30:
541:
564:
665:
139:
229:
2290:
94:, the government of Madagascar requires that drivers travel in convoys of at least ten vehicles. Car collision fatalities are not fully reported, but the rate is estimated to be among the highest in the world. Random police checkpoints, at which travelers are required to produce identity documents, are spread throughout the country. Crops are transported by
636:
out of a window or have everyone in front of them get out too. The assistant driver, who interacts with passengers and loads and unloads luggage, does not get a seat and either stands against the door or travels on the outside of the vehicle. Researchers observed that the drivers often appear to eat for free, as part of arrangements between the
1921:
780:, car collisions in Madagascar may instigate crowd violence. Car collisions in which a participant is injured or killed necessitate a court case, where the parties found liable for damages are required to cover all expenses related to the case; leaving Madagascar is prohibited prior to the completion of the case.
635:
with benches in the cargo area. They often are filled above their intended capacities, sometimes close to double, with small children riding for free on their parents' laps. The researchers recount that the tight space can lead to conflict among passengers and requires people exiting to either jump
775:
reported 340 people in 2016 who died within 24 hours of a car crash; the WHO estimated a true total of 7,108 car crash fatalities, or 28.6 per 100,000 inhabitants. In comparison, the global average is 18.2 and the
African average is 26.6; Madagascar has the 24th-highest fatality rate out of 175
611:
company fleets range in size from a single vehicle to over a hundred, and may serve one or more urban, regional, or national lines. National lines travel from their origin to their destination directly, disallowing improvised stops along the route. A vehicle is staffed by a driver and assistant
376:
Vehicle ownership in
Madagascar has grown from under 30,000 in 1955 to over 800,000 passenger and commercial vehicles in 2013, during which time the island country's population has risen from about 5 million to over 28 million. In reports in 2018 and 2019, the World Bank predicted an
676:, a network of subcollectors buy crops from farmers in their villages and then sell the crops to wholesale collectors, who either have their own trucks or work with truckers they know. Because of the cost of operating a truck, most truckers own more than one truck so as to take advantage of
236:
As of 2022, Madagascar contains over 4,500 unique roads. The road network spans approximately 31,640 kilometers (19,660 mi), representing 5.4 kilometers of road per 100 square kilometers of land (8.72 mi per 100 sq mi). This is a small road network, mostly oriented toward
Antananarivo.
209:
Even as late as 1955, passenger and commercial motor vehicles in
Madagascar numbered under 30,000. In 1958, Madagascar's road network spanned about 25,100 kilometers (15,600 mi), almost all of it unpaved. In subsequent decades, the country relied heavily upon water and air travel for
312:
classified 64 percent of roads in
Madagascar as in poor driving condition, 28 percent in average condition, and 10 percent in good condition; seven-in-ten of the primary roads fall into the latter-most category, which is defined as being navigable throughout all seasons of the year.
726:
is 50 kilometers per hour (31 mph), or in some cases, 80 kilometers per hour (50 mph). As of 2018, there is no national speed limit in rural areas or on highways, though local governments have the ability to impose and modify speed limits within their jurisdictions. The
1622:
355:
As of 2019, only 11.4 percent of rural
Malagasy live within 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) of a road in good condition, leaving 17 million without such access. Unsealed roads are the only way to access many parts of the country by road, including the key southern city of
1374:
790:(bandits) have attacked vehicles, leading the government to require that vehicles travel in convoys of at least 10 on many roads. Vehicles seek to travel at higher speeds, but become more vulnerable to attacks when forced by potholes to slow. Herds of
210:
transportation, performing minimal investment and maintenance in its road infrastructure. Plantations, which were nationalized following a revolution in 1972, have exercised significant influence on road and infrastructure construction within the
130:(roughly US$ 0.10) as of 2005, and vehicles involved are often overpacked, sometimes with the assistant driver riding on the outside of the vehicle. Stops on their routes are generally not fixed, allowing passengers to exit at arbitrary points.
1611:
81:; some bridges (often narrow, one-lane structures) are vulnerable to being swept away. Few rural Malagasy live near a road in good condition; poor road connectivity may pose challenges in health care, agriculture, and education.
1363:
713:
for water. As of 2004, 10 remain officially in service, although researcher
Richard R. Marcus was only able to verify the existence of 6. According to Marcus, AES blamed tire issues, while locals alleged corruption.
