Rif War - Knowledge (XXG)

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officers could not read maps, which explains why Spanish units so frequently got lost in the Rif mountains. In general, studying war was not considered to be a good use of an officer's time, and most officers devoted their time in Melilla in words of the American journalist James Perry to "gambling and whoring, sometimes molesting the native Moorish women". Morale in the Army was extremely poor and most Spanish soldiers just wanted to go home and leave Morocco forever. Because of the prostitutes from Spain, who attached themselves in great number to the Spanish bases in Morocco, venereal diseases were rampant in the Spanish Army. Fernández Silvestre was well aware of the poor morale of his soldiers, but he did not regard this as a problem, believing that his enemy was so inferior that the problems afflicting his troops were not an issue.

509: 329: 318: 560: 155: 2227: 551: 500: 307: 296: 285: 274: 263: 252: 233: 221: 210: 191: 143: 2583: 2361: 480: 469: 446: 435: 416: 404: 386: 369: 352: 172: 2188: 2663: 44: 2278: 2451: 462: 396: 379: 362: 2066:. By 1920 he had brought out 800,000 tons of valuable high grade iron through relatively inexpensive open-pit mining. Though profitable, iron mining caused much environmental damage and required the displacement of the native people. As they received no share of the profits, the Rifians soon began to oppose the mining in their territory. 2055:, wrote that the Rif was a truly beautiful countryside of "rimson mountains flung against a sky of hieratic blue, gorges magnificent and terrifying, peaceful green valleys between protecting precipices", a place that reminded him of his native Colorado. The Rif was also rich in high-grade iron, which could be easily extracted via 3857: 2202:

Continuing a practice first begun in Cuba, corruption flourished amongst the venal Spanish officer corps, with goods meant for the troops being sold on the black market and the funds intended to build roads and railroads in Morocco ending up in the pockets of senior officers. A high number of Spanish

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grew as many people could see no point to the war. In August 1923, Spanish soldiers embarking for Morocco mutinied at the railway stations, other soldiers in Malaga simply refused to board the ships that were to take them to Morocco, while in Barcelona huge crowds of left-wingers had staged anti-war

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units as possible to avoid further working class resistance to colonial wars as much of the Spanish working class had no desire to see their sons sent to Morocco, beginning a policy of what the Spanish historian Jose Alvarez called "Moroccanizing" the conquest of the Rif. Following the difficulties

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For the final attack commencing on 8 May 1925, the French and Spanish had ranged 123,000 men, supported by 150 aircraft, against 12,000 Rifians. Superior manpower and technology soon resolved the course of the war in favour of France and Spain. The French troops pushed through from the south while

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and the Spanish Foreign Legion founded in 1919 that provided the elite forces that won Spain the war. Less than 25% of this "Foreign Legion" were, in fact, non-Spanish. Harshly disciplined and driven, they quickly acquired a reputation for ruthlessness. As their number grew, the Spanish Legion and

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was never able to arm more than 20,000 men at a time. However, this force was largely adequate in the early stages of the war. In the final days of the war, Rifian forces numbered about 12,000 men. In addition, Rifian forces were not well armed, with weapons badly maintained and in poor condition.

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occurrence in the Rif region, which is still the highest in Morocco; for example, according to the Head of the Association of Toxic Gas Victims (ATGV) research has shown "there are strong indicators that the cancer is caused by the gases that were used against the resistance in the north." Writer

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River in disputed tribal territory. On 12 April 1925, an estimated 8,000 Rifians attacked this line and in two weeks over 40 of 66 French posts had been stormed or abandoned. French casualties exceeded 1,000 killed, 3,700 wounded and 1,000 missing – representing losses of over 20 percent of their

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had pushed Spain to the brink of civil war, and who had seized power to find a way out of the crisis. General Primo de Rivera soon concluded that the war was unwinnable, and considered pulling back his troops to the coast with the aim of at least temporarily abandoning the Rif. In late July 1924,

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The average Spanish soldier in Morocco in 1921 was paid the equivalent of thirty-four US cents per day, and lived on a simple diet of coffee, bread, beans, rice and the odd piece of meat. Many soldiers bartered their rifles and ammunition at the local markets in exchange for fresh vegetables. The

