173:
465:
desperate in region after region, the army experienced wholesale defections of units to the patriot side. Second, in political matters, the reinstitution of a liberal regime changed the terms under which the
Spanish government sought to engage the insurgents. The new government naively assumed that the insurgents were fighting for Spanish liberalism and that the Spanish Constitution could still be the basis of reconciliation between the two sides. The government implemented the Constitution and held elections in the overseas provinces, just as in Spain. It also ordered military commanders to begin armistice negotiations with the insurgents with the promise that they could participate in the restored representative government.
192:
609:), units which already existed or were created during the conflict in America. The militias, which were composed wholly of militiamen who were residents or natives of Spanish America, were bolstered by the presence of "veteran units" (or "disciplined militia") composed of Peninsular and Spanish American veterans of Spain's wars in Europe and around the globe. The veteran units were expected to form a core of experienced soldiers in the local defenses, whose expertise would be invaluable to the regular militiamen who often lacked sustained military experience, if any. The veteran units were created in the past century as part of the
423:). Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada, its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito, and Peru and were lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war. More importantly, the majority of the royalist forces were composed, not of soldiers sent from the peninsula, but of Spanish Americans. Other Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. In fact, in areas of New Spain, Central America, and Quito, governors found it expedient to leave the elected constitutional
328:, the traditional parliament of the Spanish Monarchy, which in this case included representatives from the Americas. The Regency and Cortes began issuing orders to, and appointing, royal officials throughout the empire. Those who supported the new government came to be called "royalists." Those that supported the idea of maintaining independent juntas called themselves "patriots," and a few among them were proponents of declaring full, formal independence from Spain. As the Cortes instituted liberal reforms and worked on drafting a constitution, a new division appeared among royalists. Conservatives (often called "
770:
361:
subordinate to others in the manner that they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in New
Granada and Río de la Plata. This rivalry also leads some regions to adopt the opposing political cause from their rivals. Peru seems to have remained strongly royalist in large part because of its rivalry with Río de la Plata, to which it had lost control of Upper Peru when the latter was elevated to a viceroyalty in 1776. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain formal control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars.
1296:
47:
709:
308:
time had come to establish local rule, initially through the creation of juntas, in order to preserve the independence of
Spanish America from the French or from a rump government in Spain that could no longer legitimately claim to rule a vast empire. It is important to note that, at first, the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king and did not formally declare independence. Juntas were successfully established in
747:
142:
1282:
732:
566:
256:
533:
The collapse of the constitutional regime in Spain in 1823 had other implications for the war in South
America. Royalist officers, split between liberals and conservatives, fought an internecine war among themselves. General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, commander in Upper Peru, rebelled against the liberal
497:
Central
America gained its independence along with New Spain. The regional elites supported the terms of the Plan of Iguala and orchestrated the union of Central America with the Mexican Empire in 1821. Two years later following Iturbide's downfall, the region, except Chiapas, peacefully seceded from
473:
sent to the Cortes. Among liberals, however, there was fear that the new regime would not last, and among conservatives and the Church, that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti-clerical legislation. This climate of instability created the conditions for the two sides to ally.