1906:
768:
The
Intersectoral Committee for Road Safety and Ministry of Transport and Meteorology oversee road safety in Madagascar. While there are no official statistics on road safety in Madagascar, the country's
54:, the Malagasy capital. Transportation on these roads, most of which are unpaved and two lanes wide, is often dangerous. Few Malagasy own private vehicles; long-distance travel is often accomplished in
1460:
383:
found that 6 percent of
Antananarivo households surveyed owned private cars, that private car ownership correlated with high income, and that car owners were less likely to use minibuses.
1582:
288:
and make up 11,746 kilometers (7,299 mi) of the country's road network. Most roads of all three types have two lanes and are relatively narrow; many bridges have only one lane. The
1964:
798:
in order to notify other drivers of one's presence. Random vehicle checkpoints at which travelers are required to produce identity documents are spread throughout
Madagascar.
982:
360:. A 2018 World Bank report, conducted in partnership with the government of Madagascar, concluded that poor road connectivity was one of the major contributors for poor
176:, immediately began building roads. Porters collectively resisted the creation of roads, continuing a pre-conquest movement in opposition to using horses which saw the
69:
has classified nearly two-thirds of the overall road network as being in poor condition. These conditions may make it dangerous to drive at moderate-to-high speeds and
684:, who tend to be relatively well-off but, due to a history of ethnic tensions, are wary of assets that could easily be seized. A different class of transporters, the
1888:
757:. Children are allowed as motorcycle passengers; children under five may not sit in the front seat of a car. Handheld phone use while driving is illegal. A 2018
2728:
2086:
1990:
Marcus, Richard R. (April–June 2007). "Where Community-Based Water Resource Management has Gone Too Far: Poverty and Disempowerment in Southern Madagascar".
2165:
731:, whose construction began in late 2022, will have a speed limit of 120 kilometers per hour (75 mph) across the entire highway. Volker Wulf et al. in
2367:
1546:
1814:
214:, a river valley in the country's northeast, and maintained primary responsibility for road maintenance on some major thoroughfares there as of 1993.
1712:
2312:
2229:
1129:
3186:
1435:
289:
2440:
2244:
50:, comprising about 4,500 unique roads spanning 31,640 kilometers (19,660 mi), is designed primarily to facilitate transportation to and from
1572:
1041:
Rijke-Epstein, Tasha (3 July 2021). "On Humble Technologies: Containers, Care, and Water Infrastructure in Northwest Madagascar, 1750s–1960s".
3213:
2044:
1808:
1328:
2681:
2178:
2418:
761:(WHO) fact sheet said that hands-free use of a phone behind the wheel is legal, though a 2019 information sheet from the United States
954:
770:
612:
driver, or two drivers on a very long route. Other people are employed to attract customers and fasten luggage to the vehicle's roof.
2254:
1902:
1674:
1224:
1123:
941:
3055:
2915:
2855:
2845:
2628:
2445:
2079:
1708:
2279:
3030:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2980:
2975:
2950:
2935:
2925:
2920:
2905:
2890:
2870:
2860:
2850:
2840:
2835:
2815:
2795:
2780:
2775:
2760:
2755:
2499:
2403:
2357:
2274:
2158:
2830:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2790:
2785:
2770:
2765:
2750:
2551:
2428:
2264:
1734:
Iimi, Atsushi (29 June 2022). "Estimating the demand for informal public transport: evidence from Antananarivo, Madagascar".
1208:
1014:
808:
34:
1647:
de O.S. Horta, Jose Carlos; Traverso, Carlo R. (1991). "Deterioration and rehabilitation of earth roads in Madagascar". In
343:. Roads in rural areas are often deficient in signage, while bridges are often swept away following rainstorms; during the
2645:
2568:
2509:
2413:
2337:
2332:
2127:
1506:
2714:
2655:
2623:
2537:
2450:
2352:
2317:
2259:
2132:
242:
165:
2721:
152:
There were no roads in Madagascar through the mid-19th century. Goods were carried across the island along pathways by
3208:
3050:
3045:
2970:
2965:
2945:
2603:
2504:
2269:
2072:
1947:
741:
may go up to 75 kilometers per hour (47 mph) but in practice go around 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph). The
223:
3040:
3035:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
2985:
2960:
2955:
2940:
2930:
2910:
2900:
2895:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2865:
2825:
2820:
474:
458:
315:
2593:
2578:
2494:
2455:
2408:
2393:
2289:
2234:
2151:
1898:
1843:
1704:
762:
238:
2618:
2481:
2036:
949:
758:
361:
357:
589:('bush taxis') are a type of share taxi that serve as a relatively affordable public transportation system amid
379:
2423:
2327:
2204:
2199:
1992:
1855:
794:
may also pose a hazard to driving. It is customary in Madagascar to blow one's car horn while traveling around
765:
reported that hands-free use is illegal. Nighttime street lighting in the country is of limited availability.
