648:(UNAMO) ostensibly in honor of Sumane. Phiri's troops consequently waged their own low-level insurgency, clashing with RENAMO loyalists and FRELIMO along Malawi's southeastern border. This marked the only major split of RENAMO during the civil war. According to researchers Weinstein and Francisco, Phiri believed that he could compete with RENAMO using his past experience as independent commander and the weaponry which his forces had gained through the merger. He hoped to replenish his stockpiles by capturing weapons from the government, and through external support. Regardless, UNAMO's insurgency was short-lived. Phiri was unable to gain foreign backers, and the costs of maintaining his troops were "far too high". UNAMO began to occasionally ally with FRELIMO to defeat RENAMO forces, and Phiri agreed to join sides with the Mozambican government in 1988.
624:. On 20 September 1982, the PRM destroyed Muabanama, the only communal village of Lugela District. This event "reduced to nothing the achievement" of local government policies, as Muabanama had acted as pioneer project for the region. The PRM's campaign greatly hindered the implementation of FRELIMO's communal village system. The Mozambican government eventually resorted to forcing people to relocate to communal villages in some areas such as Milange District, hoping that this would isolate the rural population from the rebels. Despite this, the PRM's actual military successes were limited, and it remained resource-poor. RENAMO fighters who operated alongside PRM militants later claimed that the latter resorted to "rudimentary" tactics and were "mainly relying on stones" to fight the Mozambican government.
408:. Sumane also took up arms against FRELIMO, but opted to organize a separate rebel group known as Revolutionary Party of Mozambique (PRM) in 1974 or 1976. The group was described as successor or rebranding of UNAR, and was based in Malawi. According to researchers Jeremy W. Weinstein and Laudemiro Francisco, the PRM was founded with "active Malawian support". Paul Favert noted that former PIDE Mozambican operatives exiled in Malawi acted in concert with Sumane to organise cross-border attacks. Historian David Hedges specifically regarded Jorge Jardim, a Portuguese businessman, as one of the PRM's main instigators and supporters.
162:
700:" was done in benefit of the rural population. According to researcher Sérgio Chichava, many peasants were actually dissatisfied with the communal villages and supported the PRM; others destroyed their settlements out of fear of reprisals by the insurgents. The destruction of communal villages was a generally effective strategy, as it not just exploited anti-FRELIMO sentiments of civilians, but also separated the population from government influence. The PRM actually contributed to the failure of the communal village system in northern Mozambique.
335:
420:
144:
135:
74:
589:. In course of 1980, the PRM took control of much of Milange, and many local government representatives defected to the insurgents. Around the same time, the Malawian government began to normalize its relations with the FRELIMO government of Mozambique, and pledged to prevent cross-border attacks by Mozambican rebels. It proved to be unable to fulfill this pledge. The Malawian government did not fully control "its own state apparatus", and consequently did not expel the PRM.
601:
661:
123:
652:
However, its leader Phiri was deposed during internal party struggles, and subsequently founded the
Democratic Union of Mozambique (Udemo) in protest. The Mozambican government also renegaded on the promises made to him during the civil war. In response, Phiri threatened to start a new insurgency in 1996, but this was just a bluff. He subsequently became politically insignificant.
523:
597:
its operations in
Zambezia, Tete, and Niassa under his leadership. David Hedges argued that the PRM's partial resurgence stemmed from support by South Africa, channeled through Malawi. The Mozambican government increasingly pressured Malawi to suppress PRM activity, whereupon 18 PRM members were arrested and extradited to Mozambique on 26 January 1981.