529:
concluded a cease-fire, many units crossed lines knowing that
Spanish control of the region would not last. The situation repeated itself in Peru from 1822 to 1825 as republican forces slowly advanced there. Unlike in Mexico, however, the top military and political leadership in these parts of South
386:
This, in effect, constituted a definitive break with two groups that could have been allies of
Ferdinand VII: the autonomous governments, which had not yet declared formal independence, and Spanish liberals who had created a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions
369:
The restoration of
Ferdinand VII signified an important change, since most of the political and legal changes done on both sides of the Atlantic—the myriad of juntas, the Cortes in Spain, and several of the congresses in the Americas that evolved out of the juntas, and the many constitutions and new
353:
to replace the traditional sense of being
Spaniards. The original juntas of 1810 appealed first, to sense of being Spanish, which was juxtaposed against the French threat; second, to a general American identity, which was juxtaposed against the Peninsula which was lost to the French; and third, to a
340:
Regional rivalry also played an important role in the internecine wars that broke out in
Spanish America as a result of the juntas. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority—and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority (as in the cases of New Granada and Río de la Plata)—initiated
307:
from Spain—political fault lines appeared. Royal officials and Spanish Americans were split between those who supported the idea of maintaining the status quo—that is leaving all the government institutions and officers in place—regardless of the developments in Spain, and those who thought that the
437:
Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined guerrilla movements. Ferdinand's actions did set areas outside of the control of the royalist armies on the path to full independence. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of
418:
The provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810, unlike neighboring Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the region several times. To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized in 1815 the largest armed force
382:
and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders who had created it on May 10. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He also declared all of the juntas and constitutions written in
464:
Riego's revolt had two significant effects on the war in the Americas. First, in military matters, the large numbers of reinforcements, that were especially needed to retake New Granada and defend the Viceroyalty of Peru, would never arrive. Furthermore, as the royalist situation became more
494:, the highest Spanish official in Mexico approved the Plan of Iguala, and although the Spanish government never ratified this treaty, it did not have the resources to enforce its rejection. Ultimately, it was the royal army in Mexico that ultimately brought about that nation's independence.
360:
in Spanish. More often than not, juntas sought to maintain a province's independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general, as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of whether some provinces were to be
468:
The Spanish Constitution, it turned out, served as the basis for independence in New Spain and Central America, since in the two regions it was a coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states. The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and
429:
in place for several years to prevent conflict with the local society. Liberals on both sides of the Atlantic, nevertheless, continued to conspire to bring back a constitutional monarchy, ultimately succeeding in 1820. The most dramatic example of transAtlantic collaboration is perhaps
675:
320:, and there were unsuccessful movements to do so in other regions. A few juntas initially chose to recognize the Regency, nevertheless the creation of juntas challenged the authority of all sitting royal officials and the right of the government in Spain to rule in the Americas.
332:" in the historiography) did not want to see any innovations in government, while liberals supported them. These differences would become more acute after the restoration of Ferdinand VII, because the king opted to support the conservative position.
291:. The Supreme Central Junta had led a resistance to Joseph's government and the French occupation of Spain, but suffered a series of reverses resulting in the loss of the northern half of the country. On February 1, 1810, French troops took
670:
thanks to its alliance with indigenous tribes. In the interior of Patagonia, far from the de facto territory of Chile and the United Provinces, the Pincheira brothers established a permanent encampment with thousands of settlers.
1314:
560:
794:
546:
on December 9, 1824. The royal army of Upper Peru surrendered after Olañeta was killed on April 2, 1825. Former royalists, however, played an important part in the creation of Peru and Bolivia. In Bolivia, royalists, like
551:, nephew of General Olañeta, gathered in a congress and declared the country's independence from Peru. And in Peru, after Bolívar's forces left the country in 1827, Peruvian leaders undid many of his political reforms.
628:, commander in chief in Venezuela and New Granada, reported that he only had 2,000 European soldiers, in other words, only half of the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. It is estimated that in the
456:
headed a rebellion among troops that had been gathered for a large expeditionary force to be sent to the Americas. By March 7, the royal palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General
323:
In the months following the establishment of the Regency, it became clear that Spain was not lost, and furthermore the government was effectively reconstituting itself. The Regency successfully convened the
303:
and dissolved itself in favor of a Regency Council of Spain and the Indies. As news of this arrived throughout Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months—depending on time it took
799:
224:
1811:
525:), and whole units also began to desert or defect to the patriots in large numbers as the royal army's situation became dire. During the end of 1820 in Venezuela, after Bolívar and
438:
1810—and even moderates there who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown—now saw the need to separate from Spain, if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted.