241:
transport, particularly in rural areas, is sometimes accomplished via unofficial roads. Traffic drives on the
2613:
2598:
2524:
2398:
2342:
2322:
2300:
1648:
819:
540:
470:
370,000 vans and trucks (13 per 1,000 people), 162,000 passenger vehicles (5.70), and 280,800 buses (9.877)
364:. The World Bank further linked poor connectivity to challenges in agriculture and education and identified
3160:
3140:
2650:
2563:
2381:
2362:
1938:
1694:
1043:
85:
3165:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3135:
3130:
3125:
1779:
942:"The Itineraries of Alfred Crossley, and Natural History Collecting in mid-Nineteenth Century Madagascar"
296:
from the current 10 hours down to a target of 2.5 hours, is under construction as of December 2022.
3120:
3115:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3070:
2674:
2583:
2514:
2469:
2347:
2219:
2186:
742:
590:
563:
197:
103:
3080:
3075:
1533:
Styles, Lucy; Koopmann, Karla; Catala, Cristina; Schweikert, Andreas; Trigona, Camilla (30 May 2018).
1436:"Travelling by Taxi Brousse in Madagascar. An Investigation into Practices of Overland Transportation"
783:
70:
29:
3170:
2117:
1542:
1502:
1446:
777:
681:
656:
720) in fees and taxes per vehicle. Importation of vehicles is taxed at about ten times this amount.
653:
617:
305:
66:
2737:
2690:
2635:
2433:
2122:
1162:
1072:
706:
421:
331:
is not regularly available on the island of Madagascar, many roads are composed of sand lined with
1534:
776:
countries or regions assessed. About half of vehicle fatalities are pedestrians. According to the
3110:
3090:
3085:
2640:
2608:
2573:
2001:
1761:
1312:
1179:
1081:
1023:
974:
816:
that details public transport and road conditions in Madagascar as they existed in the mid-1980s.
677:
518:
Per-thousand statistics inferred from population figure of 28,430,000 in same source, p. 744
377:
increase in car ownership as Madagascar's economy improved. A 2022 World Bank paper published in
2695:
2249:
2239:
2224:
2050:
2040:
1804:
1670:
1324:
1277:
1220:
1119:
966:
831:
754:
309:
172:
administrators, who did not understand the water and transportation system in place under the
169:
1012:
Campbell, Gwyn (1980). "Labour and the Transport Problem in Imperial Madagascar, 1810–1895".
292:, a 250-kilometer (160 mi) road designed to cut the travel time between Antananarivo to
2588:
2214:
2107:
1956:
1893:
1794:
1751:
1743:
1662:
1450:
1316:
1267:
1257:
1212:
1171:
1052:
958:
153:
77:(bandit) attacks pose a threat at low speeds. Many roads are impassable during Madagascar's
228:
2486:
1304:
1200:
887:
649:
161:
138:
127:
120:
constitute a rudimentary road-based public transportation system in Madagascar. Rides on
664:
2194:
1272:
1241:
937:
849:
Usually hyphenated in French, a spelling sometimes also used in English. French plural
673:
365:
173:
1960:
3202:
1925:
1790:
1765:
1115:
978:
813:
746:
584:
549:
442:
332:
187:
144:
109:
57:
1976:
1867:
1829:
1680:
1334:
728:
710:
181:
51:
17:
1320:
1056:
1799:
1652:
1242:"Constructing a simplified interurban road network based on crowdsourced geodata"
1109:
913:
723:
687:
415:
336:
273:
1747:
1492:
2209:
2174:
2054:
1618:
1455:
1370:
1262:
970:
795:
344:
340:
324:
320:
78:
47:
1666:
1240:
Prieto-Curiel, Rafael; Heo, Inhoi; Schumann, Abel; Heinrigs, Philipp (2022).
735:
reported the speed limit for trucks is 45 kilometers per hour (28 mph);
491:
Inferred from population figure of about 5 million in same source, p. 47
1658:
1577:
1497:
555:
293:
281:
277:
211:
193:
2032:
1281:
192:(rickshaws), but the latter prevailed when a road between Antananarivo and
1943:"Food marketing liberalization and trader entry: Evidence from Madagascar"
1216:
699:
Facing a water crisis in Southern Madagascar, in 1993 the national agency
1253:
750:
605:
use fixed stops, passengers can also exit at any point along the route.
2006:
1085:
106:, once the only means of road transport, are still found in the form of
2095:
1756:
693:
628:
285:
177:
95:
2706:
2143:
1183:
1027:
2064:
1699:
632:
411:
328:
184:. In 1901, porters staged demonstrations against the introduction of
1847:
1942:
1175:
962:
368:
as having the potential to worsen the road connectivity situation.
