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continues to thrive within
Italian soccer culture. Apart from being a Fascist site, the Stadio dei Marmi, with its ancient Roman and Greek inspired statues, and modern, pure, and simple architecture, is also a site of Romanità, where all Italian social classes learned values of unity, vigor, and virility. Extremists argue that the grandeur of Stadio dei Marmi itself is an exemplar of "superiority of Roman cultural forms." Through sports and the concept of Romanità, the Fascist regime not only associated itself with Ancient Rome, but strengthened and unified itself. To this day, the concept of Romanità continues to inhabit the Stadio Olimpico, at the Foro Italico, with the rival soccer teams
317:, and the Foro Mussolini (now known as the Foro Italico), which contained the Stadio dei Marmi. To this day, these monuments, buildings, stadiums, statues, and neighborhoods are incorporated into Italy's past, culture, and history, due to both the lack of funds in post-war Italy to rebuild major districts and buildings and the presence and persistence of Fascist ideology. After the Fascist regime was defeated in 1943, the Foro Italico was not destroyed and demolished because it was used by the Allied military as a refuge center. Following Mussolini's reign (1922 to 1943), the Stadio dei Marmi has been continuously used for various sporting events including the
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ideal
Fascist citizen, as well as the rigid gender binaries it instilled within Italian culture. After its unveiling, the Stadio dei Marmi became the leading physical education training center for the Gioventù Italiana Littorio, the youth movement of the National Fascist Party of Italy. During the Fascist period, the Stadio and complex became the nation's center for athleticism and increasingly renowned until Italy joined the war in 1940. According to the historian Eden K. McLean, "the Mussolini Forum was designed to forge educators and political leaders united by an Italian-Fascist sensibility about the past, present, and future of the race."
277:, chief of the Opera Nazionale Balilla (O.N.B), the Fascist youth organization, oversaw the design and sculpting process of the statues encircling the Stadio dei Marmi, aiming to ensure stylistic standardization and visual consistency between the sculptures carved by the various artists. The statues represented the most esteemed Fascist sports and were intended to evoke heroism by displaying monumental and imposing athletes in static, powerful, and valiant poses with a focus on gestures and proportions, rather than in arbitrary motion or action. Many of the statues are shown at rest, in vigorous stances. In Aroldo Bellini's statue of an
348:, and elements surrounding the sporting complex and how the world might respond to them. At the time, visitors from all around the world arrived at the Foro Italico, passing the sixty-foot tall marble obelisk with the inscription 'Mussolini Dux' and then witnessing an array of mosaics and marble slabs celebrating both the Fascist leader and the movement. During the 1960s, there was a strong political divide between the left and the right. As the left came to power and suggested removing overtly Fascist symbols within and surrounding the Olympic stadium, there was substantial Fascist opposition. The Neo-Fascists, supported by the
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255:"architectonic complex of severe monumentality ... the result is the emergence of a monumental group, which can be traced back to the greatest monuments of ancient Rome." The impressive statues of the Stadio dei Marmi resemble the ancient Roman Foro Imperiale. These statues, which incorporated classical elements, served to glorify Mussolini, in order to equate him to
180:, the Fascist regime invested in large-scale sports arenas, buildings, and institutions, such as the Stadio dei Marmi, which made sports accessible to all classes of society. Through sports, Fascist institutions emphasized and promoted Fascist values, which developed a national identity. The most prevalent and valued sports included combat sports such as
352:, demanded that: 'la storia non si cancella' (history must not be erased). Two of the extremely inflammatory inscriptions were taken down, but many were preserved out of fear that those who celebrated Fascism and its ideology would revolt and disrupt Italy's democratic and united appearance. Social, economic, and political influence, as well as the
364:. During the 1960s, there was little focus, controversy, or criticism placed on the "Fascist heritage" or its "political origins" and the purpose of the stadium, but rather on the history of ancient Rome and its classical elements used in the design of the statues within the stadium and the architecture of the stadium itself.