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that his equipment was sufficient to defeat the Rifians, in fact about three-quarters of the rifles at the Melilla arsenal were in shoddy condition due to poor maintenance, and a report from late 1920, which Spanish commanders never bothered to read, warned that many of the rifles held there were

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in the Rif, and was served a banquet of eggs in different forms. In Spanish culture, eggs are a symbol of the testicles, and the dishes were intended to send a clear message. Primo de Rivera responded calmly that the army would be required to abandon only the minimum of territory and that junior

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fighters from several loosely allied tribes following the victory at Annual; and the arrival in Melilla of substantial reinforcements from the Legion and other Spanish units recalled from operations in western Morocco. By the end of August Spanish forces at Melilla numbered 36,000 under General

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ordered his forces not to attack the town. He subsequently told the writer J. Roger-Matthieu that since citizens of other European nations were residing in Melilla, it was feared they would intervene in the war should their citizens come to harm. Other reasons included the dispersal of Rifian

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By January 1922 the Spanish had retaken their major fort at Monte Arruit (where they found the bodies of 2,600 of the garrison) and had reoccupied the coastal plain as far as Tiztoutine and Batel. The Rifian forces had consolidated their hold of the inland mountains and stalemate was reached.

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held about dozen men, while the larger forts had about 800 men. Fernández Silvestre, known for his boldness and impetuosity, had pushed his men too deep into the Rif mountains hoping to reach Alhucemas Bay without undertaking the necessary work to build a logistical support network capable of

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Initially, the Spanish forces in Morocco were largely composed of conscripts and reservists from Spain itself. These "Peninsular" troops were poorly supplied and prepared, few had marksmanship skills and proper battle training, and widespread corruption was reported amongst the officer corps,

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control of the land were not a party. For centuries, the Berber tribes of the Rif had fought off any attempt of outsiders to impose control on them. While the Rif mountains were visible to Europeans from ships in the Mediterranean Sea, Europeans had rarely, if ever, ventured into the area.

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were attacked by Riffian tribesmen. This incident led to the summoning of reinforcements from Spain itself. A series of skirmishes over the following weeks cost the Spanish over a thousand casualties. By September, the Spanish Army had 40,000 troops in northern Morocco and had occupied the

2012:(1884–1885). By the early 20th century, Morocco was divided into protectorates ruled by France and Spain. The Rif region had been assigned to Spain, but given that the Sultans of Morocco had been unable to exert control over the region, Spanish sovereignty over the Rif was strictly 2535: 2337:

whom I had at my mercy a short time ago. His insolence merits a new punishment". Abd el-Krim allowed Fernández Silvestre to advance deep into the Rif, knowing the Spanish logistics were in the words of the Spanish historian Jose Alvarez "tenuous" at best.

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reducing supplies and morale. Of the Spanish troops in Morocco in 1921, well over half were completely illiterate conscripts from the poorest elements of Spanish society who had been sent to Morocco with minimal training. Despite assurances from General

2563:). With total Spanish forces at this point numbering about 90,000 the Rifian forces were now seriously outnumbered by their Franco-Spanish opponents. Final French deaths from battle and disease, in what had now become a major war, were to total 8,628. 2246:

and setbacks that it had experienced in 1909–11, the Spanish army began to adopt much in organization and tactics from the French North African forces garrisoning most of Morocco and neighboring Algeria. Particular attention was paid to the

2349:, some 8,000 soldiers and officers reported killed or disappeared out of some 20,000. The final Spanish death toll, both at Annual and during the subsequent rout that took Rifian forces to the outskirts of Melilla, was reported to the 2647:

following a 12-day siege. The atrocities subsequently committed by the Spanish Army of Africa were triggered by a 'compulsive spirit of revenge' of this and other massacres, and the desire to exact retribution on the rebel tribes.