347:, road conditions degrade, particularly so in the country's North.
1434:
Wulf, Volker; Misaki, Kaoru; Randall, Dave; Rohde, Markus (2018).
663:
227:
137:
99:
28:
1924:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
791:
407:
157:
2710:
2147:
2068:
454:
3.3 passenger cars and 45 commercial vehicles per 1,000 people
680:. As of 1997, most trucking in Vakinankaratra is conducted by
648:
companies must register with the government and pay 2,400,000
319:
states that only about 22 percent of roads in Madagascar were
2288:
593:. The typical cost in 2005 was US$ .10 per person, and most
438:
7 passenger cars and 6 commercial vehicles per 1,000 people
1573:"Madagascar: Signature du contrat de la première autoroute"
1160:
Hance, William A. (1958). "Transportation in Madagascar".
62:('bush taxis'), which may be shared by 20 or more people.
327:
report states that 81 percent were not paved. As natural
1612:
Madagascar Connectivity for Rural Livelihood Improvement
753:
law but no child restraint law. Motorcyclists must wear
672:
Trans-regional transport of crops relies on trucks. In
406:
26,911 (≈ 5.3 per 1,000 people), including 10,687
248:
There are three classes of road systems in Madagascar:
529:
642:
companies and restaurants they stop at. As of 2018,
65:
While most primary roads are in good condition, the
3179:
3063:
2744:
2550:
2523:
2468:
2380:
2299:
2185:
1848:"Car ownership forecasts for low-income countries"
784:
599:do not embark until all seats are full. While
89:
71:
2722:
2159:
2080:
1889:"Madagascar International Travel Information"
8:
856:
850:
736:
700:
685:
643:
637:
622:
606:
600:
594:
582:
570:
547:
267:
261:
255:
249:
201:
185:
142:
121:
115:
107:
55:
35:
2729:
2715:
2707:
2556:
2474:
2386:
2305:
2166:
2152:
2144:
2087:
2073:
2065:
1007:
1005:
1003:
500:"Latest available" data as of 1975 or 1976
2005:
1798:
1755:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1454:
1271:
1261:
200:remain in use as of 2017, in the form of
2033:Global status report on road safety 2018
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
749:is 0.08 grams per deciliter. There is a
385:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
929:
839:
509:Inferred from per-head figure of 0.0033
484:
88:. On some roads, to deter attacks from
2027:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2017:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1654:Geotechnics in the African Environment
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
692:('carters'), move crops to markets by
1715:from the original on 12 December 2022
1585:from the original on 19 February 2023
1566:
1564:
1549:from the original on 10 February 2022
1539:Logistics Capacity Assessments (LCAs)
1509:from the original on 12 December 2022
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
7:
1967:from the original on 7 February 2023
1909:from the original on 12 January 2023
1858:from the original on 19 January 2023
1628:from the original on 20 January 2023
1466:from the original on 18 January 2023
1380:from the original on 18 January 2023
1195:
1193:
1132:from the original on 7 February 2023
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
845:
843:
232:A road map of Madagascar, as of 2003
84:Drivers in Madagascar travel on the
668:A water tanker at a filling station
1205:The Possessed and the Dispossessed
955:American Museum of Natural History
631:, while most on unpaved roads are
164:available, saw minimal use. After
25:
1903:United States Department of State
1695:"Madagascar: Safety and security"
988:from the original on 18 June 2022
3187:Autoroute Antananarivo–Toamasina
1919:
1709:Government of the United Kingdom
1571:Minas, Bruno (3 November 2022).
1070:"Transportation in Madagascar".
562:
539:
2035:(Report). Geneva, Switzerland:
1852:Traffic Engineering and Control
1820:from the original on 3 May 2019
702:Alimentation en Eau dans le Sud
459:Traffic Engineering and Control
1209:University of California Press
1015:The Journal of African History
812:, a 1985 book by Irish author
809:Muddling Through in Madagascar
339:roads can only be used in the
1:
1961:10.1016/S0305-750X(96)00132-5
1535:"2.3 Madagascar Road Network"
1321:10.1057/978-1-349-96056-9_113
1309:The Statesman's Yearbook 2023
1057:10.1080/07341512.2021.1999076
615:According to a 2018 study in
430:
387:Vehicle ownership statistics
316:The Statesman's Yearbook 2023
42:carrying goods and passengers
3214:Road transport in Madagascar
1800:10.1007/978-1-349-16437-0_14
1364:Madagascar Road Connectivity
903:'Water supply in the South'.