691:
Baxa, Paul. 2010. Roads and Ruins: The
Symbolic Landscape of Fascist Rome. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. BAXA, PAUL. "Demolitions: De-familiarizing the Roman Cityscape." In Roads and Ruins: The Symbolic Landscape of Fascist Rome, 74. University of Toronto Press, 2010. Accessed March 30, 2021.
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Baxa, Paul. 2010. Roads and Ruins: The
Symbolic Landscape of Fascist Rome. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. BAXA, PAUL. "Demolitions: De-familiarizing the Roman Cityscape." In Roads and Ruins: The Symbolic Landscape of Fascist Rome, 73. University of Toronto Press, 2010. Accessed March 30, 2021.
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in 1928 as the central sports city and, in 1932, he opened the
Instituto Superiore Fascista di Educazione (Fascist Institute for Physical Education) as the first male athletic institution. The importance that the Fascist regime placed on male physical education highlighted the characteristics of the
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The Stadio dei Marmi exemplifies the ancient body politic metaphor: the important interrelationship between the ideal male body and the ideal nation. Its large-scale athletic sculptures represent the idealized, strong, masculine body that was fundamental to
Fascist ideology while strengthening the
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accomplishments and the
Gioventú del Littorio, the youth movement of the National Fascist Party of Italy. In its twenty-year reign, the Fascist regime used sports to introduce and instill new fascist traditions, ideals, customs, and values, with the goal of forming citizen warriors. The Stadio dei
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athletic statues ringing the stadium were gifted by the
Italian provinces and embodied the ancient cardinal Roman values: virilitas, fortitudo, disciplina, and gravitas (virility, fortitude, discipline, and dignity). They were designed and produced by twenty-four sculptors, who were chosen from a
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of Myron, which stood out against the plain white marble architecture of the stadium. The statues, monuments, and architecture produced under the
Fascist regime were a fusion of ancient Roman and modern elements. According to the architect Enrico Del Debbio, the sports complex was designed as an
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is "a deep affection for Rome and things Roman, in an effort to identify with a primordial Rome that is impervious to contemporary political and social trends." This fondness arose in
Fascist society through the emphasis that it placed on sports as a form of civic and military education, and it
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Professor Valerie Higgins, Program Director of Sustainable Cultural Heritage, remarked that the decision to keep almost all Fascist monuments, inscriptions, symbols, and architecture visible was not an act of negative heritage or tribute to past terror, but an act to fake and preserve a united
367:
Prior to the 1990 Football Championships, the Foro Italico underwent a large-scale restoration. Some people supported the restoration of these stadiums as an initiative to protect Italian historical heritage, while others considered it as an act of honor to the Fascist leader, Mussolini. The
708:
Griffiths, Jennifer S. "Re-envisioning Italy’s ‘New Man’ in Bella Non Piangere! (1955)." In Cultures of Representation: Disability in World Cinema Contexts, edited by FRASER BENJAMIN, 188. LONDON; NEW YORK: Columbia University Press, 2016. Accessed March 5, 2021.
405:, and the spectre of that lack of reckoning continues to haunt heritage planning." Recently, there has been much debate surrounding what to do with monuments, inscriptions, buildings, and architecture that have Fascist origins, where the
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Dyal, Mark. "Football, Romanità, and The Search For Stasis." In Global Rome: Changing Faces of the Eternal City, edited by Marinaro Isabella Clough and Thomassen Bjørn, 178. Indiana University Press, 2014. Accessed March 4, 2021.
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Dyal, Mark. "Football, Romanità, and The Search For Stasis." In Global Rome: Changing Faces of the Eternal City, edited by Marinaro Isabella Clough and Thomassen Bjørn, 172. Indiana University Press, 2014. Accessed March 4, 2021.
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Dyal, Mark. "Football, Romanità, and The Search For Stasis." In Global Rome: Changing Faces of the Eternal City, edited by Marinaro Isabella Clough and Thomassen Bjørn, 175. Indiana University Press, 2014. Accessed March 4, 2021.