157:
1816:
975:
620:
Overall, Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units. Since each European soldier
1821:
1826:
804:
172:
624:
was substituted by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example,
279:
in Spanish America in 1810 was a direct reaction to developments in Spain during the previous two years. In 1808 Ferdinand VII had been convinced to
517:
from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the Spanish American nations on that continent and secured the independence of the
1791:
Tomás Straka (2000). "La voz de los vencidos. Ideas del partido realista de Caracas, 1810-1821!. Caracas, Universidad Central de Venezuela,
662:, was an outlaw gang made of European Spanish, American Spanish, Mestizos, and local indigenous peoples. This group was originally based near
643:
The American militias reflected the racial makeup of the local population. For example, in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white (
1796:
1786:
1758:
1709:
1695:
1660:
1646:
1621:
1309:
741:
375:
313:
213:
469:
representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America. Elections were held, local governments formed and
879:
970:
499:
900:
652:
1772:
1737:
1723:
1674:
420:
1010:
345:
in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units should replace the empire, and there were - among the
1831:
703:
1380:
1245:
191:
243:
in 1814, the royalists were split between Absolutists, those that supported his insistence to rule under traditional law, and
1324:
722:
695:
309:
995:
836:
822:
461:, and three days later on March 10, the besieged Ferdinand VII, now a virtual prisoner, agreed to restore the Constitution.
1319:
956:
874:
329:
1607:"Movilización en las fronteras. Los Pincheira y el última intento de reconquista hispana en el sur Americano (1818-1832)"
613:
to reinforce Spanish America's defenses against the increasing encroachment of other European powers, such as during the
769:
379:
505:
In South America independence was spurred by the pro-independence fighters that had held out for the past half decade.
1377:"Indigenous, African-descended, and mestizo (mixed-race caste) soldiers fought in patriot and royalist armies alike".
927:
1050:
890:
846:
756:
718:
452:
Spanish liberals finally had success in forcing Ferdinand VII to restore the Constitution on January 1, 1820, when
317:
1588:
951:
764:
699:
370:
legal codes—had been done in his name. Once in Spain Ferdinand VII realized that he had significant support from
502:. The new state existed for seventeen years, centrifugal forces pulling the individual provinces apart by 1840.
691:
990:
985:
961:
539:
506:
895:
1060:
1025:
911:
726:
538:, in 1823. This conflict provided an opportunity for the republican forces under the command of Bolívar and
522:
1606:
1836:
1330:
1055:
784:
708:
573:
475:
280:
276:
240:
220:
68:
856:
458:
431:
1191:
1005:
17:
1301:
980:
851:
491:
487:
304:
284:
1553:, 97–99. Peter F. Guardino, "The War of Independence in Guerrero, New Spain, 1808-1821" in Archer,
1000:
942:
937:
861:
827:
789:
760:
614:
548:
535:
478:, a colonel in the royal army, who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by
470:
396:
260:
1040:
809:
510:
1219:
885:
659:
637:
633:
569:
543:
1079:
629:
521:
had more or less experienced since 1810. In South America, royalist soldiers, officers (such as
228:
78:
1792:
1782:
1768:
1754:
1733:
1719:
1705:
1691:
1670:
1656:
1642:
1015:
932:
905:
621:
425:
165:
1748:
1030:
841:
674:
479:
453:
325:
288:
205:
46:
817:
610:
514:
447:
392:
236:
82:
419:
it ever sent to the New World, consisting of 10,500 troops and nearly sixty ships. (See,
1227:
1253:
1090:
1035:
1020:
917:
483:
346:
232:
147:
129:
118:
92:
1688:
Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810-1840
383:
Spanish America invalid and restored the former law codes and political institutions.
