348:, whose ancestors might have come from the fort's vicinity. Out of the total of US$ 50,000 sought for the project, by early 1972 Lee and his colleagues had raised about one-fifth of the amount. He stated that he wanted the fort to become "the focal point of the unity of Africans and Western black men. This fort and dungeons will symbolize our long struggle for real freedom, justice, and progress." However, as time went on Lee's attempts to raise funds from the United States proved to be less successful than hoped; despite promises by celebrities such as
495:, Accra, on 5 July 2010. He was survived by his son Jeffrey Randall Lee, his daughter-in-law Naa Ofeibia Saakwa-Mante Lee (the widow of his other son Robert Lowry Lee), four grandchildren – Nana Yao Ababio Lee (whose mother was the first wife of Robert Lowry Lee), Irma Lee, Shekila Lee and Naa Kwale Jones-Quartey (first daughter of Naa Ofeibia Saakwa-Mante Lee, adopted by Robert Lowry Lee) – and two great-grandchildren. Lee was
284:, but rather attraction to the enthusiasm shown by Ghanaians and their confidence "that they were going to be able to jettison colonial rule" and build up their country. Another major impetus was his desire to raise his children in, as he put it, "an environment that is not set up to make him hate himself", where "there isn't even any antiwhite feeling" and they "could grow up freer in their outlook on the world".
463:. He retired from his dental practice in 2002. In 2007, he donated photographs of Kwame Nkrumah that he had taken in his days at Lincoln University to the Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum in preparation for the country's Golden Jubilee celebrating the 50th anniversary of independence. In his aging years, he continued to pay attention to developments in the United States, in particular
296:'s involvement in Ghana, African Americans who moved to the country faced various challenges, with some accused of being the "fifth column" of American imperialism, and others finding it difficult to bridge the gap between their own identities and their new experience of living in Ghana. However, Lee maintained his enthusiasm for the country; he stated that learning the
442:, rumours claimed that the executions had not actually been carried out; Riad Hozaifeh later testified to the National Reconciliation Commission that the PNDC then instructed him to film future executions for documentary purposes. Lee's wife also died soon after their son Kojo's death. Lee's other son Jeffrey moved back to the United States, where he joined the
376:". As a result, on 5 February 1973 the Ghanaian government broke ADAF's lease on Fort Amsterdam and ordered Lee that "any activities should cease forthwith". Further negotiations failed to produce results acceptable to either side, and in the end the remainder of the funds that Lee had raised were donated to the Du Bois Centre.
446:
and later served a stint in Ghana before returning to
Virginia; Lee would later describe him as "an African learning how to be an American". However, Lee himself chose to remain in Ghana. In the aftermath, he stated: "Everyone thinks I should be angry, I should be this or I should be that ... I just
322:
There was a
Ghanaian dentist by the name Dr. Tosu who was residing in Christiansborg but had a practice in Accra before Dr. Lee came to town(Christiansborg). When Lee moved to Accra, there was only one other dentist in the city, a Lebanese expatriate; Lee quickly put his skills to work by opening up
343:
to preserve as a historical monument. Lee saw Ghana's slave forts as a symbol and a reminder of his own personal connection to the
African continent, as well as that of all other African Americans. As the descendant of a former slave who had come back to Africa, he felt he had a historical duty to
193:, to parents Samuel Eugene and Emily Holmes Lee. He had seven elder siblings and four younger ones. His father was a barber, but from that humble start Lee's siblings all went on to a variety of successes in business, engineering, medicine, and other careers. Lee did his undergraduate degree at
416:(PNDC), Kojo was at first suspicious of his old friend, and did not speak to him for three months, but eventually accepted the call back to service that the government extended to all discharged soldiers. On the evening of 28 October 1983, Kojo went out on patrol with two comrades in the
315:'s overthrow of Nkrumah in 1966, many African Americans left the country entirely, but Lee remained, refusing to let himself become cynical about the country's future. With regards to those who chose to go home after just a short stint in the country, Lee stated to novelist
244:, and for example was never the target of racial violence from police. However, he avoided stopping at restaurants or gas stations on highways, and left the base only with a specific destination in mind where he knew people, or to visit his mother who by then was living in
437:
Rawlings was targeted by allegations that he showed favouritism towards friends caught up in the legal system, allegations that even the executions of his friends such as Kojo Lee failed to silence. Even after the executions of Lee and
Rawlings' other close friend
367:
would be offputting to potential foreign donors. Indeed, the Dutch embassy remonstrated against ADAF's involvement and complained that the focus on slavery excluded other aspects of the Dutch–Ghanaian trading relationship; the plaque presented by the city of
379:
However, despite this setback, Lee continued to remain attached to the forts and to speak out against what he saw as their misuse. In a 1994 lecture entitled "On the
Meaning of Slave Forts and Castles of Ghana" at a conference on the restoration of forts in
319:: "The States has let them down in some way and they expect Africa to solve their problems for them. Africa isn't ready to do that. And maybe they're not ready for Africa. The States has got problems but it's their home. Hell, they're Americans."
