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1473:: using the pressurized concentrate flow, via direct contact or a piston, to pressurize part of the membrane feed flow to near concentrate flow pressure. A boost pump then raises this pressure by typically 3 bar / 50 psi to the membrane feed pressure. This reduces flow needed from the high-pressure pump by an amount equal to the concentrate flow, typically 60%, and thereby its energy input. These are widely used on larger low-energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m or less energy consumption.
458:
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nanotubes and coating or impregnating them with other chemical compounds, scientists can manufacture these membranes to have all of the most desirable traits. The hope with CNT membranes is to find a combination of high water permeability while also decreasing the amount of neutral solutes taken out of the water. This would help decrease energy costs and the cost of remineralization after purification through the membrane.
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1557:. The remainder is discharged, usually into the drain. Because wastewater carries the rejected contaminants, recovering this water is not practical for household systems. Wastewater is typically delivered to house drains. A RO unit delivering 20 liters (5.3 U.S. gal) of treated water per day also discharge between 50 and 80 liters (13 and 21 U.S. gal). This led India's
1483:. The pressurized concentrate flow is applied to one side of each piston to help drive the membrane feed flow from the opposite side. These are the simplest energy recovery devices to apply, combining the high pressure pump and energy recovery in a single self-regulating unit. These are widely used on smaller low-energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m or less energy consumption.
1719:
researchers were concerned with the durability of graphene and if it would be able to handle RO pressures. New research finds that depending on the substrate (a supporting layer that does no filtration and only provides structural support), graphene membranes can withstand 57MPa of pressure which is about 10 times the typical pressures for seawater RO.
307:, Florida became the first US municipality to use RO at scale, with an initial operating capacity of 11.35 million liters (3 million US gal) per day. By 1985, rapid growth led the city to operate the world's largest low-pressure RO plant, producing 56.8 million liters (15 million US gal) per day (MGD).
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desalination, although this process has proved to be costly and inconvenient in order to meet mineral demand by humans and plants as found in typical freshwater. For instance water from Israel's national water carrier typically contains dissolved magnesium levels of 20 to 25 mg/liter, while water from the
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The conventional approach claimed that molecules cross the membrane individually. A research team devised a "solution-friction" theory, claiming that molecules in groups through transient pores. Characterizing that process could guide membrane development. The accepted theory is that individual water
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Current RO membranes, thin-film composite (TFC) polyamide membranes, are being studied to find ways of improving their permeability. Through new imaging methods, researchers were able to make 3D models of membranes and examine how water flowed through them. They found that TFC membranes with areas of
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Depending upon the desired product, either the solvent or solute stream of RO will be waste. For food concentration applications, the concentrated solute stream is the product and the solvent stream is waste. For water treatment applications, the solvent stream is purified water and the solute stream
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Only part of the water pumped onto the membrane passes through. The left-behind "concentrate" passes along the saline side of the membrane and flushes away the salt and other remnants. The percentage of desalinated water is the "recovery ratio". This varies with salinity and system design parameters:
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An increasingly popular method of cleaning windows is the "water-fed pole" system. Instead of washing windows with conventional detergent, they are scrubbed with purified water, typically containing less than 10 ppm dissolved solids, using a brush on the end of a pole wielded from ground level. RO is
1264:
Some small-scale desalination units use 'beach wells'. These are usually drilled on the seashore. These intake facilities are relatively simple to build and the seawater they collect is pretreated via slow filtration through subsurface sand/seabed formations. Raw seawater collected using beach wells
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Sea-water RO (SWRO) desalination requires around 3 kWh/m, much higher than those required for other forms of water supply, including RO treatment of wastewater, at 0.1 to 1 kWh/m. Up to 50% of the seawater input can be recovered as fresh water, though lower recovery rates may reduce membrane fouling
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of the system in which the difference in solvent concentration between the sides of a membrane is reduced. This is called osmotic pressure. It reduces as the solvent moves into the more concentrated solution. Applying an external pressure to reverse the natural flow of pure solvent, thus, is reverse
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and freshwater by cycling the output repeatedly through a relatively porous membrane at relatively low pressure. Each cycle removes additional impurities. Once the output is relatively pure, it is sent through a conventional RO membrane at conventional pressure to complete the filtration step. LPHR
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Carbon nanotubes are meant to potentially solve the typical tradeoff between the permeability and the selectivity of RO membranes. CNTs present many ideal characteristics including: mechanical strength, electron affinity, and also exhibiting flexibility during modification. By restructuring carbon
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When beer at typical concentration is subjected to reverse osmosis, both water and alcohol pass across the membrane more readily than other components, leaving a "beer concentrate". The concentrate is then diluted with fresh water to restore the non-volatile components to their original intensity.
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symptoms in crops, including tomatoes, basil, and flowers, and had to be remedied by fertilization. Israeli drinking water standards require a minimum calcium level of 20 mg/liter. Askelon's post-desalination treatment uses sulfuric acid to dissolve calcite (limestone), resulting in calcium
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Brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) is the desalination of water with less salt than seawater, usually from river estuaries or saline wells. The process is substantially the same as SWRO, but requires lower pressures and less energy. Up to 80% of the feed water input can be recovered as fresh
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Pretreatment is important when working nanofiltration membranes due to their spiral-wound design. The material is engineered to allow one-way flow. The design does not allow for backpulsing with water or air agitation to scour its surface and remove accumulated solids. Since material cannot be
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Graphene membranes are meant to take advantage of their thinness to increase efficiency. Graphene is a singular layer of carbon atoms, so it is about 1000 times thinner than existing membranes. Graphene membranes are around 100 nm thick while current membranes are about 100 ÎĽm. Many
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Reverse osmosis is a more economical way to concentrate liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional heat-treatment. Concentration of orange and tomato juice has advantages including a lower operating cost and the ability to avoid heat-treatment, which makes it suitable for heat-sensitive
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to prevent corrosion of concrete-lined surfaces. Liming material is used to adjust pH between 6.8 and 8.1 to meet the potable water specifications, primarily for effective disinfection and for corrosion control. Remineralisation may be needed to replace minerals removed from the water by
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range from 1.6 to 2.6 MPa (225 to 376 psi). In the case of seawater, they range from 5.5 to 8 MPa (800 to 1,180 psi). This requires substantial energy. Where energy recovery is used, part of the high pressure pump's work is done by the energy recovery device, reducing energy inputs.
537:(CTA) membrane. CTA is a paper by-product membrane bonded to a synthetic layer that allows contact with chlorine in the water. These require a small amount of chlorine in the water source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA membranes is 85–95%.