1805:
1237:
1135:
1094:
1083:
1045:
947:
866:
625:
526:
518:
342:
180:
1541:
Lynch analyzes the events through the older theory of a "conservative revolution":
1287:
746:
577:
371:
209:
184:
223:
was captive in France, royalists supported the authority in the Americas of the
27:
Supporters of the Spanish monarchy during the Spanish-American independence wars
1716:
Independence in Spanish America: Civil Wars, Revolutions, and Underdevelopment
1277:
1175:
1151:
663:
356:
244:
1131:
1639:
The Political Economy of Spanish America in the Age of Revolution, 1750-1850
1199:
1167:
667:
296:
731:
387:
and was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain (today
264:
1744:
Los diputados americanos en las Cortes de Cádiz: Igualdad o independencia.
561:
Spanish expeditionary army (Spanish American independence) order of battle
212:
that fought to preserve the integrity of the Spanish monarchy during the
1261:
1183:
300:
268:
658:
The last royalist armed group in what is today Argentina and Chile, the
601:
408:
400:
292:
1718:(Revised edition). Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 2000.
247:, who sought to reinstate the reforms enacted by the Cortes of Cádiz.
1702:
Insurrection or Loyalty: The Breakdown of the Spanish American Empire
632:
only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers, in the
482:. Instead, Iturbide entered into negotiations, which resulted in the
388:
350:
565:
570:
King's and Regimental Colors of the Foot Regiments of Royalist Army
1159:
673:
648:
564:
412:
254:
404:
255:
108:
104:
434:'s expedition to Texas and northern Mexico in 1816 and 1817.
768:
745:
730:
707:
1753:) Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.
1732:(2nd edition). New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1986.
530:
America came from the patriot side and not the royalists.
1351:
RUSSIA AND THE EMANCIPATION OF SPANISH AMERICA, 1816–1826
442:
Restoration of the Spanish Constitution and independence
259:
Royalist territories in Western South America after the
474:
This alliance coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind
1779:
The Cádiz Experiment in Central America, 1808 to 1826.
1381:"RACE, OR THE LAST COLONIAL STRUGGLE IN LATIN AMERICA"
585:
Por la Religión, la Patria y el Rey. Viva Fernando VII
287:
in his favor, who granted the throne to his brother,
374:in the general population and the hierarchy of the
179:
163:
153:
135:
124:
114:
98:
88:
74:
64:
53:
32:
1439:, 111–113, 126–136, 153–159, 176–179. Kinsbruner,
1365:El Ejército Realista en la guerra de Independencia
1327:, the equivalent of the Royalist in Anglo-America
580:would replace the grey circles represented here).
1637:Kenneth J. Andrien and Lyman L. Johnson (1994).
1614:Revista Sociedad de Paisajes Áridos y Semiáridos
208:(mostly from native and indigenous peoples) and
1641:. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press.
354:sense of belonging to the local province, the
271:were royalist enclaves accessible only by sea.
219:In the early years of the conflict, when King
1812:Royalists in the Hispanic American Revolution
1600:
1598:
666:in Chile but moved later across the Andes to
225:Supreme Central Junta of Spain and the Indies
128:Preservation of the territorial integrity of
8:
1730:The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808-1826
1667:The Wars of Independence in Spanish America
1555:The Wars of Independence in Spanish America
490:, with Ferdinand VII as its king. With the
1781:Berkeley: University of California Press.
1589:"An Analysis of Shared Values: Spain 1808"
1315:Spanish expeditionary army order of battle
1074:
742:Río de la Plata, Montevideo & Paraguay
686:
29:
1655:. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press.
1549:, 196–197, 199–210, 241–242. Kinsbruner,
231:that ruled in the King's name during the
486:, which would establish New Spain as an
1817:People of the Spanish colonial Americas
1704:. Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
1341:
18:Royalist (Spanish American Revolutions)
1435:, 57-71, 162–163, 240–242. Rodríguez,
498:Mexico in July 1823, establishing the
1822:Spanish American wars of independence
1310:Spanish American wars of independence
513:inadvertently led a continental-wide
378:, and so on May 4, he repudiated the
214:Spanish American wars of independence
7:
1827:Spanish colonization of the Americas
1071:Naval commanders and last fortresses
1765:The Independence of Spanish America
500:Federal Republic of Central America
1683:Austin: University of Texas Press.