290:country's first toll highway
196:was completed in 1902. Some
180:of European horse-riders in
224:List of roads in Madagascar
166:France conquered Madagascar
3230:
1899:Bureau of Consular Affairs
1748:10.1007/s12469-022-00300-9
1705:Government Digital Service
1493:"Madagascar travel advice"
763:Bureau of Consular Affairs
260:('provincial roads'), and
221:
2668:
2559:
2477:
2389:
2308:
2286:
2103:
2037:World Health Organization
1263:10.1016/j.mex.2022.101845
950:American Museum Novitates
857:
851:
759:World Health Organization
737:
701:
686:
644:
638:
623:
607:
601:
595:
583:
571:
548:
482:
323:as of 2013, while a 2019
268:
262:
256:
250:
202:
186:
143:
122:
116:
108:
56:
36:
2205:Indian Ocean slave trade
1993:Conservation and Society
1667:10.1201/9780203753330-10
627:used on paved roads are
475:The Statesman's Yearbook
310:Global Logistics Cluster
272:connect Antananarivo to
1939:Barrett, Christopher B.
1456:10.25969/mediarep/16218
1305:Springer Nature Limited
878:Also 'municipal roads'.
820:Transport in Madagascar
727:Antananarivo–Toamasina
705:(AES) engaged with the
351:Connectivity challenges
2293:
2270:Transitional Authority
1307:(2022). "Madagascar".
1207:(Paperback ed.).
1044:History and Technology
891:
785:
669:
569:Interior of a crowded
243:right side of the road
233:
198:human-powered vehicles
149:
126:cost as little as 200
104:Human-powered vehicles
90:
86:right side of the road
72:
43:
2292:
2265:2009 political crisis
2220:Malagasy Protectorate
1621:. 23 September 2019.
1217:10.1525/9780520918450
1111:Lonely Planet: Africa
772:Gendarmerie Nationale
743:blood alcohol content
667:
362:access to health care
231:
141:
32:
3189:(under construction)
2368:World Heritage Sites
1793:. 1978. p. 23.
1787:The World in Figures
1711:). 20 January 2023.
1543:World Food Programme
1503:Government of Canada
1447:University of Siegen
1315:. pp. 744–747.
778:government of Canada
591:Madagascar's poverty
306:World Food Programme
266:('communal roads').
254:('national roads'),
67:World Food Programme
46:The road network of
2738:Roads in Madagascar
2255:Democratic Republic
1649:Blight, Geoffrey E.
1505:. 13 January 2023.
1163:Geographical Review
1073:Scientific American
707:government of Japan
422:Geographical Review
388:
257:routes provinciales
18:Roads in Madagascar
3209:Driving by country
2313:Biosphere reserves
2294:
2230:Colonial governors
1846:(1 January 1992).
1313:Palgrave Macmillan
722:The maximum urban
678:economies of scale
670:
386:
372:Means of transport
234:
150:
102:inter-regionally.
44:
3196:
3195:
2704:
2703:
2664:
2663:
2546:
2545:
2464:
2463:
2441:Political parties
2429:National Assembly
2404:Foreign relations
2376:
2375:
2275:COVID-19 pandemic
2250:Malagasy Republic
2240:Malagasy Uprising
2225:French Madagascar
2141:
2140:
2046:978-92-4-156568-4
1948:World Development
1905:). 14 June 2019.
1810:978-0-333-30468-6
1780:"World equipment"
1541:(13th ed.).
1373:. 26 April 2018.
1330:978-1-349-96055-2
1114:(14th ed.).
1080:(19): 309. 1902.
892:lignes nationales
861:; English plural
832:Madagascar French
526:
525:
269:Routes nationales
263:routes communales
251:routes nationales
16:(Redirected from
3221:
3064:Provincial roads
2731:
2724:
2717:
2708:
2684:
2677:
2557:
2490:
2475:
2387:
2306:
2280:2021–2022 famine
2215:Franco-Hova Wars
2168:
2161:
2154:
2145:
2089:
2082:
2075:
2066:
2059:
2058:
2029:
2012:
2011:
2009:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1894:Travel.State.Gov
1885:
1872:
1871:
1865:
1863:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1827:
1825:
1819:
1802:
1784:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1759:
1736:Public Transport
1731:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1627:
1616:
1608:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1568:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1530:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1489:
1476:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1465:
1458:
1440:
1431:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1379:
1368:
1360:
1339:
1338:
1301:
1286:
1285:
1275:
1265:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1197:
1188:
1187:
1157:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1105:
1090:
1089:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1038:
1032:
1031:
1009:
998:
997:
995:
993:
987:
946:
940:(4 April 2022).