967:, Si, Fe and Ba. Low organic scaling can use two different technologies: spiral wound membrane, and (for high organic scaling, high conductivity and higher pressure (up to 90 bars)), disc tube modules with RO membranes can be used. Disc tube modules were redesigned for landfill
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The membrane assembly consists of a pressure vessel with a membrane that allows feedwater to be pushed against it. The membrane must be strong enough to withstand the pressure. RO membranes are made in a variety of configurations. The two most common are spiral-wound and
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Energy recovery can reduce energy consumption by 50% or more. Much of the input energy can be recovered from the concentrate flow, and the increasing efficiency of energy recovery devices greatly reduces energy requirements. Devices used, in order of invention, are:
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purification that is usually contaminated with organic material. Due to the cross-flow, it is given a flow booster pump that recirculates the flow over the membrane between 1.5 and 3 times before it is released as a concentrate. High velocity protects against
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Culp, Tyler E.; Khara, Biswajit; Brickey, Kaitlyn P.; Geitner, Michael; Zimudzi, Tawanda J.; Wilbur, Jeffrey D.; Jons, Steven D.; Roy, Abhishek; Paul, Mou; Ganapathysubramanian, Baskar; Zydney, Andrew L.; Kumar, Manish; Gomez, Enrique D. (January 2021).
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Portable RO water processors are sold for personal water available. To work effectively, the water feeding to these units should be under pressure (typically 280 kPa (40 psi) or greater). These processors can be used in areas lacking clean water.
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Freshwater aquarists also use RO to duplicate the soft waters found in many tropical waters. While many tropical fish can survive in treated tap water, breeding can be impossible. Many aquatic shops sell containers of RO water for this purpose.
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typically 20% for small seawater systems, 40% – 50% for larger seawater systems, and 80% – 85% for brackish water. The concentrate flow is typically 3 bar/50 psi less than the feed pressure, and thus retains much of the input energy.
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The desalinated water purity is a function of the feed water salinity, membrane selection and recovery ratio. To achieve higher purity a second pass can be added which generally requires another pumping cycle. Purity expressed as
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Wei, Quantum J.; Tucker, Carson I.; Wu, Priscilla J.; Trueworthy, Ali M.; Tow, Emily W.; Lienhard, John H. (2020). "Impact of salt retention on true batch reverse osmosis energy consumption: Experiments and model validation".
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in that the mechanism of fluid flow is reversed, as the solvent crosses membrane, leaving the solute behind. The predominant removal mechanism in membrane filtration is straining, or size exclusion, where the pores are 0.01
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passes to the other side. The relative sizes of the various molecules determines what passes through. "Selective" membranes reject large molecules, while accepting smaller molecules (such as solvent molecules, e.g., water).
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removes particles of roughly 3 nm or larger. Nanofiltration removes particles of 1 nm or larger. RO is in the final category of membrane filtration, hyperfiltration, and removes particles larger than 0.1 nm.
1456:: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow, connected to the pump drive shaft provides part of the input power. Positive displacement axial piston motors have been used in place of turbines on smaller systems.
1490:) do not suffer from wasted energy in the brine stream, as the energy to pressurize a virtually incompressible fluid (water) is negligible. Such systems have the potential to reach second-law efficiencies of 60%.
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low flow significantly decreased water permeability. By ensuring uniformity of the membranes and allowing water to flow continuously without slowing down, membrane permeability could be improved by 30%-40%.
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is often of better quality in terms of solids, silt, oil, grease, organic contamination, and microorganisms, compared to open seawater intakes. Beach intakes may also yield source water of lower salinity.
563:(as defined by a European directive) is not allowed. In practice, a fraction of the living bacteria pass through RO through membrane imperfections or bypass the membrane entirely through leaks in seals.
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plants operated around the world, producing around 95 million cubic metres per day (25 billion US gallons per day). Around half of this capacity was in the Middle East and North Africa region.
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and trimesoyl chloride. Cadotte's patent on this process was the subject of litigation and expired. Almost all commercial RO membrane is now made by this method. By 2019, approximately 16,000
272:, Ottawa, found techniques for making asymmetric membranes characterized by an effectively thin "skin" layer supported atop a highly porous and much thicker substrate region. John Cadotte, of
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Cordoba, Sandra; Das, Abhimanyu; Leon, Jorge; Garcia, Jose M; Warsinger, David M (2021). "Double-acting batch reverse osmosis configuration for best-in-class efficiency and low downtime".
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Screening solids: Solids must be removed and the water treated to prevent membrane fouling by particle or biological growth, and reduce the risk of damage to high-pressure components.
548:(TFC) membrane is made of synthetic material, and requires the chlorine to be removed before the water enters the membrane. To protect the TFC membrane elements from chlorine damage,
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was found to be economically feasible, recovering more than 70% with an OPD between 58 and 65 bar and leaving no more than 350 ppm TDS from a seawater feed with 35,000 ppm TDS.
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For household purification absent the need to remove dissolved minerals (soften the water), the alternative to RO is an activated carbon filter with a microfiltration membrane.
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Prefiltration antiscalants: Scale inhibitors (also known as antiscalants) prevent formation of more scales than acid, which can only prevent formation of calcium carbonate and
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or larger, so the process can theoretically achieve perfect efficiency regardless of parameters such as the solution's pressure and concentration. RO instead involves solvent
1049:, for 2011, RO was used in 66% of installed desalination capacity (0.0445 of 0.0674 km/day), and nearly all new plants. Other plants use thermal distillation methods:
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Panagopoulos, Argyris; Haralambous, Katherine-Joanne; Loizidou, Maria (25 November 2019). "Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies – A review".
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Household RO units use a lot of water because they have low back pressure. Household RO water purifiers typically produce one liter of usable water and 3-25 liters of
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typically varies from 100 to 400 parts per million (ppm or mg/litre) on a seawater feed. A level of 500 ppm is generally the upper limit for drinking water, while the
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Large-scale industrial/municipal systems recover typically 75% to 80% of the feed water, or as high as 90%, because they can generate the required higher pressure.
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RO removes both harmful contaminants and desirable minerals. Some studies report some relation between long-term health effects and consumption of water low on
323:), through a membrane, to an area of high solute concentration (low water potential). The driving force for the movement of the solvent is the reduction in the
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is inhibited by antiscalants. Antiscalants can control acid-soluble scales at a fraction of the dosage required to control the same scale using sulfuric acid.
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is popular among reef aquarium keepers, and is preferred above other water purification processes due to the low cost of ownership and operating costs. Where
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Council
Directive of 15 July 1980 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the exploitation and marketing of natural mineral waters
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that boosts the output pressure, reducing the pressure needed from the pump and thereby its energy input, similar in construction principle to car engine
1142:, such as chlorine, are added to kill bacteria, followed by bisulfite dosing to deactivate the chlorine that can destroy a thin-film composite membrane.
