
1398:
498:
188:
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919:
611:
178:
55:
871:
315:
1029:. Many of these older revolutionaries played a role of ideological and political mentorship to RAM activists.
1255:
934:. Malcolm told Stanford that if he was truly revolutionary, he would be better off working outside the NOI.
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473:
438:
148:
1451:
1394:
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There were three main branches of RAM: the founding branch in Cleveland, Ohio; the headquarters branch in
1022:
923:
674:
478:
433:
418:
398:
373:
249:
1626:
Afro Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections between African Americans and Asian Americans
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1419:
903:
765:
681:
388:
383:
831:
368:
143:
1780:
Ahmad, Akbar Muhammed (2006). "RAM: The Revolutionary Action Movement". In Jeffries, Judson L. (ed.).
1401:, black student unions at universities across the US, and black churches and community organizations.
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organisation which was active from 1962 to 1968. They were the first group to apply the philosophy of
2250:
1209:(OAAU) was intended to be the popular front organization to RAM's underground black liberation army.
1166:
843:
788:
244:
203:
1533:
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Many RAM activists derived their ideology from an older generation of revolutionary black leftists:
2126:
1305:
The Soul Students' Advisory Council published a widely distributed prose and poetry journal called
1086:
859:
508:
428:
423:
393:
234:
17:
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to conditions of black people in the United States and informed the revolutionary politics of the
2083:
1691:
1483:
1325:
1113:
1108:
Some RAM materials about their revolutionary code of ethics take quotations nearly verbatim from
1014:
750:
705:
631:
621:
601:
551:
239:
163:
2061:"Reproducing Racial Globality: W.E.B Du Bois and the Sexual Politics of Black Internationalism"
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1955:
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636:
561:
320:
290:
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168:
133:
2075:
1337:
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378:
340:
330:
2017:
The End of White World Supremacy: Black Internationalism and the Problem of the Color Line.
1703:
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into a comprehensive theory of revolutionary black nationalism. They combined socialism,
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joined prior to 1964. The group's political formation deeply influenced the politics of
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851:
571:
345:
310:
153:
1846:
2229:
2087:
1423:
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1010:
586:
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In Cleveland, RAM's most notable accomplishment was their open protestation against
2001:
In Search of the Black Panther Party: New Perspectives on a Revolutionary Movement.
1462:
1364:
As exemplified by police repression of RAM in Philadelphia in the summer 1967, the
1329:
1205:
Malcolm X became a RAM officer in 1964. Max Stanford has claimed that Malcolm X's
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1102:
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775:
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556:
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295:
105:
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50:
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1949:
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gained momentum, RAM blazed an ideological trail, expressing solidarity with the
2101:
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1177:
1064:
1044:
855:
576:
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325:
259:
211:
128:
1806:
Waiting 'Till The Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America
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was instrumental in implementing COINTELPRO and dismantling Black Power groups
987:
735:
626:
616:
2215:
2189:
War at Home: Covert Action against U.S. Activists and What We Can Do about It
1719:
Is It Nation Time?: Contemporary Essays on Black Power and Black Nationalism
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991:
847:
755:
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606:
581:
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In this context of government repression, RAM transformed itself into the
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RAM called for a "cultural revolution" of sorts: one that would purge the
978:
RAM was the first group in the United States to synthesize the thought of
2046:
Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party
1198:
983:
740:
730:
1461:
Though RAM claimed to be a Maoist organization, some scholars, such as
979:
254:
1887:
The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era.
839:
138:
878:, came together to form "Challenge," a small conglomerate group of
2107:
The Political Leader Considered as the Representative of a Culture
1352:
1211:
1063:
1573:
By the end of 1968 RAM was dissolved as an official organization.
1160:
youth and black working-class youth. RAM thought that the black
1193:
prepare them ... to protect our community from racist attacks."
875:
1984:
Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama
1951:
Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan
219:
2125:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:
1921:"Part 4: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers, 1965–1976"
1051:
The theory of black internationalism was first publicized in
1908:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61.
1241:
RAM also advocated for the black students in Philadelphia's
2152:
Pure Fire: Self-Defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era
1077:
Some RAM activists saw themselves as an all-black cadre of
1385:(CORE), the Black Panther Party, the Nation of Islam, the
1146:
All branches helped distribute Robert Williams' magazine,
1105:, RAM activists saw themselves as playing a global role.