272:
was a guest. He became known as the "elder statesman" of the
African-American community of Ghana, as well as the country's "unofficial ambassador" to new African-American arrivals who had come in search of their roots.
433:
with his brother. As a result, Kojo was tried for murder. A fellow prisoner stated that Kojo was at first confident that he would be released, but instead he was found guilty, and was executed on 29 September 1984.
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his own dental clinic, using equipment he had brought with him from the U.S. and hanging his New York State dental licence on the wall. His wife, also a dentist, started the country's first dental
327:. Lee credited some the progress made by Ghanaian women in dentistry to his wife, stating that of the 50-odd Africans who had opened dental practices in Accra four decades later, half were women.
1446:
Warren, Kim; MacGonagle, Elizabeth (September 2012). "'How much for Kunta Kinte?!': Sites of Memory and
Diasporan Encounters in West Africa". In Van Beek, Walter; Schmitt, Annette (eds.).
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to Ghana in 2009, he stated that he was happy to see that the United States was making progress, but felt that "Ghana had made progress long before the United States". The
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in 2008 to recognise his distinguished contribution to public service, making him the second
American to whom they had granted such a degree, after W. E. B. Du Bois.
256:
Lee first visited Ghana in 1953, hoping to learn more about his classmate
Nkrumah's homeland and see if he could make a contribution to its development. He moved to
1559:
177:. They were the first black dentists in the country. In the 1970s, Lee became involved with a campaign to refurbish forts on the coast of Ghana as monuments to the
1589:
268:'s visit to Ghana to attend the independence ceremonies in 1957, Lee and fellow African-American émigré Bill Sutherland organised a dinner for him, at which
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followed him in the years thereafter as well, bringing their skills and educations and hoping they could be of use to the newly independent country. During
305:
241:
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and other areas, he described the forts as "sacred spaces" and condemned tourism officials who would see them converted into discothèques or hotels.
344:
work towards the rebuilding of the fortress. ADAF raised funds for the restoration through a variety of activities, including a memorial service for
1389:
Richards, Sandra L. (May 2007). "What Is To Be
Remembered? Tourism to Ghana's Slave Castle-Dungeons". In Reinelt, Janelle G.; Roach, Joseph (eds.).
335:
In the 1970s, Lee was active in the African Descendants Association Foundation (ADAF), which among other activities began efforts in 1971 to lease
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412:. After his discharge, Kojo opened a golf course, restaurant, and bar in Accra. After Rawlings' second coup in 1981, which established the
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to enforce curfew after reports of looting. While on patrol, he shot and killed neighbourhood resident Peter Atsu Bieboo, a fellow
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ADAF's work surrounding the fortress brought them in conflict with the Ghanaian government, which was trying to raise funds from
1225:
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to restore a variety of historical monuments in the country, and worried that ADAF's emphasis on European involvement in the
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Lee would go on to set up a student hostel programme and guest house, hoping to provide inexpensive accommodation for
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was one of the means he used to reduce the distance between himself and his Ghanaian hosts. He was naturalised as a
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together for their residencies in dentistry, where they had two children: Robert Lowry Lee and Jeffrey Randall Lee.