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1117:(loss of production capacity). Therefore, pretreatment is a necessity for any RO or nanofiltration system. Pretreatment has four major components:
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system to supply the energy. Solar power works well for water purification in settings lacking grid electricity and can reduce operating costs and
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RO-purified rainwater collected from storm drains is used for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling in Los
Angeles and other cities.
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Post-treatment disinfection provides secondary protection against compromised membranes and downstream problems. Disinfection by means of
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would be a significant part of its water plans. RO would be used to treat wastewater before discharging the effluent into reservoirs.
643:. It is then pumped through a cartridge filter which is usually spiral-wound cotton. This process strips any particles larger than 5
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first, and then the effluent runs through RO. This hybrid process reduces treatment cost significantly and lengthens membrane life.
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785:. RO allows about 75–90% of the water to be removed, reducing energy consumption and exposure of the syrup to high temperatures.
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The clarified water is then fed through a high-pressure piston pump into a series of RO vessels. 90.00–99.98% of the raw water's
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scales. In addition to inhibiting carbonate and phosphate scales, antiscalants inhibit sulfate and fluoride scales and disperse
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are found in the water, carbon filtration is needed before RO, as common residential membranes do not address these compounds.
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1768:, pioneered the development of an energy-recovery device currently in use in most seawater reverse-osmosis desalination plants
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Sunlight's intermittent nature makes output prediction difficult without an energy storage capability. However batteries or
1529:(UV) lamps (sometimes called germicidal or bactericidal) may be employed to sterilize pathogens that evade the RO process.
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963:) and membrane fouling. RO applicability is limited by conductivity, organics, and scaling inorganic elements such as CaSO
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371:) for fresh and brackish water, and 40–82 bar (600–1200 psi) for seawater. Seawater has around 27 bar (390 psi) natural
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concentrations of 40 to 46 mg/liter, lower than the 45 to 60 mg/liter found in typical
Israeli fresh water.
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are used as pre-treatment. TFC membranes have a higher rejection rate of 95–98% and a longer life than CTA membranes.
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Larger scale reverse osmosis water purification units (ROWPU) exist for military use. These have been adopted by the
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Although RO was once avoided in the wine industry, it is now widespread. An estimated 60 RO machines were in use in
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inhibitors do not kill bacteria, while preventing them from growing slime on the membrane surface and plant walls.
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2935:"Challenges and opportunities in functional carbon nanotubes for membrane-based water treatment and desalination"
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2018:
Jones, Edward; et al. (20 March 2019). "The state of desalination and brine production: A global outlook".
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1537:(chlorine and ammonia) protects against pathogens that may have lodged in the distribution system downstream.
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Ali, Sharafat; Rehman, Syed Aziz Ur; Luan, Hong-Yan; Farid, Muhammad Usman; Huang, Haiou (1 January 2019).
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1937:"Next Big Future: Israel scales up Reverse Osmosis Desalination to slash costs with a fourth of the piping"
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742:(liquid remaining after cheese manufacture) is concentrated with RO from 6% solids to 10–20% solids before
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Warsinger, David M.; Mistry, Karan H.; Nayar, Kishor G.; Chung, Hyung Won; Lienhard V, John H. (2015).
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Warsinger, David M.; Tow, Emily W.; Nayar, Kishor G.; Maswadeh, Laith A.; Lienhard V, John H. (2016).
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in the feedwater result in scaling while concentrated in the reject stream, acid is dosed to maintain
754:, is concentrated by RO from 5% solids to 18–total solids to reduce crystallization and drying costs.
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Energy consumption is around 3 kWh/m (11,000 J/L), with the development of more efficient
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1602:, but there may be fewer options for disposal of a concentrated waste solute stream. Ships may use
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The desalinated water is stabilized to protect downstream pipelines and storage, usually by adding
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2847:"Nanoscale control of internal inhomogeneity enhances water transport in desalination membranes"
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keepers use RO systems to make fish-friendly seawater. Ordinary tap water can contain excessive
2198:"Award-winning Solar Powered Desalination Unit aims to solve Central Australian water problems"
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Crittenden, John; Trussell, Rhodes; Hand, David; Howe, Kerry and
Tchobanoglous, George (2005).
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Treatment with RO is limited, resulting in low recoveries on high concentration (measured with
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systems, including an RO step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking.
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Membrane pore sizes vary from 0.1 to 5,000 nm. Particle filtration removes particles of 1
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with pores 0.001 micrometers in size. The predominant removal mechanism is from differences in
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Another approach is low-pressure high-recovery multistage RO (LPHR). It produces concentrated
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multiple times to ensure that it does not leave deposits on the machinery or cause corrosion.
655:
639:. Next, it is run through a multi-media filter where it undergoes primary treatment, removing
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324:
276:, discovered that membranes with particularly high flux and low salt passage could be made by
2504:
Stover, Richard L. (2007). "Seawater reverse osmosis with isobaric energy recovery devices".
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236:, outputting 624 thousand cubic metres per day (165 million US gallons per day).
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and phosphates can lead to unwanted algae growth. An effective combination of both RO and
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1038:. RO is an increasingly common method, because of its relatively low energy consumption.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Low temperature desalination using solar collectors augmented by thermal energy storage
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are removed and military standards require that the result have no more than 1000–1500
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Sauvetgoichon, B (2007). "Ashkelon desalination plant — A successful challenge".
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to improve recovery of valuable deionized products, or to reduce concentrate volumes.
544:, while the thin-film composite membrane breaks down in the presence of chlorine. The
248:. For the following 200 years, osmosis was only a laboratory phenomenon. In 1950, the
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2126:" ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 12, December 2013
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is concentrated waste. The solvent waste stream from food processing may be used as
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A process of osmosis through semi-permeable membranes was first observed in 1748 by
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to separate water molecules from other substances. RO applies pressure to overcome
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2465:"Numerical Modeling and Dynamic Analysis of a Wave-Powered Reverse-Osmosis System"
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Batch operation: RO systems run with a fixed volume of fluid (thermodynamically a
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Turbocharger: a water turbine driven by concentrate flow, directly connected to a
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Disc tube module with RO membrane cushion and Spiral wound module with RO membrane
812:, RO is sometimes used to prevent formation of mineral deposits on the surface of
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Glater, J. (1998). "The early history of reverse osmosis membrane development".
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2716:"Implication of Household Use of R.O. Devices for Delhi's Urban Water Scenario"
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2319:"Entropy Generation of Desalination Powered by Variable Temperature Waste Heat"
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Electromembrane desalination processes for production of low conductivity water
1821:"Energy efficiency of batch and semi-batch (CCRO) reverse osmosis desalination"
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molecules diffuse through the membrane, termed the "solution-diffusion" model.