491:
507:
459:
427:
475:
443:
573:
though admitted that they enjoyed some support from locals in
Zambezia Province. After its first attacks, the PRM gradually grew in numbers and expanded its operations. It forged alliances with the rural population including tribal chiefs, infiltrated FRELIMO's women's league, and had contacts in Malawi. By 1979, the group was active in Milange,
632:
In mid-1982, RENAMO contacted the PRM with an offer to merge their forces. RENAMO representative Khembo dos Santos met with Gimo Phiri in Malawi, but their first talks were inconclusive. The PRM had previously requested assistance from RENAMO, but never received any. This resulted in doubts about the
596:
in Malawi around 1980; he was executed in 1981. Other prominent PRM members such as
Joaquim Veleia, Matias Tenda, and Lucas Saguate were also killed. Despite these setbacks, the PRM's insurgency and cross-border attacks continued. Phiri was appointed as Sumane's successor, and the party even expanded
755:
colonial army who had been imprisoned for ten years after joining an anti-Portuguese rebellion in
Mozambique. Following his release, he joined FRELIMO and served as military instructor before defecting to the PRM. According to legends, he possessed magical powers. Sugate was killed in a FRELIMO trap
572:
by 1977. From its foundation, the PRM suffered from a lack of adequate weaponry; it was forced to use sticks, axes, machetes, and spears in combat. In order to get access to guns, the group had to capture them from FRELIMO troops. The
Mozambican government initially regarded the PRM as mere bandits,
551:
had a long history of banditry, and many local armed groups were opposed to FRELIMO. Militants in northern
Mozambique included peasant rebels, remnants of earlier separatist factions, "externally sponsored destabilization forces", and regular criminals. The PRM absorbed former COREMO elements, and
637:, and consequently provided the core for RENAMO's presence in Zambezia. According to researcher William Finnegan, the merger was facilitated by RENAMO's South African allies with the purpose of opening a northern front against FRELIMO. Phiri rose to a senior leadership position under RENAMO chief
651:
UNAMO organized the so-called "Maria Group" to patrol certain areas in
Zambezia, and fought for FRELIMO for the rest of the civil war. The UNAMO fighters were demobilized as part of the General Peace Agreement (AGP). After the civil war's end, UNAMO was legalized and took part in the elections.
703:
In its insurgency, the PRM often used stolen uniforms to disguise its members as government agents and police officers. It was thus able to infiltrate locations and carry out surprise attacks. Furthermore, the group enlisted militias of traditional chiefs as auxiliaries to bolster its numbers.
680:
The PRM was led by Amos Sumane, an ex-member of FRELIMO and COREMO, until his capture and execution by the
Mozambican government. He was succeeded by Gimo Phiri, a native of Mutarara District. Besides Sumane and Phiri, Lucas Saguate served as one of the group's main commanders.
560:. The PRM consequently regarded the FRELIMO-organized communal villages as primary target, but also attacked other government-associated locations such as "People's Shops", party offices, local branches of FRELIMO mass organizations, homes of officials, and police stations.
563:
The PRM's political commissar Gimo Phiri would later claim that the group's first attack on FRELIMO troops took place at
Jalasse in Zambezia Province on 8 August 1978. In spite of this claim, there were reports of PRM already waging a low-level insurgency in
696:" (translated "I will burn you myself") tactics: Militants of the group entered communal villages, fired into the air, and then "organised" the locals to burn the settlements and return to their original homes. Phiri argued that "
633:
honesty of the merger proposals. Negotiations continued, and RENAMO entered Zambezia Province to fight alongside the PRM against FRELIMO in August 1982. The PRM officially agreed to merge during a conference at a camp on
399:
The war of independence ended in 1974 with the Portuguese withdrawal from Mozambique, whereupon FRELIMO seized power in the country and marginalized other rebel forces. Some factions responded by founding
300:
did not refer to an actual organization but served as a collective term for all anti-FRELIMO groups in Zambezia. Accordingly, a variety of minor anti-FRELIMO movements in northern Mozambique, including
556:
tribesmen who had suffered economically due to the collapse of the regional plantation economy, and had been marginalized by FRELIMO's rural modernization policies such as the establishment of
256:
from 1977. Sumane was captured in 1980 and executed by the Mozambican government in 1981. The PRM's leadership passed to Gimo Phiri under whom the party merged with another rebel group,
592:
As the PRM became more active, the Mozambican government began to take the rebels more seriously, and intensified its counter-insurgency operations. Its agents abducted Sumane from
1575:
Weinstein, Jeremy W.; Francisco, Laudemiro (2005). "The Civil War in Mozambique. The Balance between Internal and External Influences". In Paul Collier; Nicholas Sambanis (eds.).