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from other parts of Africa. He also invested in a variety of other projects, including a farm and a
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interviewer, his emigration from the United States was not driven by despair or abandonment of the
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know that living in this society, where I am living now, I feel better. I feel like a person."
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1479:. Undergraduate Independent Study Project, College Semester Abroad in Ghana. Williams College
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356:, in the end there was little further enthusiasm among African Americans for his efforts.
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1162:"Ghana welcomes with open arms: African-Americans who've moved there say life is good"
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1353:
Relations Between Africans and African Americans: Misconceptions, Myths and Realities
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in Pennsylvania, where he became acquainted with both future Ghanaian leader
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924:"A Shrine To Slaves: Black Americans restore Ghana's old Fort Amsterdam"
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217:. He married classmate Sara Archie that same year. The couple moved to
154:
1315:
American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era
429:
417:
381:
360:
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Where the Chilly Winds Don't Blow: African Americans Return to Ghana
1016:. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. 1984-11-07. Archived from
372:
refers only to "the memory of historic ties between Ghana and the
257:
1010:"Journalist Examines Circumstances Behind Lee, Addy Executions".
659:"President Mills informed of death and funeral of Dr. Robert Lee"
260:
with his family in 1956. Other Lincoln University classmates and
240:. Lee recounted that, as an officer, he was better-treated than
1410:
African Homecoming: Pan-African Ideology and Contested Heritage
1275:
Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787-2005
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African Hosts and Their Guests: Cultural Dynamics of Tourism
1334:
Routes of Remembrance: Refashioning the Slave Trade in Ghana
173:
with his wife Sara, also a dentist. They were classmates at
1296:
The Black Expatriates: A Study of American Negroes in Exile
627:
Lose Your Mother: A Journey Along the Atlantic Slave Route
1078: (Public tribunals of Ghana, Accra, case no. 75/83).
568:"Dentist Championed African-American community in Ghana"
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1256:Death and Pain: Rawlings' Ghana - the Inside Story
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444:United States Agency for International Development
1292:Dunbar, Ernest, ed. (1968). "Dr. Robert E. Lee".
1226:"UG to confer degrees on CJ, Ibn Chambas, others"
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16:Ghanaian dentist from South Carolina (1920–2010)
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392:Lee's son Robert, more commonly known by his
201:and future fellow American emigrant to Ghana
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1535:Ghanaian people of African-American descent
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602:"Black American Couple Finds Home in Ghana"
153:(13 May 1920 – 5 July 2010) was a Ghanaian
783:Guernica: A Magazine of Art & Politics
213:, where in 1945 he received his degree of
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687:"Ghana honors man with Summerville roots"
1540:Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) alumni
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963:
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499:and then given a funeral service at the
467:and subsequent election in 2008. During
306:renouncing his United States citizenship
1555:People from Summerville, South Carolina
1075:The people vrs Flt.-Lt. Robert Kojo Lee
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248:, rather than going out "on the town".
232:, in which capacity he was assigned to
1560:Military personnel from South Carolina
1317:. University of North Carolina Press.
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841:
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639:
276:As Lee later recounted to an American
1408:Schramm, Katharina (September 2010).
1351:Mwakikagile, Godfrey (January 2007).
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292:Despite Nkrumah's enthusiasm for the
181:. He lived in Ghana until his death.
7:
1590:20th-century African-American people
630:, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2008, p. 36.
465:Barack Obama's presidential campaign
414:Provisional National Defence Council
1355:. Dar es Salaam: New Africa Press.
1136:"I Filmed Executions – Riad Admits"
1097:"Friend of Ghana's leader executed"
566:Asante, Elizabeth K. (2010-07-07).
1492:"Death Notice: Robert E. Lee, DDS"
408:, where Kojo attained the rank of
14:
1427:Shillington, Kevin (1992-02-07).
1393:. University of Michigan Press.
1201:"Kwame Nkrumah's photos donated"
491:Lee died aged 90 at his home in
400:, where he befriended the young
226:United States Army Medical Corps
165:family, he studied dentistry in
1391:Critical Theory and Performance
1336:. University of Chicago Press.