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Cadotte, John E. (1981) "Interfacially synthesized reverse osmosis membrane"
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856:, or other chemicals detrimental to marine organisms. Contaminants such as
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processing. The retentate can then be used to make whey powders, including
328:
osmosis. The process is similar to other membrane technology applications.
2442:"Optimizing scale inhibition costs in reverse osmosis desalination plants"
594:. For example, a solar-powered desalination unit designed passed tests in
559:
US mineral water production uses RO. In Europe such processing of natural
31:
3695:
3587:
3522:
3392:
3367:
3152:
2629:
2139:
Securing Safe Water
Supplies : comparison of applicable technologies
1854:
1745:
1509:
1154:
1069:
968:
865:
857:
853:
829:
758:
663:
506:
485:
357:
226:
222:
198:
2481:
2464:
3622:
3267:
3107:
2998:"Mechanical Strength of Nanoporous Graphene as a Desalination Membrane"
2109:
1783:
1582:
1250:
1139:
1114:
845:
841:
751:
724:
711:
696:. The effluent in larger volumes (more than 500 m/day) is treated in a
632:
429: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
316:
210:
173:
3021:
2343:
2318:
3637:
3627:
3207:
2689:"Learn The Pros And Cons Of Reverse Osmosis Water Filtration Systems"
2143:
1561:
to propose a ban on RO water purification systems in areas where the
1135:
837:
728:
206:
193:
that favors even distributions. RO can remove dissolved or suspended
2110:"Optimizing the Efficiency of Reverse Osmosis Seawater Desalination"
1401:
Schematic of a RO desalination system using an energy recovery pump.
761:, France, in 2002. Known users include many of elite firms, such as
2661:
1034:
Areas that have limited surface water or groundwater may choose to
319:, the solvent moves from an area of low solute concentration (high
3542:
3402:
2909:"Desalination breakthrough could lead to cheaper water filtration"
1697:
1566:
1396:
1339:
1298:
1290:
983:
782:
456:
294:
1222:
scale. Calcium carbonate scaling tendency is estimated using the
2666:
1275:
739:
261:
3471:
3111:
1253:
and metal oxides. Despite claims that antiscalants can inhibit
2996:
Cohen-Tanugi, David; Grossman, Jeffrey C. (12 November 2014).
1633:
892:
398:
3467:
201:), and is used in industrial processes and the production of
2662:"IEEE R10 HTA Portable Autonomous Water Purification System"
232:
As of 2013 the world's largest RO desalination plant was in
3690:
1150:
1128:
filters are typically used to remove particles of 1–5
540:
The cellulose triacetate membrane rots unless protected by
529:
a second carbon filter to capture chemicals that survive RO
299:
RO production train, North Cape Coral
Reverse Osmosis Plant
1565:(TDS) measure in water is less than 500 mg/liter. In
1045:
devices and improved membrane materials. According to the
1278:
pushes water through the membrane. Typical pressures for
1085:
High-pressure pump (if not combined with energy recovery)
209:
on the pressurized side of the membrane and the purified
2393:
Desalination Plant
Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) Plant
1113:
removed from the membrane surface, it is susceptible to
2124:
2069:
2012 Annual
Consumer Report on the Quality of Tap Water
1987:"Sidney Loeb, Co-Inventor of Practical Reverse Osmosis"
628:, some are trailers, and some are themselves vehicles.
533:
In some systems, the carbon prefilter is replaced by a
1726:, more durable equipment and higher salinity limits.
1072:
desalination plant in Israel is the world's largest.
3053:"Everyone Was Wrong About Reverse Osmosis—Until Now"
2446:
3902:
3729:
3651:
3505:
3449:
3421:
3320:
3145:
2785:
Physicochemical Processes for Water Quality Control
344:across a membrane that is either nonporous or uses
2292:Lewis, Michael J; Young, Tom W (6 December 2012).
2136:Knorr, Erik Voigt, Henry Jaeger, Dietrich (2012).
1218:Carbonic acid cannot combine with calcium to form
710:In 2002, Singapore announced that a process named
217:RO is most commonly known for its use in drinking
1075:The typical single-pass SWRO system consists of:
608:systems can provide power when the sun does not.
3612:
2823:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 266.
2788:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 320.
2751:"Health risks from drinking demineralised water"
1814:
1812:
1810:
777:producers started using RO to remove water from
2720:Journal of Innovation for Inclusive Development
1512:plant has no magnesium. Ashkelon water created
1344:Schematics of a RO desalination system using a
980:Power consumption for a disc tube module system
260:desalinated seawater in the mid-1950s, but the
2463:Yu, Yi-Hsiang; Jenne, Dale (8 November 2018).
1606:and coastal desalination plants typically use
360:, solute concentration, and other conditions.
197:as well as biological substances (principally
3483:
3123:
2296:(2 ed.). New York: Kluwer. p. 110.
1589:, although these studies are of low quality.
750:. Additionally, the permeate, which contains
488:filter to trap particles, including rust and
8:
2170:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
734:RO is used in the dairy industry to produce
480:Such systems typically include these steps:
2200:. University of Wollongong. 4 November 2005
2091:, 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons. New Jersey.
927:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
494:a second sediment filter with smaller pores
386:removes particles of 50 nm or larger.
3490:
3476:
3468:
3130:
3116:
3108:
1684:Research has examined integrating RO with
1257:, no concrete evidence proves that silica
1230:to control carbonate scales may result in
2628:
2480:
2469:Journal of Marine Science and Engineering
2342:
1844:
947:Learn how and when to remove this message
445:Learn how and when to remove this message
2370:Israel is No. 5 on Top 10 Cleantech List
991:
268:at UCLA and Srinivasa Sourirajan at the
1991:Bulletin of the Israel Chemical Society
1806:
264:was too low to be commercially viable.
250:University of California at Los Angeles
3093:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
2358:International Desalination Association
2163:
1332:as water containing at least 250 ppm.
1047:International Desalination Association
677:In industry, RO removes minerals from
2089:Water Treatment Principles and Design
703:RO can be used for the production of
647:and eliminates almost all turbidity.
7:
925:adding citations to reliable sources
427:adding citations to reliable sources
229:materials from the water molecules.
2762:National Institute of Public Health
2233:Emerging Environmental Technologies
1610:. Landlocked RO plants may require
1571:National Capital Territory of India
1426:: Concentrate to drain (60%,1 bar),
1124:Cartridge filtration: String-wound
1065:water, depending on feed salinity.
885:commonly used to purify the water.