1622:Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto
908:, President of the Quito Audiencia
25:
1679:Benson, Nettie Lee (ed.) (1966).
1665:Christon I. Archer (ed.) (2000).
1545:, 319–323. Compare to Rodríguez,
1349:William Spence Robertson (1941),
421:Spanish reconquest of New Granada
299:. The Supreme Junta retreated to
1742:Marie Laure Rieu-Millan (1990).
1490:, 162. 171–172, 207. Rodríguez,
1294:
1280:
971:José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa
349:elites at least - no new or old
190:
171:
140:
45:
1576:Independence in Spanish America
1572:Independence of Spanish America
1551:Independence in Spanish America
1547:Independence of Spanish America
1530:Independence in Spanish America
1526:Independence of Spanish America
1509:Independence in Spanish America
1505:Independence of Spanish America
1492:Independence of Spanish America
1475:Independence of Spanish America
1458:Independence in Spanish America
1454:Independence of Spanish America
1441:Independence in Spanish America
1437:Independence of Spanish America
1420:Independence of Spanish America
1403:Independence in Spanish America
1399:Independence of Spanish America
1246:San Carlos de la Barra Fortress
542:to advance, culminating in the
1767:. Cambridge University Press.
1763:Jaime E. Rodríguez O. (1998).
1690:. Cambridge University Press.
1681:Mexico and the Spanish Cortes.
1653:Spain & the Loss of Empire
1379:Jason McGraw (12 March 2018).
1363:Luqui Lagleyze, Julio (1995).
1325:Loyalist (American Revolution)
591:There are two types of units:
295:and gained control of most of
1:
1397:, 36–37, 134–135. Rodríguez,
1320:Reconquista (Spanish America)
1102:
943:Santiago de Liniers y Bremond
780:
1686:Michael P. Costeloe (1986).
1568:Spanish American Revolutions
1543:Spanish American Revolutions
1522:Spanish American Revolutions
1511:, 88, 114, 120–121, 127–128.
1488:Spanish American Revolutions
1471:Spanish American Revolutions
1433:Spanish American Revolutions
1416:Spanish American Revolutions
1395:Spanish American Revolutions
1076:
688:
380:Spanish Constitution of 1812
365:Restoration of Ferdinand VII
241:restoration of Ferdinand VII
1700:Jorge I. Domínguez (1980).
1418:, 121, 131–132. Rodríguez,
1011:José Ramón Rodil y Campillo
996:José de la Serna e Hinojosa
837:Fernando Miyares y Gonzáles
823:José de Bustamante y Guerra
800:Félix María Calleja del Rey
640:less than 1% was European.
1853:
1100:
901:José María Barreiro Manjón
886:Miguel de la Torre y Pando
778:
636:about a fifth, and in the
558:
445:
305:goods and people to travel
1669:. Willmington, SR Books.
1605:Manara, Carla G. (2010).
1262:San Juan de Ulua Veracruz
775:José Fernando de Abascal
44:
38:
37:
1777:Mario Rodríguez (1978).
976:José Manuel de Goyeneche
928:Francisco Javier de Elío
882:, Viceroy of New Granada
871:Juan de los Reyes Vargas
795:Francisco Xavier Venegas
336:Role of regional rivalry
187:, Castles and Fortresses
1832:Counter-revolutionaries
1574:, 210–213. Kinsbruner,
1528:, 194–195. Kinsbruner,
1456:, 169–172. Kinsbruner,
1265:until November 18, 1825
1179:until November 25, 1820
1051:Casimiro Marcó del Pont
957:José de Córdoba y Rojas
896:Sebastián de la Calzada
891:Francisco Tomás Morales
599:) created in Spain and
376:Spanish Catholic Church
75:Constitutional monarchy
1570:, 333–340. Rodríguez,
1524:, 335–340. Rodríguez,
1331:Campaigns of the South
1257:until November 8, 1823
1203:until January 23, 1826
1195:until January 15, 1826
1187:until February 6, 1820
1056:Antonio de Quintanilla
1026:Juan Francisco Sánchez
912:Basilio Modesto García
773:
750:
735:
712:
679:
588:
574:Cross of Burgundy flag
341:a prolonged period of
272:
69:Ferdinand VII of Spain
1651:Timothy Anna (1983).