1160:Melanie Eversley (1996-06-23).
600:Ludden, Jennifer (1997-08-07).
404:. The two would later join the
100:
1545:Meharry Medical College alumni
1273:Campbell, James (2007-04-24).
776:Raboteau, Emily (2012-11-05).
288:Integration into local society
1:
1565:Former United States citizens
1550:Naturalized citizens of Ghana
1429:Ghana and the Rawlings Factor
939:Includes a photograph of Lee.
606:The Christian Science Monitor
228:beginning in 1950 during the
1313:Gaines, Kevin Kelly (2006).
872:Warren & MacGonagle 2012
262:many other African Americans
1580:American emigrants to Ghana
313:National Liberation Council
191:Summerville, South Carolina
51:Summerville, South Carolina
1606:
1332:Holsey, Bayo (June 2008).
1254:Adjei, Mike (1994-02-15).
1013:Sub-Saharan African Report
537:"Dr. Robert Lee passes on"
503:in Accra on 24 July 2010.
331:Fort Amsterdam restoration
246:Charleston, South Carolina
242:black civilians in Georgia
1570:African-American dentists
1102:The Sydney Morning Herald
691:Summerville Journal-Scene
427:member on his way to buy
144:
1370:Phillips, Caryl (2009).
215:Doctor of Dental Surgery
104:
224:Lee also served in the
207:Meharry Medical College
175:Meharry Medical College
131:Meharry Medical College
1473:Bonney, Zelle (1998).
1450:. Boydell and Brewer.
479:-Legon awarded him an
457:international students
421:neighbourhood of Accra
266:Martin Luther King Jr.
1585:20th-century dentists
440:Joachim Amartey Quaye
282:Civil Rights Movement
278:National Public Radio
1412:. Left Coast Press.
1020:on December 26, 2013
778:"Daughters of Obama"
365:Atlantic slave trade
211:Nashville, Tennessee
179:Atlantic slave trade
103: 1945,
541:Ghana Business News
477:University of Ghana
396:Kojo, attended the
252:Emigration to Ghana
1372:The Atlantic Sound
1166:Detroit Free Press
481:honorary doctorate
473:presidential visit
425:Ghana Armed Forces
298:languages of Ghana
195:Lincoln University
171:emigrated to Ghana
127:Lincoln University
1575:American dentists
1530:Ghanaian dentists
624:Saidiya Hartman,
487:Death and funeral
410:flight lieutenant
236:in Georgia, near
205:. Lee went on to
169:and then in 1956
151:Robert Edward Lee
148:
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38:Robert Edward Lee
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1374:. Random House.
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1300:. E. P. Dutton.
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1123:Shillington 1992
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1050:Shillington 1992
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905:Mwakikagile 2007
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451:Later activities
388:Execution of son
308:in the process.
302:Ghanaian citizen
294:African diaspora
203:W. E. B. Du Bois
189:Lee was born in
163:African-American
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29:Personal details
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1467:Further reading
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1258:. Black Line.
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930:. January 1972
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402:Jerry Rawlings
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354:Dionne Warwick
337:Fort Amsterdam
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317:Caryl Phillips
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270:Julius Nyerere
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159:South Carolina
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1431:. Macmillan.