270:National Research Council of Canada
3879:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
1495:Remineralisation and pH adjustment
995:Energy consumption per m leachate
738:powders and concentrate milk. The
515:an RO thin-film composite membrane
509:, which degrades certain types of
363:RO requires pressure between 2–17
356:, and the process is dependent on
252:(UCLA) first investigated osmotic
25:
3749:Agricultural wastewater treatment
1692:Low-pressure High-recovery (LPHR)
1416:: Concentrate flow (60%, 48 bar),
1406:: Sea water inflow (100%, 1 bar),
692:RO is used to clean effluent and
670:Water and wastewater purification
3993:
3992:
3311:
2939:Science of the Total Environment
2820:Water and Waste-Water Technology
2020:Science of the Total Environment
1985:Weintraub, Bob (December 2001).
1935:Wang, Brian (19 February 2015).
1878:Science of the Total Environment
1638:
1421:: Fresh water flow (40%, 1 bar),
1411:: Sea water flow (100%, 50 bar),
1242:scale formation on the membrane.
897:
403:
3809:Industrial wastewater treatment
3779:Decentralized wastewater system
2959:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.348
2040:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.076
1898:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.351
1326:US Food and Drug Administration
576:solar-powered desalination unit
414:needs additional citations for
256:. Researchers at both UCLA and
976:and allows membrane cleaning.
889:Landfill leachate purification
662:. It is then disinfected with
225:, removing the salt and other
137:Multiple-effect humidification
54:Multi-stage flash distillation
1:
3829:Rotating biological contactor
2512:(1–3). Elsevier BV: 168–175.
1972:10.1016/S0011-9164(98)00122-2
1722:Batch RO may offer increased
1388:: Osmosis unit with membrane,
1846:10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.029
1440:: Osmosis unit with membrane
1051:multiple-effect distillation
631:The water is treated with a
511:thin-film composite membrane
470:Around the world, household
60:Multiple-effect distillation
2621:10.1016/j.desal.2019.114177
2569:10.1016/j.desal.2021.114959
2526:10.1016/j.desal.2006.03.528
2427:10.1016/j.desal.2006.03.525
1671:Improving Current Membranes
1593:Waste-stream considerations
466:Drinking water purification
4066:
4050:Industrial water treatment
3894:Wastewater treatment plant
3661:Adsorbable organic halides
3348:Electrostatic precipitator
2726:(1): 24–29. Archived from
2383:Retrieved 21 December 2009
2265:Grabowski, Andrej (2010).
2230:Shah, Vishal, ed. (2008).
1224:Langelier saturation index
792:
781:before boiling the sap to
763:Château Léoville-Las Cases
618:United States armed forces
278:interfacial polymerization
27:Water purification process
3988:
3666:Biochemical oxygen demand
3388:Rotary vacuum-drum filter
3309:
2782:Weber, Walter J. (1972).
2374:Israel 21c A Focus Beyond
2142:(Online-Ausg. ed.).
1647:This section needs to be
1363:: Concentrate flow (60%),
1358:: Fresh water flow (40%),
1091:Energy recovery (if used)
994:
522:lamp for sterilizing any
162:Wave-powered desalination
3431:Aqueous two-phase system
3253:Liquid–liquid extraction
2817:Hammer, Mark J. (1975).
1303:Cutaway of a 16" RO tube
1295:The layers of a membrane
1061:and energy consumption.
395:Fresh water applications
84:Electrodialysis reversal
3854:Sewage sludge treatment
3794:Fecal sludge management
3754:API oil–water separator
3721:Wastewater surveillance
3328:API oil–water separator
3198:Dissolved air flotation
2871:10.1126/science.abb8518
2607:. Elsevier BV: 114177.
2555:. Elsevier BV: 114959.
2379:16 October 2010 at the
1705:Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
1559:National Green Tribunal
1368:: Sea water flow (60%),
1153:adjustment: If the pH,
961:electrical conductivity
660:electrical conductivity
375:that must be overcome.
187:semi-permeable membrane
133:–dehumidification (HDH)
121:Geothermal desalination
3711:Total suspended solids
3706:Total dissolved solids
3671:Chemical oxygen demand
3293:Solid-phase extraction
3091:Wastewater Engineering
3089:Metcalf; Eddy (1972).
2714:Singh, Govind (2017).
2395:. Water-technology.net
2271:. Berlin: Logos-Verl.
1563:total dissolved solids
1479:pump: a reciprocating
1441:
1433:Pressure recovery pump
1394:
1373:: Concentrate (drain),
1322:total dissolved solids
1304:
1296:
1009:3-stage up to 120 bar
989:
769:Maple syrup production
652:total dissolved solids
606:thermal energy storage
462:
300:
3578:Industrial wastewater
3413:Vacuum ceramic filter
3408:Sublimation apparatus
3213:Electrochromatography
3173:Cross-flow filtration
2006:U.S. patent 4,277,344
1761:Reverse osmosis plant
1400:
1343:
1302:
1294:
1006:2-stage up to 75 bar
1003:1-stage up to 75 bar
987:
698:water treatment plant
460:
298:
258:University of Florida
116:Freezing desalination
102:Membrane distillation
4045:Separation processes
3920:Groundwater recharge
3363:Fractionating column
3158:Acid–base extraction
3139:Separation processes
2749:Kozisek, Frantisek.
2078:. City of Cape Coral
2074:4 March 2016 at the
1939:. nextbigfuture.com.
1514:magnesium-deficiency
1393:: Pressure exchanger
921:improve this section
748:whey protein isolate
694:brackish groundwater
592:greenhouse emissions
535:cellulose triacetate
461:Countertop RO system
423:improve this article
185:process that uses a
131:Solar humidification
4040:Membrane technology
3834:Secondary treatment
3819:Membrane bioreactor
3774:Constructed wetland
3573:Infiltration/Inflow
3183:Cyclonic separation
3014:2014NanoL..14.6171C
2951:2019ScTEn.646.1126A
2863:2021Sci...371...72C
2771:on 7 February 2022.
2613:2020Desal.47914177W
2561:2021Desal.50614959C
2518:2007Desal.203..168S
2482:10.3390/jmse6040132
2475:(4). MDPI AG: 132.
2419:2007Desal.203...75S
2335:2015Entrp..17.7530W
2187:. eur-lex.europa.eu
2032:2019ScTEn.657.1343J
1964:1998Desal.117..297G
1890:2019ScTEn.69333545P
1837:2016WatRe.106..272W
1741:Electrodeionization
1618:to avoid polluting
1383:: Circulation pump,
1353:: Sea water inflow,
1103:Alarm/control panel
810:hydrogen production
804:Hydrogen production
723:substances such as
546:thin-film composite
274:Filmtec corporation
246:Jean-Antoine Nollet
143:Seawater greenhouse
4025:Water desalination
3999:Category: Sewerage
3960:Septic drain field
3925:Infiltration basin
3869:Stabilization pond
3789:Facultative lagoon
3653:Quality indicators
3533:Blackwater (waste)
3513:Acid mine drainage
3243:Gravity separation
2440:Malki, M. (2008).