846:. RAM was the only secular political organization which
1784:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 252–80.
2174:
Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia
1307:
Soulbook: The Revolutionary Journal of the Black World
2311:
Political parties of minorities in the United States
2123:
The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History
2019:
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009. Print.
162:
119:
111:
97:
82:
64:
49:
41:
32:
2154:. Athens: University of Georgia. pp. 184–186.
1919:Bracey, John H. Jr.; Harley, Sharon, eds. (2004).
1906:Black Nationalism in American Politics and Thought
2271:Defunct Maoist organizations in the United States
1721:. Chicago: University of Chicago. pp. 72–87.
1562:"A History of the Revolutionary Action Movement"
1321:
2246:Anti-racist organizations in the United States
1875:. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company.
1833:Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination.
1738:"The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University"
1732:
1730:
1728:
1263:Eventually the leaflets became the newsletter
27:US-based revolutionary black nationalist group
1302:through the Soul Students' Advisory Council.
808:
8:
2256:Black political parties in the United States
2306:Defunct organizations based in Pennsylvania
2296:1968 disestablishments in the United States
2176:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
2003:Durham: Duke University Press, 2006. Print.
1682:Kelley, Robin (2002). Glaude, Eddie (ed.).
815:
801:
198:
29:
2191:. Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press.
1375:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
888:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
2291:1962 establishments in the United States
1717:Glaude, Eddie (2002). "Stormy Weather".
1379:Southern Christian Leadership Conference
1986:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
1686:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1500:
1404:In 1967, following an exposé on RAM in
210:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1782:Black Power: In the Belly of the Beast
1699:
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1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1663:
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1659:
1657:
1655:
1176:In mid-1965, before opposition to the
960:Black Workers, the predecessor to the
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2048:. Berkeley: University of California.
2011:
2009:
1995:
1993:
1977:
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1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1296:League of Revolutionary Black Workers
1073:Influence of Maoism and Maoist ethics
962:League of Revolutionary Black Workers
874:, a historically black university in
444:League of Revolutionary Black Workers
7:
2281:Organizations disestablished in 1968
1999:Lazerow, Jama, and Yohuru Williams.
1799:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1767:
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1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1446:On multiple occasions, FBI director
1387:National Welfare Rights Organization
1182:Vietnamese National Liberation Front
858:, and many other future influential
2301:Organizations based in Philadelphia
1624:Kelley, Robin; Esch, Betsy (2008).
1207:Organization of Afro-American Unity
906:into a worldwide black revolution.
766:United States civil rights movement
449:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
18:Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM)
2059:Weinbaum, Alys Eve (Summer 2001).
1835:Boston: Beacon Press, 2003. Print.
1391:Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement
1292:Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement
25:
2286:Organizations established in 1962
1954:. New York: New York University.
1930:. Black Studies Research Sources.
1230:, and the single-page newsletter
1068:RAM subscribed to Maoist ideology
880:Students for a Democratic Society
663:Black Power and the American Myth
489:Revolutionary Black Panther Party
2202:Russell Sackett (10 June 1966).
1628:. Durham: Duke University Press.
1534:"Freedom Archives Search Engine"
404:Black Revolutionary Assault Team
364:African People's Socialist Party
218:
1873:We Will Return in the Whirlwind
892:Case Western Reserve University
469:National Joint Action Committee
454:May 19th Communist Organization
2266:Communism in the United States
2236:African-American organizations
2210:. Time Inc. pp. 100–112.
1:
1845:Stanford, Maxwell C. (1986).
1021:, and Abner Berry as well as
828:Revolutionary Action Movement
484:Revolutionary Action Movement
409:Black Riders Liberation Party
35:Revolutionary Action Movement
2204:"Plotting a War on "Whitey""
2172:Countryman, Matthew (2006).
2150:Strain, Christopher (2005).
1948:Van Deburg, William (1997).
1560:Jones, John (May 19, 2019).
1000:Third World internationalism
894:at the time, Challenge read
716:Black Power in the Caribbean
414:Black Women's Defense League
2080:10.1215/01642472-19-2_67-15
1383:Congress of Racial Equality
1123:included Mao on its cover.
884:Congress of Racial Equality
70:; 62 years ago
2327:
2241:African-American socialism
2110:(Speech). Conakry, Guinea.