2134:, who showed both military and political expertise. However, the Rifian regular army was never a very large force. The elite of the Rifian forces formed regular units which according to Abd el-Krim, quoted by the Spanish general 2206:

Even with their numerical superiority, the "Peninsular" troops proved no match for the highly skilled and motivated Rifian forces. Accordingly, much reliance came to be placed on the mainly professional units comprising Spain's

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The initiative was unpopular in parts of Spain as well. In 1909, during early conflicts with the Rif tribesmen, an attempt by the Spanish government to call up reservists led to a working-class uprising in Barcelona known as

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who wanted to abandon Morocco as not worth the blood and treasure. After the "Disaster of the Annual", Spain's war in the Rif went from bad to worse, and as the Spanish were barely hanging on to Morocco, support for the

1973:, who took on command of the campaign from 1924 to 1927. In addition, and after the Battle of Uarga in 1925, the French intervened in the conflict and established a joint collaboration with Spain that culminated in the 2145:; they were not liable to serve away from their homes and farms for more than 15 consecutive days. General Goded estimated that at their peak, in June 1924, the Rifian forces numbered about 80,000 men, although 2039:, who covered the war, wrote that as late as 1912 only "one or two Europeans had been able to visit the cedar forests that lie south of Fez. A few had traveled in the southern Atlas and pushed on into the 1063: 774: 2184:, which the American historian Stanley Payne observed: "Many of these lacked any sort of toilet, and the soldier who ventured out of the filthy bunker risked exposure to the fire of lurking tribesmen". 2153: 942: 2043:...and that was almost all". As Harris wrote, the Berbers "were often as inhospitable to the Arab as they were to the foreigner", and generally killed any outsiders who ventured into their territory. 1954:

landing. Spain worked to pacify a large part of the most violent areas until 1914, a slow process of consolidation of frontiers that lasted until 1919. The following year, after the signing of the

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independent – that catalyzed the entry of France in 1924. The Rif War left a deep memory both in Spain and in Morocco. The Riffian insurgency of the 1920s can be interpreted as a precursor to the

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in addition to a rebellion led by Riffian leader Abd el-Krim. As a result, the Spanish retreated to a few fortified positions while Abd el-Krim ultimately created an entire independent state: the

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as totaling 13,192. The Spanish were pushed back and during the following five years, occasional battles were fought between the two. The Rifian forces advanced to the east and captured over 130

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or else he would die. Fernández Silvestre commented to the Spanish press about the letter that: "This man Abd el-Krim is crazy. I'm not going to take seriously the threats of a little Berber

1134: 1958:, the northern Moroccan area was adjudicated to Spain as a protectorate. The Riffian populations strongly resisted the Spanish, unleashing a conflict that would last for several years. 3217: 2518:

officers should not dictate the measures necessary to resolve the Moroccan problem. However he subsequently modified the plans for withdrawal, pulling the Spanish forces back from

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barracks that the soldiers lived in were unsanitary, and medical care at the few hospitals was very poor. Up in the mountains, Spanish soldiers lived in small outposts known as

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Tras tan estrepitosa derrota, el ejército español no tuvo reparos en utilizar productos como fosgeno, difosgeno, cloropicrina o el mismo gas mostaza contra la población civil.

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in September (the first amphibious landing in history where tanks and seaborne air support were used) and began attacking from the north. After one year of bitter resistance,

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on September 13, 1923. General Primo de Rivera was in the words of the American journalist James Perry a "moderate dictator" who was convinced that the divisions between the

935: 2059:. The promise of the Spanish state collecting revenues in the form of taxes and royalties from iron mining here was an incentive for it to bring the Rif under its control. 909: 4611: 3858:"Geneva Protocol: Protocol For the Prohibition of the Use In War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, And of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (Geneva Protocol)" 4142: 3793: 4210: 4054: 4889: 1745: 2734:

Spanish mutilations of captured Moroccans were also reported, including severing heads as retribution to the mutilations inflicted on the Spanish troops initially.