1774:Silt density index
1471:Pressure exchanger
1442:
1395:
1378:: Pump flow (40%),
1346:pressure exchanger
1305:
1297:
1274:The high pressure
1270:High pressure pump
1226:. Adding too much
990:
624:. Some models are
599:Northern Territory
463:
301:
285:-phenylene diamine
219:water purification
183:water purification
126:Solar desalination
79:Membrane processes
36:Water desalination
4007:
4006:
3784:Extended aeration
3731:Treatment options
3681:Oxygen saturation
3528:Blackwater (coal)
3506:Sources and types
3465:
3464:
3383:Rapid sand filter
3278:Recrystallization
3258:Electroextraction
3218:Electrofiltration
3100:978-0-070-49539-5
3022:10.1021/nl502399y
3008:(11): 6171–6178.
2344:10.3390/e17117530
2329:(11): 7530–7566.
2303:978-1-4615-0729-1
1779:Salinity gradient
1724:energy efficiency
1668:
1667:
1612:evaporation ponds
1287:Membrane assembly
1247:calcium phosphate
1240:strontium sulfate
1220:calcium carbonate
1165:in their soluble
1097:and pH adjustment
1088:Membrane assembly
1055:multi-stage flash
1027:
1026:
1014:disc tube module
957:
956:
949:
656:parts per million
542:chlorinated water
503:organic chemicals
490:calcium carbonate
455:
454:
447:
325:Gibbs free energy
205:. RO retains the
169:
168:
66:Vapor-compression
16:(Redirected from
4057:
4035:Water technology
3996:
3995:
3915:Evaporation pond
3903:Disposal options
3874:Trickling filter
3859:Sewage treatment
3759:Carbon filtering
3739:Activated sludge
3492:
3485:
3478:
3469:
3315:
3132:
3125:
3118:
3109:
3104:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3048:
3042:
3041:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2930:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2919:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2764:. Archived from
2755:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2660:Sekar, Chandru.
2657:
2651:
2650:
2632:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2437:
2431:
2430:
2402:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2367:
2361:
2360:Yearbook 2012–13
2355:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2289:
2283:
2282:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2242:Springer Science
2227:
2221:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2161:
2133:
2127:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2105:
2099:
2085:
2079:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1958:(1–3): 297–309.
1947:
1941:
1940:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1848:
1816:
1663:
1660:
1654:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1461:centrifugal pump
1255:silica formation
1095:Remineralisation
1023:11.2–14.3 kWh/m
992:
974:membrane scaling
952:
945:
941:
938:
932:
901:
893:
808:For small-scale
795:Low-alcohol beer
789:Low-alcohol beer
570:Solar-powered RO
499:activated carbon
450:
443:
439:
436:
430:
407:
399:
373:osmotic pressure
331:RO differs from
195:chemical species
191:osmotic pressure
32:
21:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4020:Food processing
4010:
4009:
4008:
4003:
3984:
3950:Reclaimed water
3898:
3824:Reverse osmosis
3725:
3647:
3613:Reverse osmosis
3538:Boiler blowdown
3501:
3496:
3466:
3461:
3445:
3423:
3417:
3378:Protein skimmer
3316:
3307:
3303:Ultrafiltration
3283:Reverse osmosis
3263:Microfiltration
3238:Froth flotation
3178:Crystallization
3141:
3136:
3101:
3088:
3085:
3080:
3079:
3069:
3067:
3050:
3049:
3045:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2917:
2915:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2857:(6524): 72–75.
2843:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2796:
2781:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2753:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2733:
2731:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2696:
2695:. 26 April 2022
2687:
2686:
2682:
2672:
2670:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2391:
2387:
2381:Wayback Machine
2368:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2316:
2315:
2311:
2304:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2244:. p. 108.
2229:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2201:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2183:
2179:
2162:
2158:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2121:
2117:
2112:. guma science.
2107:
2106:
2102:
2086:
2082:
2076:Wayback Machine
2067:
2063:
2017:
2016:
2012:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1818:
1817:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1789:Water pollution
1756:Microfiltration
1751:Forward osmosis
1736:
1716:
1707:
1694:
1686:electrodialysis
1682:
1680:Electrodialysis
1673:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1643:
1639:
1632:
1616:injection wells
1608:marine outfalls
1600:reclaimed water
1595:
1579:
1551:
1543:
1523:
1497:
1477:Energy-recovery
1436:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1338:
1336:Energy recovery
1289:
1272:
1232:calcium sulfate
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1110:
1043:energy recovery
1032:
1000:name of module
982:
966:
953:
942:
936:
933:
918:
902:
891:
882:
880:Window cleaning
822:
806:
797:
791:
771:
744:ultrafiltration
720:
705:deionized water
685:. The water is
672:
622:Canadian Forces
614:
572:
526:that survive RO
501:filter to trap
468:
451:
440:
434:
431:
420:
408:
397:
388:Ultrafiltration
384:Microfiltration
321:water potential
313:
242:
157:water recycling
152:crystallization
150:Methane hydrate
108:Forward osmosis
90:Reverse osmosis
38:
28:
23:
22:
18:Reverse-osmosis
15:
12:
11:
5:
4063:
4061:
4053:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4012:
4011:
4005:
4004:
4002:
4001:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3975:Surface runoff
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3955:Sanitary sewer
3952:
3947:
3945:Marine outfall
3942:
3940:Marine dumping
3937:
3932:
3930:Injection well
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3910:Combined sewer
3906:
3904:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3849:Settling basin
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3744:Aerated lagoon
3741:
3735:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3676:Coliform index
3673:
3668:
3663:
3657:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3618:Sanitary sewer
3615:
3610:
3605:
3603:Produced water
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3548:Combined sewer
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3509:
3507:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3495:
3494:
3487:
3480:
3472:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3459:
3457:Unit operation
3453:
3451:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3427:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3317:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3168:Chromatography
3165:
3160:
3155:
3149:
3147:
3143:
3142:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3127:
3120:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3099:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3043:
2988:
2925:
2900:
2836:
2829:
2809:
2794:
2774:
2758:Czech Republic
2741:
2730:on 17 May 2017
2706:
2680:
2652:
2590:
2539:
2496:
2455:
2432:
2413:(1–3): 75–81.
2397:
2385:
2362:
2350:
2309:
2302:
2284:
2278:978-3832527143
2277:
2257:
2251:978-1402087868
2250:
2222:
2211:
2189:
2177:
2157:978-0124058866
2156:
2150:. p. 33.