1401:, 52–53. Kinsbruner,
1171:until October 9, 1820
1127:Tomas Blanco Cabreras
991:Pedro Antonio Olañeta
986:Joaquín de la Pezuela
962:Antonio Olaguer Feliú
847:Domingo de Monteverde
772:
749:
734:
711:
677:
568:
540:Antonio José de Sucre
459:Francisco Ballesteros
446:Further information:
432:Francisco Javier Mina
258:
1302:Latin America portal
1118:José Angel Michelena
1061:Manuel Olaguer Feliú
805:Juan Ruiz de Apodaca
752:Santiago de Liniers
714:Félix María Calleja
523:Andrés de Santa Cruz
399:, Venezuela, Quito (
164:Coat of arms of the
1507:, 194. Kinsbruner,
1249:until July 24, 1823
1155:until June 20, 1814
950:, President of the
938:Bernardo de Velasco
862:Juan Manuel Cajigal
790:Gabriel J. de Yermo
785:José de Iturrigaray
593:expeditionary units
488:independent kingdom
476:Agustín de Iturbide
351:national identities
261:Battle of Chacabuco
251:Political evolution
239:in 1820, after the
204:were the people of
158:Patriot Governments
1494:, 173–175, 192–194
1473:, 336. Rodríguez,
1124:Joaquín de Rocalan
1115:José María Salazar
875:Francisco Montalvo
774:
751:
736:
713:
680:
660:Pincheira brothers
638:Battle of Ayacucho
634:Battle of Carabobo
589:
544:Battle of Ayacucho
507:José de San Martín
273:
100:Dates of operation
1797:978-980-00-1771-5
1787:978-0-520-03394-8
1759:978-84-00-07091-5
1710:978-0-674-45635-8
1696:978-0-521-32083-2
1661:978-0-8032-1014-1
1647:978-0-8263-1489-5
1271:
1270:
1224:Jose María Chacon
1103:
1068:
1067:
1016:Vicente Benavides
952:Charcas Audiencia
933:Gaspar de Vigodet
852:Agustín Agualongo
814:Torcuato Trujillo
781:
534:viceroy of Peru,
492:Treaty of Córdoba
198:
197:
89:Absolute monarchy
16:(Redirected from
1844:
1714:Jay Kinsbruner.
1626:
1625:
1611:
1602:
1593:
1592:
1585:
1579:
1564:
1558:
1539:
1533:
1518:
1512:
1501:
1495:
1484:
1478:
1467:
1461:
1450:
1444:
1429:
1423:
1412:
1406:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1346:
1304:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1290:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1163:until July, 1824
1121:Jacinto Romarate
1075:
1001:José de Canterac
906:Melchor Aymerich
857:José Tomás Boves
687:
683:Royalist leaders
615:Seven Years' War
549:Casimiro Olañeta
536:José de la Serna
480:Vicente Guerrero
326:Cortes Generales
289:Joseph Bonaparte
275:The creation of
206:Hispanic America
194:
175:
166:Spanish Monarchy
146:
144:
143:
101:
65:Political leader
49:
40:
30:
21:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1802:
1801:
1634:
1629:
1609:
1604:
1603:
1596:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1578:, 100, 146–149.