644:
As result of leadership struggles, tribal disputes, and policy disagreements in RENAMO, Phiri and about 500 followers broke off in late 1987 or early 1988, founding the
1675:
419:
1645:
692:
and consequently opposed to FRELIMO's government policies such as the communal villages and "people's shops". These were targeted by the PRM as part of the "
720:
Generalist encyclopedia editors Arthur S. Banks and Thomas C. Muller quote an unreferenced source that claims PRM was "not related to outside assistance."
1650:
1640:
1635:
292:
to broadcast anti-FRELIMO propanganda. Those listening began to regard reports from the station detailing attacks against FRELIMO targets as part of an
752:
1670:
1655:
684:
The PRM claimed to fight for "true independence, democracy, development, freedom of worship", and regarded FRELIMO as authoritarian as well as
1665:
1607:
1586:
1565:
1439:
1386:
1365:
538:
1630:
1398:"'They can kill us but we won't go to the communal villages!' Peasants and the Policy of 'Socialisation of the Countryside' in Zambezia"
365:(COREMO), was active in northwestern Mozambique. It splintered in 1968 when its deputy president Amos Sumane broke off and founded the
233:
89:
373:, a region where FRELIMO had little popular support. Sumane's forces fought for the separation of "Rumbezia", the region between the
1499:
289:
547:
The PRM managed to attract a significant following among the rural population of northern Mozambique. Parts of the region such as
552:
the remnants of "Rumbezia separatist" groups, most importantly local branches of UNAR. Sumane's force mostly recruited ethnic
358:
362:
97:
366:
189:
396:. UNAR was short-lived, but Sumane remained active and forged close links to the Mozambican community in Malawi.
645:
334:
641:. His followers were distributed to three RENAMO bases in Zambezia, and provided with much-needed weaponry.
730:
354:
729:
A substantial number of Portuguese colonial secret police agents as well as FRELIMO deserters joined the
1518:
405:
237:
176:
586:
557:
497:
390:
339:
225:
106:
25:
1596:
Wilson, K.B.; Nunes, J. (1994). "Repariation to Mozambique". In Tim Allen; Hubert Morsink (eds.).
553:
244:
government and its communist ideology. The party waged a low-level insurgency in the provinces of
1542:
1474:
1603:
1582:
1561:
1534:
1495:
1466:
1435:
1408:
1382:
1361:
886:(in French). Quelimane; Lisbon: Arquivo do Governo da Zambézia; Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino.
621:
578:
574:
513:
465:
449:
370:
245:
1526:
1458:
605:
548:
433:
193:
203:
1660:
1449:
Fauvet, Paul (1984). "Roots of Counter-Revolution: The "Mozambique National Resistance"".
638:
582:
569:
481:
253:
1522:
880:
689:
665:
393:
342:
240:. Founded by Amos Sumane in 1974 or 1976, the PRM was strongly opposed to Mozambique's
102:
600:
1624:
1488:
617:
565:
529:
249:
660:
1397:
673:
634:
374:
149:
1597:
1576:
1555:
1421:
1376:
1355:
1530:
1462:
1538:
1470:
1412:
345:(pictured) played a major role in supporting UNAR, a predecessor of the PRM.
685:
276:("Free Africa"). According to historian Sérgio Inácio Chichava, the PRM and
110:
404:
and launching a rebellion against the FRELIMO government, resulting in the
542:
Map of Mozambique, showing locations of PRM activity during the civil war.
1509:
Hedges, David (1989). "Notes on Malawi-Mozambique Relations, 1961-1987".
1431:
1427:
593:
1546:
1478:
669:
609:
378:
350:
241:
166:
401:
382:
257:
128:
78:
815:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
803:
659:
599:
333:
1423:
The Battle for Mozambique: The Frelimo–Renamo Struggle, 1977–1992
733:, police, and civil service following Mozambique's independence.