1538:search.freedomarchives.org
1399:Congress of Afrikan People
1121:The World Black Revolution
499:Symbionese Liberation Army
1569:Marxists Internet Archive
1284:Afro-American Association
1015:Queen Mother Audley Moore
179:Politics of United States
174:
1928:The Black Power Movement
1871:Ahmad, Muhammad (2007).
872:Central State University
202:This article is part of
58:(formerly Max Stanford)
2121:Crean, Jeffrey (2024).
1904:Robinson, Dean (2001).
1889:Routledge, 2013. Print.
1808:. New York: Henry Holt.
1804:Joseph, Peniel (2006).
1256:Afro-American Institute
1169:guerrilla army and the
721:Black Power in Montreal
592:Martin Luther King, Jr.
474:New Black Panther Party
439:Huey P. Newton Gun Club
164:Political position
149:Revolutionary socialism
2044:Bloom, Joshua (2013).
1982:Fujino, Diane (2005).
1452:Martin Luther King Jr.
1436:Black Liberation Party
1395:Republic of New Afrika
1361:
1351:
1217:
1069:
1033:Black internationalism
976:
862:founders and members.
675:The Diary of Malcolm X
479:Republic of New Afrika
434:George Jackson Brigade
419:British Black Panthers
399:Black Radical Congress
374:Black Guerrilla Family
250:Black Power Revolution
2187:Glick, Bryan (1989).
1356:
1313:Political suppression
1215:
1131:by white oppressors.
1067:
971:
904:Civil Rights Movement
870:In 1961, students at
682:Revolutionary Suicide
389:Black Panther Militia
384:Black Liberation Army
1831:Kelley, Robin D. G.
1135:Political activities
844:Black Power movement
245:Black power movement
2127:Bloomsbury Academic
2015:Bush, Roderick D.,
1278:Northern California
1110:The Little Red Book
860:Black Panther Party
509:Weather Underground
429:Five-Percent Nation
424:Conscious Community
394:Black Panther Party
235:Black Arts Movement
2261:COINTELPRO targets
2104:(2 October 1959).
1885:Peniel, Joseph E.
1684:Is It Nation Time?
1484:Robert F. Williams
1430:Dissolution of RAM
1362:
1326:Stokely Carmichael
1318:FBI and COINTELPRO
1218:
1171:Mau Mau guerrillas
1114:Robert F. Williams
1070:
751:Red Power movement
706:Black Lives Matter
632:Stokely Carmichael
622:Robert F. Williams
602:Malik Zulu Shabazz
552:Fay Bellamy Powell
369:Assata's Daughters
240:Black is beautiful
2136:978-1-350-23394-2
2074:(2 (67)): 15–41.
1442:Criticisms of RAM
1162:petit bourgeoisie
1157:petit bourgeoisie
996:black nationalism
836:black nationalist
825:
824:
746:Political hip hop
669:Ten-Point Program
637:Wadsworth Jarrell
562:Gloria Richardson
321:Black nationalism
291:Africana womanism
286:African socialism
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184:Political parties
134:Black Nationalism
16:(Redirected from
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1348:, 25 August 1967
1338:Maxwell Stanford
832:Marxist-Leninist
817:
810:
803:
711:Black Power gang
656:A Taste of Power
547:Eldridge Cleaver
379:Black Liberators
341:Intercommunalism
331:Black separatism
301:Anti-Americanism
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144:Marxism–Leninism
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1473:Notable members
1459:
1448:J. Edgar Hoover
1444:
1432:
1358:J. Edgar Hoover
1350:
1346:J. Edgar Hoover
1344:
1334:Elijah Muhammad
1320:
1315:
1300:Merritt College
1280:
1251:
1243:Bok High School
1223:
1167:Congolese Youth
1137:
1128:slave mentality
1075:
1053:W. E. B. DuBois
1040:white supremacy
1035:
1027:Grace Lee Boggs
970:
949:
940:
932:Nation of Islam
928:Grace Lee Boggs
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866:Group formation
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537:Donald DeFreeze
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306:Black anarchism
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1571:. p. 87.