934:
917:
910:
904:
901:
895:
885:
879:
876:
870:
860:
854:
847:
788:
740:
704:
691:
647:
641:
626:
610:
604:
598:
588:
574:
566:
554:at a station in
553:
543:
519:
516:
510:
507:
501:
498:
492:
489:
435:
432:
389:
380:Public Transport
335:. Many of these
271:
265:
259:
253:
205:
191:
148:
125:
119:
113:
93:
75:
61:
39:
21:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3175:
3059:
2740:
2735:
2705:
2700:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2660:
2646:Public holidays
2542:
2519:
2510:Illegal logging
2488:
2460:
2414:Law enforcement
2372:
2338:Protected areas
2295:
2284:
2181:
2172:
2142:
2137:
2099:
2093:
2063:
2062:
2047:
2031:
2030:
2015:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1970:
1968:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1920:
1912:
1910:
1887:
1886:
1875:
1861:
1859:
1844:Button, Kenneth
1842:
1841:
1837:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1716:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1677:
1657:. Vol. 1.
1646:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1598:
1588:
1586:
1570:
1569:
1562:
1552:
1550:
1532:
1531:
1522:
1512:
1510:
1491:
1490:
1479:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1443:Media in Action
1438:
1433:
1432:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1342:
1331:
1303:
1302:
1289:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1201:Sharp, Lesley A
1199:
1198:
1191:
1159:
1158:
1145:
1135:
1133:
1126:
1107:
1106:
1093:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1011:
1010:
1001:
991:
989:
985:
944:
938:Tattersall, Ian
936:
935:
931:
926:
921:
920:
911:
907:
902:
898:
886:
882:
877:
873:
848:
841:
828:
804:
733:Media in Action
720:
662:
660:Cargo transport
650:Malagasy ariary
618:Media in Action
579:
578:
577:
576:
575:
567:
559:
558:
544:
533:
522:
517:
513:
508:
504:
499:
495:
490:
486:
433:
374:
353:
302:
300:Road conditions
226:
220:
170:French colonial
162:beast of burden
136:
128:Malagasy ariary
98:locally and by
37:Route nationale
33:A truck on the
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3227:
3225:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3201:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2746:
2745:National roads
2742:
2741:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2711:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2686:
2685:
2678:
2670:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2451:Prime Minister
2448:
2443:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2260:Third Republic
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2195:Merina Kingdom
2191:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2163:
2156:
2148:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2128:United Kingdom
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2094:
2092:
2091:
2084:
2077:
2069:
2061:
2060:
2045:
2013:
2000:(2): 202–231.
1982:
1955:(5): 763–777.
1930:
1873:
1835:
1809:
1771:
1726:
1686:
1675:
1639:
1596:
1560:
1520:
1477:
1391:
1340:
1329:
1287:
1232:
1225:
1189:
1176:10.2307/211701
1143:
1124:
1108:"Madagascar".
1091:
1062:
1051:(3): 293–328.
1033:
1022:(3): 341–356.
999:
963:10.1206/3987.1
928:
927:
925:
922:
919:
918:
905:
896:
880:
871:
867:taxis-brousses
838:
837:
827:
824:
823:
822:
817:
803:
800:
719:
716:
709:to acquire 24
674:Vakinankaratra
661:
658:
568:
561:
560:
545:
538:
537:
536:
535:
534:
532:
527:
524:
523:
521:
520:
511:
502:
493:
483:
480:
479:
471:
468:
464:
463:
455:
452:
448:
447:
439:
436:
427:
426:
418:
404:
400:
399:
396:
393:
373:
370:
366:climate change
352:
349:
301:
298:
219:
216:
203:pousse-pousses
188:pousse-pousses
174:Merina Kingdom
145:Pousse-pousses
135:
132:
110:pousse-pousses
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3226:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3180:Toll highways
3178:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2720:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2604:Ethnic groups
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Food security
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2157:
2155:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2134:
2133:United States
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2090:
2085:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2071:
2070:
2067:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1986:
1983:
1978:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1926:public domain
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1890:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1831:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1791:The Economist
1788:
1781:
1775:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1727:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1690:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1676:9781351445139
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1643:
1640:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1584:
1581:(in French).