259:, the Roman emperor, and memorialize Fascism. "The obvious references to Rome, claimed Fascist propagandists, made the Foro Mussolini the living embodiment of the 'Mediterranean spirit and the Latin world at its best.'"
615:
McLean, Eden K. "From Instruction to Education." In Mussolini's Children: Race and Elementary Education in Fascist Italy, 98. LINCOLN; LONDON: University of Nebraska Press, 2018. Accessed March 30, 2021.
601:
McLean, Eden K. "From Instruction to Education." In Mussolini's Children: Race and Elementary Education in Fascist Italy, 97. LINCOLN; LONDON: University of Nebraska Press, 2018. Accessed March 30, 2021.
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appearance to the world. Therefore, she argued that the use of the Stadio dei Marmi in the 1960 Olympic Games was an example "of the way that Italy has never fully come to terms with its role in the
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200:. Through physical education and sports, the Fascist government aimed to create professional militia and warriors, who would readily enter war. Mussolini began the construction of the
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The 1960 Olympic Games presented an opportunity to unveil Italy's new democratic identity. Leading up to the Olympic Games, officials began debating the obvious fascist
356:'s power allowed "the Fascist past drowned under the weight of the classical and Christian heritage." The Vatican owned the land underneath the stadium, and the Pope,
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A classical statue of Doryphoros Polykeitos (440 BC - plaster cast) which, among others, influenced the sculptural design of the athletic statues encircling the stadium
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Sixty 4-meter tall Carrara marble athletic sculptures ring around the stadium, produced by 24 artists and sculptors during the Fascist regime
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Early on, the Fascist movement saw the potential of using sports to promote its political and economic ideologies. Immediately after the
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Higgins, Valerie. “Rome’s Uncomfortable Heritage: Dealing with History in the Aftermath of WWII.” Archaeologies9, no. 1 (2013): 35.
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Higgins, Valerie. “Rome’s Uncomfortable Heritage: Dealing with History in the Aftermath of WWII.” Archaeologies9, no. 1 (2013): 36.
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Higgins, Valerie. “Rome’s Uncomfortable Heritage: Dealing with History in the Aftermath of WWII.” Archaeologies9, no. 1 (2013): 33.
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Higgins, Valerie. “Rome’s Uncomfortable Heritage: Dealing with History in the Aftermath of WWII.” Archaeologies9, no. 1 (2013): 32.
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Higgins, Valerie. “Rome’s Uncomfortable Heritage: Dealing with History in the Aftermath of WWII.” Archaeologies9, no. 1 (2013): 30.
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Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana, located in the new neighborhood built by the Fascist regime, Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR)
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Giorio, Maria Beatrice. “La Scultura Fascista Di Soggetto Sportivo Tra Bellezza e Propaganda Ideologica.”
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Giorio, Maria Beatrice. “La Scultura Fascista Di Soggetto Sportivo Tra Bellezza e Propaganda Ideologica.”
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Giorio, Maria Beatrice. “La Scultura Fascista Di Soggetto Sportivo Tra Bellezza e Propaganda Ideologica.”
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iorio, Maria Beatrice. “La Scultura Fascista Di Soggetto Sportivo Tra Bellezza e Propaganda Ideologica.”
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Sixty-foot tall marble obelisk with the inscription 'Mussolini Dux' at the entrance of the Foro Italico
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309:, Italy's Fascist regime invested in large-scale construction projects such as the new neighborhood
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151:. The Stadio dei Marmi is encircled by sixty, 4-meter tall classical statues of athletes made from
281:(athlete throwing a stone), for example, the athlete's pose lacks signs of any physical exertion.
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Malone, Hannah. “Legacies of Fascism: Architecture, Heritage and Memory in Contemporary Italy.”
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Malone, Hannah. “Legacies of Fascism: Architecture, Heritage and Memory in Contemporary Italy.”
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Malone, Hannah. “Legacies of Fascism: Architecture, Heritage and Memory in Contemporary Italy.”
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Malone, Hannah. “Legacies of Fascism: Architecture, Heritage and Memory in Contemporary Italy.”