1565:
1561:
1540:
1536:
1519:
1515:
1502:
1498:
1485:
1481:
1468:
1464:
1451:
1447:
1430:
1426:
1413:
1409:
1392:
1388:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1286:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1130:Dionisio Capaz
1080:Río de la Plata
1073:
1006:Jerónimo Valdés
818:Isidro Barradas
685:
630:Battle of Maipú
611:Bourbon Reforms
597:expedicionarios
581:
572:modeled on the
563:
557:
515:pincer movement
450:
448:Trienio Liberal
444:
393:Central America
367:
338:
314:Río de la Plata
253:
237:Trienio Liberal
229:Cortes of Cádiz
141:
139:
99:
83:Trienio Liberal
79:Cortes of Cádiz
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1850:
1848:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1789:
1775:
1761:
1740:
1726:
1712:
1698:
1684:
1677:
1663:
1649:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1616:(in Spanish).
1594:
1580:
1559:
1534:
1513:
1496:
1479:
1462:
1445:
1424:
1407:
1386:
1370:
1355:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1291:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1258:
1254:Puerto Cabello
1250:
1234:
1233:
1230:
1225:
1222:
1220:Pascual Enrile
1211:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1204:
1196:
1188:
1180:
1172:
1164:
1156:
1142:
1141:
1140:Roque Guruceta
1138:
1136:Antonio Vacaro
1133:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1107:
1106:
1099:
1098:
1091:Gulf of Mexico
1087:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1036:Mariano Osorio
1033:
1028:
1023:
1021:Antonio Pareja
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
966:
965:
964:
959:
954:
945:
940:
935:
930:
923:
922:
921:
918:Jose Arizabalo
915:
909:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
880:Juan de Sámano
877:
872:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
832:
831:
830:
825:
820:
815:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
777:
776:
753:
738:
737:Pablo Morillo
715:
684:
681:
595:( in Spanish:
559:Main article:
556:
553:
484:Plan of Iguala
443:
440:
407:, Upper Peru (
366:
363:
337:
334:
252:
249:
233:Peninsular War
196:
195:
188:
177:
176:
169:
161:
160:
155:
151:
150:
148:Russian Empire
137:
133:
132:
126:
122:
121:
119:Spanish Empire
116:
112:
111:
102:
96:
95:
93:Ominous Decade
90:
86:
85:
76:
72:
71:
66:
62:
61:
60:
59:
55:
51:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1849:
1838:
1837:Ferdinand VII
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1807:
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1776:
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1773:0-521-62673-0
1770:
1766:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1750:
1745:
1741:
1739:
1738:0-393-95537-0
1735:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1724:0-8263-2177-1
1721:
1717:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1678:
1676:
1675:0-8420-2469-7
1672:
1668:
1664:
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1658:
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1371:
1366:
1359:
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1311:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1292:
1289:
1278:
1273:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1238:Fortification
1232:José Guerrero
1231:
1229:
1228:Ángel Laborde
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1189:
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1177:
1173:
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1162:
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1148:
1147:
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1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1095:Caribbean Sea
1092:
1088:
1086:
1085:
1084:Pacific Ocean
1081:
1077:
1070:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1046:Rafael Maroto
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1031:Gabino Gaínza
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
967:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
949:
948:Vicente Nieto
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
925:
924:
919:
916:
913:
910:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
881:
878:
876:
873:
870:
868:
867:Pablo Morillo
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
842:José Ceballos
840:
838:
835:
834:
833:
829:
828:Ángel Laborde
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
813:
811:
810:Juan O'Donojú
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
782:
779:
771:
767:
766:
762:
758:
754:
748:
744:
743:
739:
733:
729:
728:
724:
720:
716:
710:
706:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
682:
678:Royalist army
676:
672:
669:
665:
661:
656:
654:
650:
646:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
626:Pablo Morillo
623:
618:
616:
612:
608:
605:(in Spanish:
604:
603:
598:
594:
587:
586:
579:
575:
571:
567:
562:
555:Royalist army
554:
552:
550:
545:
541:
537:
531:
528:
527:Pablo Morillo
524:
520:
519:Southern Cone
516:
512:
511:Simón Bolívar
508:
503:
501:
495:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
472:
466:
462:
460:
455:
449:
441:
439:
435:
433:
428:
427:
426:ayuntamientos
422:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
384:
381:
377:
373:
372:conservatives
364:
362:
359:
358:
352:
348:
344:
343:balkanization
335:
333:
331:
327:
321:
319:
315:
311:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
270:
266:
262:
257:
250:
248:
246:
242:
238:
235:. During the
234:
230:
226:
222:
221:Ferdinand VII
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
193:
189:
186:
182:
178:
174:
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167:
162:
159:
156:
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138:
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63:
58:
57:
56:
52:
48:
43:
36:
31:
19:
1778:
1764:
1747:
1743:
1729:
1728:John Lynch.