5146: 1981:. By 1926, the area had been pacified; Abd-el-Krim surrendered to the French that year, and Spain gained effective control of the protectorate's territory at last. 1049: 760: 2671: 2657: 2495: 1978: 928: 1988:. Others consider it one of the last colonial wars, as it was the decision of the Spanish to conquer the Rif – nominally part of their Moroccan protectorate but 3780:

Durante la guerra del Rif (1921–1927), la última pesadilla colonial, España fue una de las primeras potencias en utilizar armas químicas contra población civil.

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However, the unpopularity of the war in Spain and the earlier defeats of the Spanish military contributed to the instability of the Spanish government and the

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Juan Pando, however, pointed out that areas of France and Belgium, which were gassed far more heavily during World War I, do not have abnormal cancer rates.

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and with the help of captured European weapons. After France's military intervention against Abd el-Krim's forces and the major landing of Spanish troops at

3046: 4203: 4184:. Published for the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research University of Arizona Press, c1976. xxiii, 556 p. : ill. ; 28 cm. 3825:

Enrique Cerro Aguilar. "España fue el primer país que utilizó armas químicas contra civiles en Marruecos en 1920". Revista Rebelión. 13 de enero de 2001.

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The Berber tribesmen had a long tradition of fierce fighting skills, combined with high standards of fieldcraft and marksmanship. They were capably led by

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Alvarez, Jose "Between Gallipoli and D-Day: Alhucemas, 1925" pp. 75–98 from The Journal of Military History, Vol. 63, No. 1, January 1999 p. 79.

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Alvarez, Jose "Between Gallipoli and D-Day: Alhucemas, 1925" pp. 75–98 from The Journal of Military History, Vol. 63, No. 1, January 1999 p. 78.

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ascended to the throne in 1886, Spain was considered a world power, with colonies in the Americas, Africa, Asia and the Pacific. But in the

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lost all the territories it had gained since 1909. Spanish troops were pushed back to Melilla, which was their biggest base in the eastern

1755: 1680: 1249: 1179: 2223:. The Catalan trade unions, many led by anarchists, argued that the working class of Barcelona had no quarrel with the people of the Rif. 4175: 1596: 1534: 1324: 1234: 4822: 4170: 2893: 5019: 4651: 3965: 1762: 1124: 5046: 3746:

Imperial Violence, Anti-Colonial Nationalism and International Society: The Politics of Revolt across Mediterranean Empires,1919–1927

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Chemical Weapons: Tenth Session of the Conference of the States Parties to the CWC 7–11 November 2005, The Hague, The Netherlands

1344: 1189: 1154: 2709:: "Although the Rif War was no 'fascist' war, several methods used to 'pacify' the population were applied in the post-colonial 2551:

as commander-in-chief of an expeditionary force of up to 160,000 well-trained and -equipped troops from Metropolitan, Algerian,

832: 5550: 5495: 4242: 2444: 1970: 1576: 1309: 1284: 1269: 1204: 1139: 1097: 408: 3704: 2256:('Foreigners' brigade'), known in English as the Spanish Legion, was formed in 1920. The regiment's second commander was then- 5555: 5490: 4237: 4155: 3744: 2341:

On 1 July 1921, the Spanish army in north-eastern Morocco under Fernández Silvestre collapsed when defeated by the forces of

2312:, decided to conquer the eastern territory from the Jibala tribes, but had little success. The second-in-command was General 1750: 1730: 1259: 1092: 4051: 3092:

L’Armée française face à Abdelkrim ou la tentation de mener une guerre conventionnelle dans une guerre irrégulière 1924–1927

2499: 1643: 1299: 1219: 1144: 5575: 5500: 5243: 5196: 5186: 5171: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4695: 4515: 4192: : Series Viking Fund publications in anthropology; no. 55, Notes. Bibliography: pp. 533–546. Tucson, Arizona, (1976) 2839: 2674:, which marked the first widespread employment of gas warfare in the post-WWI era. The Spanish army indiscriminately used 2313: 2191: 2172: 2078: 1695: 1658: 1653: 1504: 1494: 1480: 1475: 1436: 1199: 195: 5435: 4984: 3930: 5460: 5101: 4832: 4458: 2426: 2269:

the Regulares increasingly led offensive operations after the disasters that had been suffered by the conscript forces.