1580:
1579:
1574:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1226:9780520918450
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1131:
1127:
1125:9781787011472
1121:
1117:
1116:Lonely Planet
1113:
1112:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1066:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1000:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
951:
943:
939:
933:
930:
923:
915:
909:
906:
900:
897:
893:
889:
884:
881:
875:
872:
868:
864:
863:taxi brousses
859:
858:taxis brousse
853:
852:taxis-brousse
846:
844:
840:
836:
835:
833:
825:
821:
818:
815:
814:Dervla Murphy
811:
810:
806:
805:
801:
799:
797:
793:
789:
787:
781:
779:
774:
773:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
747:drunk driving
744:
739:
738:taxi brousses
734:
730:
725:
717:
715:
712:
711:tanker trucks
708:
703:
697:
695:
690:
689:
683:
682:ethnic Asians
679:
675:
666:
659:
657:
655:
651:
646:
640:
634:
630:
625:
624:taxi brousses
620:
619:
613:
609:
603:
602:taxi brousses
597:
596:taxi brousses
592:
587:
586:
585:taxi brousses
581:Madagascar's
573:
565:
557:
552:
551:
550:taxi brousses
542:
531:
530:Taxi brousses
528:
515:
512:
506:
503:
497:
494:
488:
485:
481:
477:
476:
472:
469:
466:
465:
461:
460:
456:
453:
450:
449:
445:
444:
443:The Economist
440:
437:
429:
428:
424:
423:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
402:
401:
397:
394:
391:
390:
384:
382:
381:
371:
369:
367:
363:
359:
350:
348:
346:
342:
338:
334:
333:crushed stone
330:
326:
322:
318:
317:
311:
307:
304:In 2018, the
299:
297:
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133:
131:
129:
124:
123:taxi brousses
118:
117:Taxi brousses
114:(rickshaws).
112:
111:
105:
101:
97:
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87:
82:
80:
76:
74:
68:
63:
60:
59:
58:taxi brousses
53:
49:
41:
38:
31:
27:
19:
2594:Demographics
2579:Architecture
2532:
2495:Central bank
2456:Subdivisions
2409:Human rights
2394:Constitution
2245:Independence
2235:World War II
2112:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1977:Academia.edu
1975:– via
1969:. Retrieved
1952:
1946:
1941:(May 1997).
1933:
1911:. Retrieved
1892:
1868:Academia.edu
1866:– via
1860:. Retrieved
1851:
1838:
1830:SpringerLink
1828:– via
1822:. Retrieved
1786:
1774:
1739:
1735:
1729:
1717:. Retrieved
1698:
1689:
1681:Google Books
1679:– via
1653:
1642:
1630:. Retrieved
1587:. Retrieved
1576:
1551:. Retrieved
1538:
1511:. Retrieved
1496:
1468:. Retrieved
1442:
1382:. Retrieved
1335:SpringerLink
1333:– via
1308:
1249:
1245:
1235:
1204:
1170:(1): 45–68.
1167:
1161:
1134:. Retrieved
1110:
1077:
1071:
1065:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1019:
1013:
990:. Retrieved
948:
932:
908:
899:
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866:
862:
830:
829:
807:
782:
771:
767:
732:
729:toll highway
721:
698:
671:
645:taxi brousse
639:taxi brousse
616:
614:
608:Taxi brousse
580:
572:taxi brousse
514:
505:
496:
487:
473:
457:
441:
420:
414:, and 2,587
378:
375:
358:Fort-Dauphin
354:
314:
303:
247:
235:
208:
182:Antananarivo
151:
83:
64:
52:Antananarivo
45:
26:
2619:LGBT rights
2482:Agriculture
1757:10986/37321
1742:: 129–168.
1589:19 February
914:gendarmerie
796:road curves
724:speed limit
688:charretiers
434: 1975
416:motorcycles
274:Antsiranana
160:, the only
3203:Categories
2629:newspapers
2489:(currency)
2424:Parliament
2328:Ecoregions
2210:Libertatia
2175:Madagascar
2113:Madagascar
2098:by country
2055:1086320098
1971:7 February
1913:20 January
1862:18 January
1824:18 January
1719:20 January
1632:20 January
1619:World Bank
1617:(Report).
1553:18 January
1513:19 January
1470:19 January
1384:20 January
1371:World Bank
1369:(Report).
1256:: 101845.
1136:20 January
992:18 January
971:1308950568
924:References
912:'National
745:limit for
345:wet season
341:dry season
325:World Bank
222:See also:
79:wet season
48:Madagascar
2641:Mythology
2614:Languages
2599:Education
2525:Transport
2500:Companies
2446:President
2399:Elections
2358:Volcanoes
2343:Provinces
2323:Districts
2301:Geography
2118:Singapore
1766:248871279
1659:Routledge
1578:Mayotte 1
1498:Canada.ca
1449:: 57–97.