1715:
1701:
1687:
1680:
1666:
1652:
1638:
1632:Bibliography
1617:
1613:
1583:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1508:
1504:
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1491:
1487:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1422:, 13–19, 22,
1419:
1415:
1410:
1405:, 45–46, 53.
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1373:
1364:
1358:
1350:
1344:
1288:Spain portal
1260:
1252:
1244:
1236:
1235:
1213:
1212:
1198:
1190:
1182:
1174:
1166:
1158:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1109:
1108:
1089:
1078:
1041:José Ordóñez
755:
740:
717:
690:
657:
644:
642:
619:
606:
600:
596:
592:
590:
584:
583:
578:coat of arms
532:
504:
496:
467:
463:
454:Rafael Riego
451:
436:
424:
417:
385:
368:
355:
339:
322:
274:
218:
201:
199:
185:Spanish Navy
1503:Rodríguez,
1452:Rodríguez,
1145:Strongholds
981:Pío Tristán
719:New Granada
704:Puerto Rico
576:(the local
330:absolutists
318:New Granada
168:(1761–1843)
1806:Categories
1749:In Spanish
1557:, 121–125.
1337:References
1214:Commanders
1176:Talcahuano
1152:Montevideo
1110:Commanders
765:Upper Peru
655:soldiers.
651:, and 980
115:Allegiance
1443:, 53, 59.
1200:El Callao
1168:Guayaquil
920:, Colonel
914:, Colonel
723:Venezuela
696:Guatemala
692:New Spain
668:Patagonia
647:), 5,378
397:Caribbean
310:Venezuela
297:Andalusia
263:of 1818.
210:Europeans
202:royalists
154:Opponents
39:Realistas
1624:: 39–60.
1460:, 56–57.
1274:See also
1184:Valdivia
622:casualty
607:militias
602:militias
471:deputies
285:Napoleon
281:abdicate
269:Valdivia
245:liberals
227:and the
33:Royalist
1566:Lynch,
1520:Lynch,
1486:Lynch,
1469:Lynch,
1431:Lynch,
1414:Lynch,
1393:Lynch,
664:Chillán
645:español
582:Motto:
409:Bolivia
401:Ecuador
347:criollo
293:Seville
183:of the
125:Motives
54:Leaders
1795:
1785:
1771:
1757:
1736:
1722:
1708:
1694:
1673:
1659:
1645:
1620:(II).
1477:, 106.
1192:Chiloé
763:&
725:&
702:&
653:Native
411:) and
395:, the
389:Mexico
357:patria
277:juntas
265:Chiloé
145:
136:Allies
1610:(PDF)
1532:, 89.
1160:Pasto
1082:and
761:Lower
757:Chile
727:Quito
649:Casta
413:Chile
301:Cádiz
130:Spain
1793:ISBN
1783:ISBN
1769:ISBN
1755:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1720:ISBN
1706:ISBN
1692:ISBN
1671:ISBN
1657:ISBN
1643:ISBN
1093:and
700:Cuba
509:and
405:Peru
316:and
267:and
200:The
181:Flag
109:1829
105:1810
415:.
403:),
391:),
283:by
216:.
1808::
1618:II
1612:.
1597:^
759:,
721:,
698:,
694:,
617:.
312:,
81:;
1751:.
1746:(
1591:.
1383:.
1367:.
107:–
20:)
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