1993: 1725: 1715: 1690: 1485: 1426: 1229: 1209: 714: 584: 5111: 5081: 3639: 3542: 2723:'s campaign to 'cleanse Spain' resembled that in Morocco: intelligence-gathering through torture, summary executions, 2694:

in 1925, which prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons, such use was not illegal in internal conflicts.

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occurred, in which 2,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army were killed after surrendering the Monte Arruit garrison near

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from Sidi Dris on the Mediterranean across the Rift mountains to Annual and Tizi Azza and on to Melilla. A typical

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faction in Spain led by Alfonso, who wanted a new empire in Africa. Finally, many within the politically powerful

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In 1921, in an attempt to consolidate control of the region, the Spanish troops suffered the catastrophic

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Slavin, David H. "The French Left and the Rif War, 1924–25: Racism and the Limits of Internationalism."

2827: 2247: 2234: 2070: 1812: 1566: 904: 867: 689: 620: 508: 420: 328: 317: 160: 59: 4837: 2360: 2316:, who commanded the eastern sector. Fernández Silvestre had spread out his troops out in 144 forts and 657: 650: 645: 3222:, Outwell, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, England: Middle East & North African Studies Press Ltd, 1986, 699: 630: 5410: 5315: 5238: 5206: 4934: 4772: 4705: 4591: 4083:

Pennell, C. R. "Ideology and Practical Politics: A Case Study of the Rif War in Morocco, 1921–1926,"

2063: 2030: 2005: 1817: 1767: 1304: 822: 719: 4098: 640: 450: 19:"War of Melilla" redirects here. For other wars fought in the Rif and around Ceuta and Melilla, see 5440: 5405: 5191: 5106: 5061: 4914: 4520: 4510: 4453: 4387: 4258: 3140: 3035:

Resort to war: a data guide to inter-state, extra-state, intra-state, and non-state wars, 1816–2007

2813: 2330: 2309: 2135: 1966: 1782: 1556: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1379: 1174: 1112: 986: 850: 731: 267: 225: 176: 122: 3669:. Vol. I: A-Ak – Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010. p. 709: 662: 5400: 5211: 5181: 4999: 4989: 4959: 4894: 4812: 4730: 4334: 4329: 4195: 4025: 3122: 2831: 2822: 2782: 2463: 2346: 2329:

up in the Rif mountains. Krim had sent Fernández Silvestre a letter warning him not to cross the

2099: 2051: 1962: 1927: 1854: 1455: 1431: 1416: 1023: 971: 887: 669: 473: 4463: 2548: 2481:

protests at which Spanish flags were burned while the flag of the Rif Republic was waved about.

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forces deployed in the Rif. The French accordingly intervened on the side of Spain, appointing

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The Rif War still causes much disagreement among historians. Some see in it a harbinger of the

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After the Tragic Week of 1909, the Spanish government starting in 1911 tried to raise as many

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Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical reference to casualty and other figures, 1500–2000

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mountainous tribal regions to the south and southeast of Melilla. The military operations in

1941:

In July 1909, Spanish workers constructing a rail-bridge providing access to iron mines near

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Sacanell, Enrique. "El general Sanjurjo". Editorial La Esfera de Los Libros, Madrid (2004)

3705:"History : When an American squadron violated US neutrality laws, bombing Chefchaouen" 530:: never more than 20,000 with firearms at the same time) including less than 7,000 "elites" 5425: 5370: 5221: 5216: 4827: 4556: 4484: 4412: 4058: 2897: 2749: 2744: 2691: 2610: 2056: 1876: 1822: 1608: 1421: 1384: 527: 454: 341: 35: 4924: 4073:

La Porte, Pablo. "'Rien à ajouter': The League of Nations and the Rif War (1921—1926),"

2762: 724: 5350: 5300: 4964: 4929: 4919: 4700: 4448: 4443: 4319: 3239:"Rebels in the Rif" pp. 149–152, David S. Woolman, Stanford University Press, 1968 2774: 2372: 2354: 2277: 2251: 2094: 2090: 2046: 1787: 1073: 333: 66: 2488:

comprising only a minority, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before the