386:
1072:
1070:
1057:
1055:
928:
926:
296:
movement. PRM leader Gimo Phiri stated in an interview that
1557:
Traditional Religion and Guerrilla Warfare in Modern Africa
1320:
1318:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1027:
1025:
1023:
385:. FRELIMO claimed that UNAR was created by the Portuguese
381:
rivers, from Mozambique and its eventual unification with
1494:. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1120:
966:
964:
962:
960:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1042:
1040:
1010:
1008:
1006:
981:
979:
947:
945:
943:
941:
268:
The Revolutionary Party of Mozambique was also known as
913:
911:
909:
907:
905:
790:
788:
775:
773:
317:, and COREMO as well as UNAR remnants have been termed
1578:
Understanding Civil War: Africa. Evidence and Analysis
742:
Phiri claimed that he broke off with 3,000 fighters.
604:
One of the main PRM areas of activity was the rural
172:
155:
116:
96:
84:
67:
57:
36:
18:
1581:. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. pp. 157–192.
1487:
1354:Banks, Arthur S.; Muller, Thomas C., eds. (1998).
1309:
819:
389:secret police and the Malawian government under
874:
872:
870:
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
1602:. Oxford: James Currey Ltd. pp. 167–236.
1490:A Complicated War: The Harrowing of Mozambique
1434:: Helion & Company, 30° South Publishers.
846:
844:
842:
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
828:
8:
1407:(39). Translated by Benjamin Legg: 112–130.
881:"La Zambézie et les mouvements anti-Frelimo"
616:By 1982, the group was launching raids near
1061:
932:
290:Rhodesian Central Intelligence Organisation
1599:When Refugees Go Home: African Experiences
1378:Mozambique: The Tortuous Road to Democracy
15:
1336:
1324:
1280:
1209:
1149:
1111:
1088:
1031:
970:
1676:Defunct political parties in Mozambique
1297:
1268:
1245:
1233:
1221:
1197:
1161:
1132:
1076:
997:
985:
951:
896:
794:
779:
769:
751:Lucas Saguate was an ex-soldier of the
713:
349:Several rebel groups, most importantly
232:) was an armed rebel group in northern
1185:
1173:
1046:
1014:
917:
361:from 1964. One insurgent faction, the
288:(Voice of Free Africa) created by the
522:
369:(UNAR). UNAR was primarily active in
7:
1646:1982 disestablishments in Mozambique
1357:Political Handbook of the World 1998
230:Partido Revolucionário de Moçambique
30:Partido Revolucionário de Moçambique
1511:Journal of Southern African Studies
1451:Review of African Political Economy
656:Organization, ideology, and tactics
270:Revolucionário de Forças Moçambique
490:
363:Mozambique Revolutionary Committee
284:originates from the radio station
14:
1651:Organisations based in Mozambique
1641:1976 establishments in Mozambique
1636:1974 establishments in Mozambique
672:'s left-wing policies (pictured:
218:Revolutionary Party of Mozambique
19:Revolutionary Party of Mozambique
1396:Chichava, Sérgio Inácio (2013).
1310:Weinstein & Francisco (2005)
820:Weinstein & Francisco (2005)
521:
506:
505:
489:
473:
458:
457:
441:
425:
418:
160:
142:
133:
121:
72:
426:
280:were often conflated. The name
1671:Military history of Mozambique
1560:. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
1381:. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
1360:. Binghamton: CSA Publishing.
474:
367:Rumbezi African National Union
359:Mozambican War of Independence
1:
1656:Organisations based in Malawi
676:stamp commemorating FRELIMO)
628:Merger with RENAMO and legacy
442:
1666:Anti-communist organizations
1554:Weigert, Stephen L. (1996).
1420:Emerson, Stephen A. (2014).
1692:
1631:Rebel groups in Mozambique
1486:Finnegan, William (1992).
1531:10.1080/03057078908708218
1463:10.1080/03056248408703571
1375:Cabrita, João M. (2000).
1062:Banks & Muller (1998)
933:Wilson & Nunes (1994)
879:Chichava, Sérgio Inácio.
646:Mozambican National Union
182:
23:
1618:Mozambican rebel group
677:
613:
346:
229:
29:
753:São Tomé and Príncipe
663:
612:in Milange pictured)
603:
337:
587:Mecanhelas Districts
539:class=notpageimage|
406:Mozambican Civil War
238:Mozambican Civil War
177:Mozambican Civil War
1523:1989JSAfS..15..617H
1212:, pp. 124–125.