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Malone, Hannah. “Legacies of Fascism: Architecture, Heritage and Memory in Contemporary Italy.”
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Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta. “Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy.”
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views these sights solely as architecture rather than Fascist propaganda.
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Marmi was used to host some of the field hockey preliminaries for the
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maintains that democratic Italy should not erase its history, the
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Impiglia, Marco. “Arte Sportiva Fascista in Italia (1922-1943).”
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Stadio dei Marmi (erected in 1932), Foro Italico, Rome, Italy
289:' (healthy mind in a healthy body) can be achieved.
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contest, and included artists like Nicola D'Antino,
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166:2009 World Aquatics Championships
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315:Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana
143:, near the Roman neighborhood
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268:Atleta che scaglia una pietra
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413:claim indifference, and the
285:belief that through sports '
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1042:Lazio Pigeon Shooting Stand
368:restoration was managed by
311:Esposizione Universale Roma
209:Sculptures and architecture
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1451:Olympic Green Hockey Field
1390:Estadi Olímpic de Terrassa
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1027:Gulf of Naples
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223:Carrara marble
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358:Pope Pius XII
355:
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39:
32:
27:
22:
16:
1340:Hockeyanlage
1312:
1142:Via Flaminia
1106:
1077:Passo Corese
915:
882:Modern Italy
881:
859:Modern Italy
858:
770:Modern Italy
769:
727:Modern Italy
726:
721:
687:
649:Modern Italy
648:
643:
636:Academia.edu
635:
611:
577:
552:
529:
524:
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451:
399:
379:
366:
339:
307:World War II
304:
283:
278:
275:Renato Ricci
273:
267:
228:Aldo Buttini
220:
202:Foro Italico
175:
125:Foro Italico
120:
118:
15:
1230:Old Stadion
1037:Lake Albano
145:Monte Mario
89: /
64:Coordinates
1520:Categories
1137:Via Cassia
421:References
390:S.S. Lazio
252:Discobolus
248:Doryphoros
77:12°27′27″E
74:41°56′03″N
1311:(final),
1282:Velodrome
1250:(final),
411:Moderates
396:Criticism
386:A.S. Roma
305:Prior to
381:Romanità
342:insignia
257:Augustus
53:Location
1405:(final)
1364:(final)
1297:(final)
969:of the
578:Italies
553:Italies
530:Italies
452:Italies
362:Vatican
354:Vatican
346:mosaics
190:javelin
172:History
157:Fascist
153:Carrara
967:Venues
242:, and
194:hammer
188:, and
182:boxing
415:Right
196:, or
1501:2032
1492:2028
1483:2024
1474:2020
1465:2016
1456:2012
1447:2008
1438:2004
1429:2000
1395:1996
1386:1992
1377:1988
1368:1984
1354:1980
1345:1976
1336:1972
1327:1968
1318:1964
1301:1960
1287:1956
1278:1952
1257:1948
1244:1936
1235:1932
1226:1928
1217:1920
1208:1908
975:Rome
407:Left
388:and
137:CONI
119:The
57:Rome
886:doi
863:doi
839:doi
819:doi
797:doi
774:doi
750:doi
731:doi
711:doi
676:doi
653:doi
582:doi
557:doi
534:doi
514:doi
456:doi
1522::
1503::
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1356::
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1320::
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1303::
1293:,
1289::
1280::
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1246::
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1228::
1219::
1210::
896:^
873:^
850:^
830:^
808:^
784:^
761:^
741:^
701:^
663:^
625:^
592:^
567:^
544:^
487:^
466:^
429:^
392:.
344:,
230:,
192:,
184:,
168:.
1186:e
1179:t
1172:v
977:)
973:(
954:e
947:t
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924:.
910:.
888::
865::
845:.
841::
825:.
821::
803:.
799::
776::
756:.
752::
733::
713::
696:.
682:.
678::
655::
620:.
606:.
584::
559::
536::
516::
499:.
482:.
458::
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