2138:, numbered 6,000 to 7,000. Other sources put it much lower, at around 2,000 to 3,000. 5479: 5305: 5086: 4994: 4632: 4606: 4427: 4397: 4029: 3926: 3756:: European University Institute: Department of history and Civilization. p. 202. 3126: 2859: 2808: 2724: 2392: 2297: 1955: 1947: 1839: 1591: 1539: 1354: 874: 300: 289: 4103:

Pennell, C. R. "Women and Resistance to Colonialism in Morocco: The Rif 1916–1926,"

3794:"ERC exige que España pida perdón por el uso de armas químicas en la guerra del Rif" 2817:

shows Foreign Legionnaires fighting Arab rebels led by "el-Krim" in the Rif in 1925.

2534: 2450: 5335: 5330: 4392: 4382: 4160: 2800: 2683: 2494:

forced the Spanish to give up on the Rif, which was part of the reason for General

78: 3877:"حرب الريف: عريضة تدعو إسبانيا وفرنسا وألمانيا والولايات المتحدة لتحمل مسؤولياتهم" 3118: 2176:

either unusable or more of a danger to the soldier firing them than to the enemy.

2097:. To compensate for the losses in the Americas and Asia, there emerged a powerful 4013: 3536: 3483:

David S. Woolman, pp. 95–102 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press 1968

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Some have cited the Spanish chemical weapons as the main reason for a widespread

1918:, the Riffians at first inflicted several defeats on the Spanish forces by using 5340: 4807: 4417: 4407: 3925:

North Morocco Spanish government required to explain use of toxic gases in Rif,

3901: 2687: 2609:, the leader of both the tribes, surrendered to French authorities, and in 1926 2556: 2519: 2455: 2342: 2146: 2131: 2109: 2062:

The Crown granted the concession to mine iron in the Rif to the millionaire Don

1915: 1859: 899: 800: 356: 311: 3997: 3080:

David S. Woolman, pp. 42–43 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press 1968

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Disorientations: Spanish Colonialism in Africa and the Performance of Identity

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also against civilian populations, markets and rivers. While Spain signed the

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In May 1924, the French Army had established a line of out-posts north of the

2422: 2417:

The Spanish military suffered losses even at sea; in March the transport ship

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The Spanish Dreadnoughts of the España class. Warship Internacional. Issue 41

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Alvarez, Jose "Between Gallipoli and D-Day: Alhucemas, 1925" pp. 75–98 from

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David S. Woolman, page 42 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press 1968

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Alvarez, Jose "Between Gallipoli and D-Day: Alhucemas, 1925" pp. 75–98 from

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Alvarez, José "Between Gallipoli and D-Day: Alhucemas, 1925" pp. 75–98 from

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David S. Woolman, pp. 149–151 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

2853: 2644: 2523: 2514: 2212: 2035: 1010: 920: 3526:. Toledo, Ohio: International Naval Research Organization. pp. 63–117. 3230:, p. 132; (University of Melbourne – University Library Digital Repository) 2980: 2443:

In a bid to break the stalemate, the Spanish military turned to the use of

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General R. Hure, p. 252 "L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962", Paris-Limoges, 1979

2856:, the 1914–21 conflict between the French and Berber tribesmen in Morocco. 5345: 4078: 3753: 3219:

A Country with a government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco, 1921–1926

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The Aith Waryaghar of the Moroccan Rif : an ethnography and history

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Entelis, John P. (9 March 2017). "La Guerre du Rif: Maroc (1925–1926)".

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choir. For all these reasons, Spain began pushing into the Rif in 1909.

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Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco, 1921–1926

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David S. Woolman, p. 132 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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David S. Woolman, p. 131 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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David S. Woolman, p. 186 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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David S. Woolman, p. 96 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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David S. Woolman, p. 68 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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David S. Woolman, p. 44 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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David S. Woolman, p. 57 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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David S. Woolman, p. 98 "Rebels in the Rif", Stanford University Press

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The French empire between the wars: imperialism, politics and society

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