2148:Academic Press
2128:
2115:
2108:Lachish, Uri.
2100:
2080:
2061:
2010:
1996:
1977:
1942:
1927:
1868:
1825:Water Research
1805:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1766:Richard Stover
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1715:
1712:
1706:
1703:
1693:
1690:
1681:
1678:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1646:
1644:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1624:surface runoff
1604:marine dumping
1594:
1591:
1578:
1575:
1550:
1547:
1542:
1539:
1535:chloramination
1522:
1519:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1484:
1474:
1468:
1457:
1337:
1334:
1288:
1285:
1280:brackish water
1271:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1259:polymerization
1243:
1236:barium sulfate
1215:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1149:Prefiltration
1147:
1133:
1122:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1021:
1020:8.1–9.8 kWh/m
1018:
1017:6.1–8.1 kWh/m
1015:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
997:
996:
981:
978:
964:
955:
954:
905:
903:
896:
890:
887:
881:
878:
821:
818:
805:
802:
793:Main article:
790:
787:
773:In 1946, some
770:
767:
719:
716:
671:
668:
658:by measure of
613:
610:
571:
568:
550:carbon filters
531:
530:
527:
516:
513:
495:
492:
472:drinking water
467:
464:
453:
452:
411:
409:
402:
396:
393:
346:nanofiltration
312:
309:
241:
238:
167:
166:
165:
164:
159:
153:
147:
146:
145:
140:
134:
123:
118:
113:
112:
111:
105:
99:
96:Nanofiltration
93:
87:
76:
71:
70:
69:
63:
57:
45:
44:
40:
39:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4062:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4000:
3991:
3990:
3987:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3839:Sedimentation
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3728:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3633:Sewage sludge
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3558:Cooling water
3556:
3554:
3553:Cooling tower
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3518:Ballast water
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3493:
3488:
3486:
3481:
3479:
3474:
3473:
3470:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3420:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3398:Spinning cone
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3373:Mixer-settler
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3319:
3314:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3288:Sedimentation
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3273:Precipitation
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3128:
3126:
3121:
3119:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3102:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3051:Levy, Max G.
3047:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2945:: 1126–1139.
2944:
2940:
2936:
2929:
2926:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2840:
2837:
2832:
2830:9780471347262
2826:
2822:
2821:
2813:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2795:9780471924357
2791:
2787:
2786:
2778:
2775:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2742:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2707:
2694:
2690:
2684:
2681:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2656:
2653:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2630:1721.1/124221
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2594:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2456:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2436:
2433:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2351:
2345:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2295:
2288:
2285:
2280:
2274:
2270:
2269:
2261:
2258:
2253:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2215:
2212:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2178:
2173:
2167:
2159:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2140:
2132:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2116:
2111:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2097:0-471-11018-3
2094:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2026:: 1343–1356.
2025:
2021:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1855:1721.1/105441
1852:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1795:
1794:Water quality
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1784:Milli-Q water
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1720:
1713:
1711:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1679:
1677:
1670:
1662:
1650:
1645:
1636:
1635:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1548:
1546:
1541:Disadvantages
1540:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1488:closed system
1485:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1465:turbochargers
1462:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1399:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1330:mineral water
1327:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1311:
1301:
1293:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1277:
1269:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1228:sulfuric acid
1225:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1192:
1173:
1172:
1168:
1167:carbonic acid
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1126:polypropylene
1123:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1107:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1029:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
998:
993:
986:
979:
977:
975:
970:
962:
951:
948:
940:
930:
926:
922:
916:
915:
911:
906:This section
904:
900:
895:
894:
888:
886:
879:
877:
873:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
826:reef aquarium
819:
817:
815:
811:
803:
801:
796:
788:
786:
784:
780:
776:
768:
766:
764:
760:
755:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
732:
730:
726:
718:Food industry
717:
715:
713:
708:
706:
701:
699:
695:
690:
688:
684:
680:
675:
669:
667:
665:
661:
657:
653:
648:
646:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
626:containerized
623:
619:
611:
609:
607:
602:
600:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
580:potable water
577:
569:
567:
564:
562:
561:mineral water
557:
553:
551:
547:
543:
538:
536:
528:
525:
521:
517:
514:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
493:
491:
487:
483:
482:
481:
478:
476:
473:
465:
459:
449:
446:
438:
428:
424:
418:
417:
412:This section
410:
406:
401:
400:
394:
392:
389:
385:
381:
376:
374:
370:
366:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
334:
329:
326:
322:
318:
315:In (forward)
310:
308:
306:
297:
293:
290:
286:
284:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
239:
237:
235:
234:Sorek, Israel
230:
228:
224:
220:
215:
212:
208:
204:
203:potable water
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
175:
163:
160:
158:
154:
151:
148:
144:
141:
138:
135:
132:
129:
128:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
109:
106:
103:
100:
97:
94:
91:
88:
85:
82:
81:
80:
77:
75:
72:
67:
64:
61:
58:
55:
52:
51:
50:Distillation
49:
48:
47:
46:
42:
41:
37:
34:
33:
30:
19:
3980:Vacuum sewer
3864:Sewer mining
3823:
3814:Ion exchange
3764:Chlorination
3686:Heavy metals
3643:Urban runoff
3583:Ion exchange
3563:Fecal sludge
3358:Filter press
3343:Depth filter
3282:
3233:Flocculation
3203:Distillation
3090:
3068:. Retrieved
3056:
3046:
3005:
3002:Nano Letters
3001:
2991:
2942:
2938:
2928:
2916:. Retrieved
2913:ScienceDaily
2912:
2903:
2854:
2850:
2839:
2819:
2812:
2784:
2777:
2766:the original
2744:
2732:. Retrieved
2728:the original
2723:
2719:
2709:
2697:. Retrieved
2692:
2683:
2671:. Retrieved
2665:
2655:
2604:
2601:Desalination
2600:
2593:
2552:
2549:Desalination
2548:
2542:
2509:
2506:Desalination
2505:
2499:
2472:
2468:
2458:
2449:
2445:
2435:
2410:
2407:Desalination
2406:
2400:
2388:
2365:
2353:
2326:
2322:
2312:
2293:
2287:
2267:
2260:
2232:
2225:
2214:
2202:. Retrieved
2192:
2180:
2138:
2131:
2118:
2103:
2088:
2083:
2064:
2023:
2019:
2013:
1999:
1990:
1980:
1955:
1952:Desalination
1951:
1945:
1930:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1828:
1824:
1728:
1721:
1717:
1708:
1695:
1683:
1674:
1656:
1648:
1596:
1580:
1552:
1544:
1531:Chlorination
1524:
1521:Disinfection
1505:caustic soda
1498:
1454:Pelton wheel
1443:
1437:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1318:
1314:
1310:hollow-fiber
1306:
1273:
1138:: Oxidizing
1111:
1108:Pretreatment
1100:Disinfection
1082:Pretreatment
1074:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1040:
1033:
1030:Desalination
958:
943:
934:
919:Please help
907:
883:
874:
862:deionization
823:
807:
798:
772:
756:
736:whey protein
733:
721:
709:
702:
691:
683:power plants
679:boiler water
676:
673:
649:
635:to initiate
630:
615:
603:
588:photovoltaic
584:saline water
573:
565:
558:
554:
539:
532:
479:
475:purification
469:
441:
432:
421:Please help
416:verification
413:
377:
362:
330:
314:
302:
289:desalination
282:
254:desalination
243:
231:
216:
178:
171:
170:
89:
74:Ion exchange
29:
3970:Storm drain
3965:Sewage farm
3889:Vermifilter
3844:Septic tank
3804:Imhoff tank
3701:Temperature
3608:Return flow
3598:Papermaking
3333:Belt filter
3298:Sublimation
3188:Decantation
2452:(4): 28–29.