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358:Organizations
355:
354:
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329:
327:
324:
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317:
316:Black leftism
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115:Black America
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67:
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40:
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19:
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2102:Touré, Sekou
2096:
2071:
2067:
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2016:
2000:
1983:
1950:
1927:
1914:
1905:
1886:
1881:
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1840:
1832:
1805:
1781:
1745:. Retrieved
1741:
1718:
1712:
1683:
1625:
1572:
1568:
1555:
1547:
1541:. Retrieved
1537:
1528:
1517:. Retrieved
1515:. 2020-06-07
1512:
1503:
1467:
1463:Robin Kelley
1460:
1445:
1435:
1433:
1420:Urban League
1405:
1403:
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1304:
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1221:Philadelphia
1204:
1195:
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1148:The Crusader
1147:
1145:
1141:Philadelphia
1138:
1125:
1120:
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1076:
1056:
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1036:
1019:Harold Cruse
1008:
1004:
977:
972:
958:
954:
950:
941:
920:Max Stanford
918:
915:Max Stanford
899:
896:Harold Cruse
886:(CORE), and
869:
830:(RAM) was a
827:
826:
776:Youth rights
761:The Troubles
680:
673:
661:
654:
557:Fred Hampton
542:Elaine Brown
527:Angela Davis
483:
296:Afrocentrism
106:Pennsylvania
102:Philadelphia
98:Headquarters
42:Abbreviation
2251:Black Power
2068:Social Text
1700:|work=
1489:Bobby Seale
1457:Revisionism
1416:Roy Wilkins
1272:Mae Mallory
1190:Black Guard
1178:Vietnam War
1119:RAM's text
1045:Third World
1023:James Boggs
856:Bobby Seale
852:Huey Newton
771:White power
577:John Africa
567:Hakim Jamal
326:Black pride
260:Raised fist
212:Black power
129:Anti-racism
2230:Categories
1747:2018-11-29
1543:2023-06-21
1519:2023-06-21
1495:References
1370:COINTELPRO
1368:and their
1294:, and the
1265:Afropinion
1232:RAM Speaks
1043:oppressed
910:Leadership
736:Hutu Power
627:Rosa Parks
617:Obi Egbuna
280:Ideologies
262:events of
2216:0024-3019
2088:144875056
1702:ignored (
1692:cite book
1513:Red Voice
1479:Malcolm X
1249:Cleveland
1099:Indonesia
992:Malcolm X
947:Structure
848:Malcolm X
756:Socialism
726:Communism
701:Anarchism
607:Michael X
582:Malcolm X
189:Elections
112:Newspaper
83:Dissolved
2276:New Left
1418:and the
1393:(DRUM),
1381:(SCLC),
1377:(SNCC),
1343:—
1199:agitprop
1112:. When
1087:Zanzibar
968:Ideology
789:Category
741:New Left
731:Feminism
204:a series
169:Far-left
121:Ideology
1397:(RNA),
1103:Algeria
1095:Vietnam
882:(SDS),
695:Related
255:Kwanzaa
229:History
88: (
73: (
65:Founded
2214:
2133:
2086:
1958:
1336:, and
1290:, the
1101:, and
998:, and
990:, and
840:Maoism
521:People
139:Maoism
51:Leader
2084:S2CID
2064:(pdf)
1924:(PDF)
1565:(PDF)
1412:NAACP
1288:Uhuru
1083:China
984:Lenin
924:James
649:Works
206:about
2212:ISSN
2208:Life
2131:ISBN
1956:ISBN
1704:help
1407:Life
1188:The
1091:Cuba
1025:and
980:Marx
926:and
876:Ohio
494:SNCC
459:MOVE
268:1972
266:and
264:1968
90:1968
86:1968
75:1962
68:1962
2076:doi
1422:'s
1414:'s
1366:FBI
988:Mao
45:RAM
2232::
2206:.
2160:^
2129:.
2082:.
2072:19
2070:.
2066:.
2024:^
2008:^
1992:^
1970:^
1936:^
1926:.
1894:^
1855:^
1814:^
1790:^
1756:^
1740:.
1727:^
1696::
1694:}}
1690:{{
1634:^
1580:^
1567:.
1546:.
1536:.
1511:.
1389:,
1332:,
1328:,
1267:.
1173:.
1097:,
1093:,
1089:,
1085:,
1055:'
1017:,
1013:,
986:,
982:,
854:,
834:,
104:,
2218:.
2139:.
2090:.
2078::
1964:.
1849:.
1750:.
1706:)
1522:.
1340:.
816:e
809:t
802:v
92:)
77:)
20:)
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