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1185:Phillips 2009
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1131:
1128:
1125:, p. 244
1124:
1119:
1116:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1064:, p. 133
1063:
1058:
1055:
1052:, p. 242
1051:
1046:
1043:
1040:, p. 132
1039:
1034:
1031:
1019:
1015:
1014:
1006:
1003:
1000:
996:
991:
988:
984:
980:
975:
972:
969:
965:
964:Richards 2007
960:
957:
954:
950:
945:
942:
929:
925:
919:
917:
913:
910:
906:
901:
899:
895:
892:
888:
887:Phillips 2009
883:
880:
877:
873:
868:
865:
862:
858:
853:
851:
847:
843:
838:
835:
832:
828:
827:Campbell 2007
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
811:
808:
804:
799:
796:
785:
784:
779:
772:
769:
766:
762:
757:
754:
750:
745:
742:
739:
735:
734:Campbell 2007
730:
728:
726:
722:
719:
715:
710:
708:
704:
692:
688:
682:
680:
676:
664:
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636:
633:
629:
628:
621:
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584:
573:
569:
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497:laid in state
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219:New York City
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199:Kwame Nkrumah
196:
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184:
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69:
68:Labone, Accra
60:
56:
52:
36:
32:
27:
20:
1500:. Retrieved
1498:. 2010-07-08
1495:
1481:. Retrieved
1475:
1447:
1428:
1409:
1390:
1371:
1352:
1333:
1314:
1295:
1274:
1255:
1234:. Retrieved
1232:. 2008-07-31
1230:Modern Ghana
1229:
1220:
1209:. Retrieved
1207:. 2007-02-17
1205:Modern Ghana
1204:
1195:
1180:
1169:. Retrieved
1165:
1155:
1144:. Retrieved
1142:. 2003-03-24
1140:Ghana Review
1139:
1130:
1118:
1107:. Retrieved
1105:. 1984-10-02
1100:
1091:
1074:
1069:
1057:
1045:
1033:
1022:. Retrieved
1018:the original
1012:
1005:
990:
979:Schramm 2010
974:
959:
949:Schramm 2010
944:
932:. Retrieved
927:
882:
867:
857:Schramm 2010
844:, p. 81
837:
803:Schramm 2010
798:
787:. Retrieved
781:
771:
756:
744:
714:Schramm 2010
695:. Retrieved
693:. 2010-07-29
690:
667:. Retrieved
665:. 2010-07-20
663:Modern Ghana
662:
635:
626:
620:
609:. Retrieved
605:
575:. Retrieved
571:
545:. Retrieved
543:. 2010-07-13
540:
490:
454:
436:
428:
391:
378:
358:
334:
321:
310:
291:
275:
255:
234:Camp Stewart
223:
188:
150:
149:
63:(2010-07-05)
1525:2010 deaths
1520:1920 births
1277:. Penguin.
995:Holsey 2008
842:Dunbar 1968
761:Gaines 2006
749:Dunbar 1968
640:Gaines 2006
374:Netherlands
350:Isaac Hayes
90:Sara Archie
75:Nationality
61:5 July 2010
48:13 May 1920
1514:Categories
1502:2014-01-29
1483:2012-11-03
1247:References
1236:2012-11-03
1211:2012-11-03
1187:, p.
1171:2014-01-29
1146:2013-12-21
1109:2014-01-29
1062:Adjei 1994
1038:Adjei 1994
1024:2013-12-24
997:, p.
981:, p.
966:, p.
951:, p.
934:2012-11-03
907:, p.
889:, p.
874:, p.
859:, p.
829:, p.
805:, p.
789:2014-01-29
763:, p.
736:, p.
716:, p.
697:2022-08-10
669:2012-11-03
642:, p.
611:2012-11-03
577:2012-11-03
547:2012-11-03
311:After the
230:Korean War
185:Early life
157:. Born in
137:Occupation
44:1920-05-13
23:Robert Lee
572:Ghana Web
370:Amsterdam
304:in 1963,
167:Tennessee
123:Education
1084:14868105
394:day name
238:Savannah
115:Children
79:Ghanaian
341:Abandze
155:dentist
140:Dentist
109:
97:
93:
70:, Ghana
1454:
1435:
1416:
1397:
1378:
1359:
1340:
1321:
1306:339537
1304:
1281:
1262:
1082:
493:Labone
430:kenkey
418:Labadi
382:Elmina
361:UNESCO
161:to an
85:Spouse
928:Ebony
507:Notes
469:Obama
258:Accra
107:)
99:(
95:
1452:ISBN
1433:ISBN
1414:ISBN
1395:ISBN
1376:ISBN
1357:ISBN
1338:ISBN
1319:ISBN
1302:OCLC
1279:ISBN
1260:ISBN
1080:OCLC
352:and
105:died
58:Died
53:, US
34:Born
1189:181
999:165
985:–85
968:106
891:184
831:312
738:282
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471:'s
339:at
209:in
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