1176:, pp. 118–119.
1164:, pp. 129–130.
1079:, pp. 128–129.
286:Voz da África Livre
107:Freedom of religion
85:Active regions
678:
614:
347:
59:Dates of operation
1609:978-0-85255-222-3
1588:978-0-8213-6047-7
1567:978-0-333-63798-2
1441:978-1-909384-92-7
1388:978-1-349-42432-0
1367:978-1-349-14953-7
1224:, pp. 90–91.
1000:, pp. 69–70.
756:on 6 April 1981.
731:Malawian military
622:Mutarara District
558:communal villages
371:Zambezia Province
353:, fought against
214:
213:
200:Succeeded by
92:, southern Malawi
1683:
1613:
1592:
1571:
1550:
1505:
1493:
1482:
1445:
1416:
1402:
1392:
1371:
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989:
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876:
823:
817:
798:
792:
783:
777:
757:
749:
743:
740:
734:
727:
721:
718:
688:. The group was
606:Milange District
570:Niassa Provinces
549:Milange District
525:
524:
509:
508:
493:
492:
477:
476:
461:
460:
445:
444:
429:
428:
422:
208:
186:Preceded by
173:Battles and wars
165:
164:
163:
148:
146:
145:
138:
137:
136:
127:
125:
124:
77:
76:
75:
60:
51:
45:
32:
16:
1691:
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1686:
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1682:
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1680:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1610:
1595:
1589:
1574:
1568:
1553:
1508:
1502:
1485:
1457:(29): 108–121.
1448:
1442:
1419:
1400:
1395:
1389:
1374:
1368:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1343:
1337:Chichava (2013)
1335:
1331:
1325:Chichava (2013)
1323:
1316:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1287:
1281:Finnegan (1992)
1279:
1275:
1267:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1210:Chichava (2013)
1208:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1172:
1168:
1160:
1156:
1150:Chichava (2013)
1148:
1139:
1131:
1118:
1112:Chichava (2013)
1110:
1095:
1089:Finnegan (1992)
1087:
1083:
1075:
1068:
1060:
1053:
1045:
1038:
1032:Finnegan (1992)
1030:
1021:
1013:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
977:
971:Chichava (2013)
969:
958:
950:
939:
931:
924:
916:
903:
895:
891:
883:
878:
877:
826:
818:
801:
793:
786:
778:
771:
766:
761:
760:
750:
746:
741:
737:
728:
724:
719:
715:
710:
668:and opposed to
658:
639:Afonso Dhlakama
630:
545:
544:
543:
541:
535:
534:
533:
532:
526:
518:
517:
516:
510:
502:
501:
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494:
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438:
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436:
430:
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332:
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266:
210:
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197:
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161:
159:
143:
141:
140:
134:
132:
131:
122:
120:
109:
105:
73:
71:
58:
49:
43:
24:
12:
11:
5:
1689:
1687:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1608:
1593:
1587:
1572:
1566:
1551:
1517:(4): 617–644.
1506:
1500:
1483:
1446:
1440:
1417:
1393:
1387:
1372:
1366:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1339:, p. 125.
1329:
1327:, p. 124.
1314:
1312:, p. 179.
1302:
1298:Weigert (1996)
1285:
1283:, p. 281.
1273:
1271:, p. 163.
1269:Emerson (2014)
1250:
1246:Emerson (2014)
1238:
1236:, p. 202.
1234:Cabrita (2000)
1226:
1222:Emerson (2014)
1214:
1202:
1200:, p. 130.
1198:Cabrita (2000)
1190:
1188:, p. 638.
1178:
1166:
1162:Cabrita (2000)
1154:
1152:, p. 127.
1137:
1135:, p. 129.
1133:Cabrita (2000)
1116:
1114:, p. 123.
1093:
1081:
1077:Cabrita (2000)
1066:
1064:, p. 635.
1051:
1049:, p. 118.
1036:
1034:, p. 141.
1019:
1017:, p. 635.