979:247992222
629:minibuses
556:Ambositra
410:, 11,517
294:Toamasina
282:Morondava
278:Toamasina
239:Last-mile
212:Sambirano
194:Toamasina
168:in 1895,
2691:Category
2651:Religion
2564:Abortion
2538:Railways
2419:Military
2382:Politics
2363:Wildlife
2200:Monarchs
2179:articles
2123:Slovenia
2039:. 2018.
2007:26392881
1965:Archived
1907:Archived
1856:Archived
1815:Archived
1713:Archived
1623:Archived
1583:Archived
1547:Archived
1507:Archived
1461:Archived
1375:Archived
1282:36117676
1254:Elsevier
1246:MethodsX
1203:(1993).
1130:Archived
1118:. 2017.
1086:24985918
983:Archived
953:(3987).
802:See also
751:seatbelt
337:unsealed
308:and the
156:, while
3171:RIP202D
3161:RIP117M
3141:RIP112M
2675:Outline
2589:Cuisine
2584:Culture
2552:Society
2533:Driving
2515:Tourism
2487:Ariary
2470:Economy
2348:Regions
2333:Islands
2187:History
2096:Driving
1651:(ed.).
1273:9478433
755:helmets
694:ox cart
621:, most
478:, 2023
462:, 1986
446:, 1978
425:, 1958
398:Source
286:Toliara
178:stoning
154:porters
134:History
96:ox cart
3166:RIP118
3156:RIP117
3151:RIP116
3146:RIP114
3136:RIP112
3131:RIP107
3126:RIP103
2696:Portal
2656:Sports
2569:Anthem
2434:Senate
2353:Rivers
2318:Cities
2177:
2053:
2043:
2004:
1807:
1764:
1700:gov.uk
1673:
1327:
1280:
1270:
1223:
1184:211701
1182:
1122:
1084:
1028:181188
1026:
977:
969:
888:French
786:Dahalo
718:Safety
633:trucks
412:trucks
329:gravel
284:, and
91:dahalo
73:dahalo
3121:RIP84
3116:RIP74
3111:RIP73
3106:RIP51
3101:RIP29
3096:RIP26
3091:RIP23
3086:RIP19
3071:RIP3F
3056:RN59b
3051:RN59a
3046:RN58a
2971:RN33b
2966:RN33a
2946:RN30a
2916:RN23a
2856:RN12a
2846:RN11a
2682:Index
2636:Music
2624:Media
2108:India
2002:JSTOR
1818:(PDF)
1783:(PDF)
1762:S2CID
1626:(PDF)
1615:(PDF)
1464:(PDF)
1445:(1).
1439:(PDF)
1378:(PDF)
1367:(PDF)
1180:JSTOR
1082:JSTOR
1024:JSTOR
986:(PDF)
975:S2CID
945:(PDF)
834:terms
826:Notes
546:Four
467:2013
451:1986
403:1955
395:Data
392:Year
321:paved
218:Roads
100:truck
3081:RIP7
3076:RIP5
3041:RN57
3036:RN56
3031:RN55
3026:RN54
3021:RN53
3016:RN46
3011:RN45
3006:RN44
3001:RN43
2996:RN42
2991:RN41
2986:RN36
2981:RN35
2976:RN34
2961:RN33
2956:RN32
2951:RN31
2941:RN30
2936:RN27
2931:RN26
2926:RN25
2921:RN24
2911:RN23
2906:RN22
2901:RN21
2896:RN20
2891:RN19
2886:RN18
2881:RN17
2876:RN16
2871:RN15
2866:RN14
2861:RN13
2851:RN12
2841:RN11
2836:RN10
2826:RN8c
2821:RN8b
2816:RN8a
2796:RN5a
2781:RN3b
2776:RN3a
2761:RN1b
2756:RN1a
2609:Flag
2574:Seal
2051:OCLC
2041:ISBN
1973:2023
1915:2023
1864:2023
1826:2023
1805:ISBN
1721:2023
1671:ISBN
1634:2023
1591:2023
1555:2023
1515:2023
1472:2023
1386:2023
1325:ISBN
1278:PMID
1221:ISBN
1138:2023
1120:ISBN
994:2023
967:OCLC
792:zebu
654:US$
408:cars
158:oxen
2831:RN9
2811:RN8
2806:RN7
2801:RN6
2791:RN5
2786:RN4
2771:RN3
2766:RN2
2751:RN1
1957:doi
1795:doi
1752:hdl
1744:doi
1663:doi
1451:doi
1317:doi
1268:PMC
1258:doi
1213:doi
1172:doi
1053:doi
959:doi
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855:or
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