1831:: 272–282.
1620:groundwater
1527:ultraviolet
1481:piston pump
1328:classifies
870:chloramines
834:chloramines
775:maple syrup
637:coagulation
596:Australia's
586:by using a
520:ultraviolet
382:or larger.
354:diffusivity
338:micrometers
266:Sidney Loeb
155:High grade
4014:Categories
3935:Irrigation
3799:Filtration
3499:Wastewater
3422:Multiphase
3353:Evaporator
3338:Centrifuge
3228:Filtration
3223:Extraction
3163:Adsorption
3153:Absorption
2804:1086963937
1884:: 133545.
1801:References
1659:March 2021
1555:wastewater
1549:Wastewater
1163:carbonates
1159:alkalinity
1144:Biofouling
1036:desalinate
850:phosphates
814:electrodes
350:solubility
333:filtration
305:Cape Coral
3769:Clarifier
3716:Turbidity
3568:Greywater
3436:Azeotrope
3146:Processes
3065:1059-1028
3030:1530-6984
2967:0048-9697
2895:229935140
2879:0036-8075
2699:8 October
2647:213654912
2639:0011-9164
2585:233553757
2577:0011-9164
2534:0011-9164
2491:2077-1312
2238:Dordrecht
2166:cite book
1993:(8): 8–9.
1922:199387639
1906:0048-9697
1587:magnesium
1132:diameter.
908:does not
854:silicates
820:Aquariums
687:distilled
641:turbidity
578:produces
342:diffusion
3696:Salinity
3588:Leachate
3523:Bathroom
3450:Concepts
3441:Eutectic
3393:Scrubber
3368:Leachate
3248:Leaching
3193:Dialysis
3038:25357231
2983:52311560
2975:30235599
2887:33384374
2734:15 April
2377:Archived
2072:Archived
2056:59250859
2048:30677901
1914:31374511
1863:27728821
1746:ERDLator
1734:See also
1714:Graphene
1630:Research
1510:Ashkelon
1251:colloids
1157:and the
1155:hardness
1140:biocides
1070:Ashkelon
969:leachate
937:May 2023
866:chlorine
858:nitrogen
846:nitrites
842:nitrates
830:chlorine
759:Bordeaux
664:chlorine
620:and the
612:Military
524:microbes
507:chlorine
486:sediment
435:May 2023
367:(30–250
358:pressure
303:In 1977
227:effluent
223:seawater
199:bacteria
172:Reverse
43:Methods
4030:Filters
3623:Septage
3424:systems
3321:Devices
3268:Osmosis
3083:Sources
3010:Bibcode
2947:Bibcode
2859:Bibcode
2851:Science
2673:4 March
2609:Bibcode
2557:Bibcode
2514:Bibcode
2415:Bibcode
2331:Bibcode
2323:Entropy
2294:Brewing
2204:19 July
2028:Bibcode
1960:Bibcode
1886:Bibcode
1833:Bibcode
1649:updated
1583:calcium
1450:Turbine
1182:O = HCO
1115:fouling
929:removed
914:sources
752:lactose
729:enzymes
725:protein
712:NEWater
633:polymer
317:osmosis
311:Osmosis
240:History
211:solvent
181:) is a
174:osmosis
3997:
3638:Toilet
3628:Sewage
3593:Manure
3208:Drying
3097:
3070:20 May
3063:
3036:
3028:
2981:
2973:
2965:
2918:26 May
2893:
2885:
2877:
2827:
2802:
2792:
2693:Forbes
2645:
2637:
2583:
2575:
2532:
2489:
2300:
2275:
2248:
2154:
2144:Oxford
2095:
2054:
2046:
1920:
1912:
1904:
1861:
1577:Health
1136:Dosing
1079:Intake
1053:, and
838:copper
207:solute
3543:Brine
3403:Still
3057:Wired
2979:S2CID
2891:S2CID
2769:(PDF)
2754:(PDF)
2643:S2CID
2581:S2CID
2052:S2CID
1918:S2CID
1698:brine
1567:Delhi
1238:, or
1201:O = H
1169:form.
824:Many
783:syrup
582:from
221:from
139:(MEH)
86:(EDR)
62:(MED)
56:(MSF)
3884:UASB
3095:ISBN
3072:2023
3061:ISSN
3034:PMID
3026:ISSN
2971:PMID
2963:ISSN
2920:2023
2883:PMID
2875:ISSN
2825:ISBN
2800:OCLC
2790:ISBN
2736:2017
2701:2023
2675:2015
2667:IEEE
2635:ISSN
2573:ISSN
2530:ISSN
2487:ISSN
2298:ISBN
2273:ISBN
2246:ISBN
2206:2017
2172:link
2152:ISBN
2093:ISBN
2044:PMID
1910:PMID
1902:ISSN
1859:PMID
1585:and
1501:lime
1276:pump
1068:The
912:any
910:cite
868:and
740:whey
727:and
505:and
262:flux
110:(FO)
104:(MD)
98:(NF)
92:(RO)
68:(VC)
3018:doi
2955:doi
2943:646
2867:doi
2855:371
2625:hdl
2617:doi
2605:479
2565:doi
2553:506
2522:doi
2510:203
2477:doi
2423:doi
2411:203
2372:in
2339:doi
2036:doi
2024:657
1968:doi
1956:117
1894:doi
1882:693
1851:hdl
1841:doi
1829:106
1622:or
1614:or
1533:or
1503:or
1452:or
1209:+ H
1197:+ H
1193:HCO
1186:+ H
1178:+ H
923:by
779:sap
681:at
518:an
497:an
425:by
369:psi
365:bar
352:or
280:of
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