1002:
998:Weigert (1996)
990:
986:Weigert (1996)
975:
973:, p. 114.
956:
954:, p. 128.
952:Cabrita (2000)
937:
935:, p. 178.
922:
920:, p. 116.
901:
899:, p. 139.
897:Cabrita (2000)
889:
824:
822:, p. 178.
799:
795:Weigert (1996)
784:
780:Emerson (2014)
768:
767:
765:
762:
759:
758:
744:
735:
722:
712:
711:
709:
706:
690:anti-communist
666:anti-communist
657:
654:
629:
626:
537:
536:
528:
527:
520:
519:
512:
511:
504:
503:
496:
495:
488:
487:
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394:Hastings Banda
343:Hastings Banda
331:
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103:Anti-communism
100:
94:
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86:
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69:
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61:
55:
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44:(1974/76–1980)
38:
34:
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1199:
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1187:
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1015:Hedges (1989)
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987:
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797:, p. 71.
796:
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618:Lake Amaramba
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584:
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530:Lake Amaramba
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679:
664:The PRM was
650:
643:
635:Mount Namuli
631:
615:
591:
562:
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398:
348:
319:África Livre
318:
314:
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302:
298:África Livre
297:
294:África Livre
293:
285:
282:África Livre
281:
278:África Livre
277:
274:África Livre
273:
269:
267:
221:
217:
215:
207:(indirectly)
199:
185:
150:South Africa
63:1974/76–1982
42:Amos Sumane
1347:Works cited
698:wotcha weka
694:wotcha weka
260:, in 1982.
236:during the
68:Merged into
50:(1980–1982)
48:Gimo Phiri
1625:Categories
764:References
498:Mecanhelas
412:Insurgency
330:Foundation
234:Mozambique
226:Portuguese
90:Mozambique
26:Portuguese
1539:0305-7070
1471:0305-6244
1413:2309-9585
686:tribalist
391:President
340:President
264:Etymology
156:Opponents
111:Democracy
88:Northern
1432:Pinetown
1428:Solihull
594:Blantyre
579:Namarroi
514:Mutarara
466:Namarroi
387:PIDE-DGS
355:Portugal
315:Involiwa
307:Maramara
246:Zambezia
196:remnants
98:Ideology
1547:2636834
1519:Bibcode
1479:4005652
670:FRELIMO
620:and in
610:savanna
434:Milange
379:Zambezi
357:in the
351:FRELIMO
325:History
311:Nharene
303:Sagwati
242:FRELIMO
167:FRELIMO
37:Leaders
1661:RENAMO
1606:
1585:
1564:
1545:
1537:
1498:
1477:
1469:
1438:
1411:
1405:Kronos
1385:
1364:
674:Soviet
585:, and
583:Lugela
482:Lugela
402:RENAMO
383:Malawi
375:Rovuma
258:RENAMO
254:Niassa
194:COREMO
147:
139:RENAMO
129:Malawi
126:
117:Allies
79:RENAMO
1543:JSTOR
1475:JSTOR
1401:(PDF)
884:(PDF)
708:Notes
575:Gurué
554:Lomué
450:Gurué
204:UNAMO
1604:ISBN
1583:ISBN
1562:ISBN
1535:ISSN
1496:ISBN
1467:ISSN
1436:ISBN
1409:ISSN
1383:ISBN
1362:ISBN
568:and
566:Tete
377:and
272:and
252:and
250:Tete
216:The
192:and
190:UNAR
1527:doi
1459:doi
222:PRM
1627::
1541:.
1533:.
1525:.
1515:15
1513:.
1473:.
1465:.
1455:11
1453:.
1430:,
1426:.
1403:.
1317:^
1288:^
1253:^
1140:^
1119:^
1096:^
1069:^
1054:^
1039:^
1022:^
1005:^
978:^
959:^
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925:^
904:^
827:^
802:^
787:^
772:^
581:,
577:,
321:.
313:,
309:,
305:,
248:,
228::
224:;
28::
1612:.
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1529::
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1504:.
1481:.
1461::
1444:.
1415:.
1391:.
1370:.
608:(
220:(
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