686:
down till incapable of escaping; (3) a much longer and stouter pole or stake fixed point upwards, upon which the victim, with his hands tied behind him, was lodged in such a way that the point should enter his breast and the weight of the body cause every movement to hasten the end; and (4) a stout unpointed pole or stake set upright in the earth, from which the victim was suspended by a rope round his wrists, which were first tied behind him so that the position might become an agonising one; or to which the doomed one was bound, or, as in the case of Jesus, nailed. That this last named kind of stauros, which was admittedly that to which Jesus was affixed, had in every case a cross-bar attached, is untrue; that it had in most cases, is unlikely; that it had in the case of Jesus, is unproven.
749:
Chaldea, and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of his name) in that country and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. the churches had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the
Christian faith. In order to increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent form, with the cross-piece lowered, was adopted to stand for the "cross" of Christ.
396:
633:.) Seneca mentions three different forms: "I see", says he, "three crosses, not indeed of one sort, but fashioned in different ways; one sort suspending by the head persons bent toward the earth, others transfixing them through their secret parts, others extending their arms on a patibulum." There can be no doubt, however, that the latter sort was the more common, and that about the period of the gospel age crucifixion was usually accomplished by suspending the criminal on a cross piece of wood. But this does not of itself determine the precise form of the cross ...
20:
767:... the "fundamental" references to an upright pole in σταυρός does not rightly imply that such terminology in antiquity, when applied to crucifixion, invariably applied to a single upright beam. This is a common word study fallacy in some populist literature. In fact, such terminology often referred in antiquity to cross-shaped crucifixion devices.
748:
denotes, primarily, "an upright pale or stake." On such malefactors were nailed for execution. Both the noun and the verb stauroo, "to fasten to a stake or pale," are originally to be distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of a two beamed "cross." The shape of the latter had its origin in ancient
685:
The stauros used as an instrument of execution was (1) a small pointed pole or stake used for thrusting through the body, so as to pin the latter to the earth, or otherwise render death inevitable; (2) a similar pole or stake fixed in the ground point upwards, upon which the condemned one was forced
662:
Stauros means "an upright pale," a strong stake, such as farmers drive into the ground to make their fences or palisades — no more, no less. ... Zulon and stauros are alike the single stick, the pale, or the stake, neither more nor less, on which Jesus was impaled, or crucified. ... Neither stauros
612:
is derived) appears to have been originally an upright pole, and this always remained the more prominent part. But from the time that it began to be used as an instrument of punishment, a transverse piece of wood was commonly added: not, however, always even then. For it would seem that there were
567:
The σταυρός (stauros) was simply an upright pale or stake to which Romans nailed those who were thus said to be crucified, σταυρόω, merely means to drive stakes. It never means two pieces of wood joining at any angle. Even the Latin word crux means a mere stake. The initial letter Χ, (chi) of
604:, an upright pole, or piece of paling, on which anything might be hung, or which might be used in impaling a piece of ground. But a modification was introduced as the dominion and usages of Rome extended themselves through Greek-speaking countries. Even amongst the Romans the
521:
654:, which may have been written in the first century and was certainly earlier than 135, said that the object on which Jesus died was cross-shaped, but claimed that the author of the Epistle invented this concept. He likewise defined a
789:
made by the second century AD writer Lucian. Chapman identifies that Lucian uses the verbs άνασκολοπίζω, άνασταυρόω, and σταυρόω interchangeably, and argues that by the time of the Roman expansion into Asia Minor, the shape of the
509:
613:
more kinds of death than one by the cross; this being sometimes accomplished by transfixing the criminal with a pole, which was run through his back and spine, and came out at his mouth (
130:
means "pole" and in Homer's works is always used in the plural number, never in the singular. Instances are attested in which these pales or stakes were split and set to serve as a
507:
to describe the crucifixion of Jesus. Elsewhere, in a text of questionable attribution, Lucian likens the shape of crucifixions to that of the letter T in the final words of
1735:
1680:
1591:
1550:
1491:
1420:
1348:
1247:
1136:
832:
799:
689:
Even as late as the Middle Ages, the word stauros seems to have primarily signified a straight piece of wood without a cross-bar. For the famous Greek lexicographer,
1595:
1495:
1352:
1251:
1140:
1018:
2130:
1270:
708:
The side light thrown upon the question by Lucian is also worth noting. This writer, referring to Jesus, alludes to "That sophist of theirs who was fastened to a
991:
568:Χριστός, (Christ) was anciently used for His name, until it was displaced by the T, the initial letter of the pagan god Tammuz, about the end of cent. iv.
810:
was normally made of more than one piece of wood and resembled cross-shaped objects such as the letter T. Anglican theologian David Tombs suggests the
794:
used by the Romans for executions was more complex than a simple stake, and that cross-shaped crucifixions may have been the norm in the Roman era.
582:
1472:. Loeb Classical Library 128. Translated by Paton, W. R. Revised by F. W. Walbank and Christian Habicht. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2108:
2081:
2054:
2027:
2000:
1967:
1940:
1910:
1866:
1828:
1623:
1448:
1377:
1093:
1053:
837:
53:
56:, and it is generally translated as "cross" in religious texts, while also being translated as pillar or tree in Christian contexts.
1760:
1180:
459:
915:
818:
as the cross-piece. Similar statements are made by Jack
Finegan, Robin M. Jensen, Craig Evans, Linda Hogan and Dylan Lee Lehrke.
1162:
967:
1297:
1196:
736:
188:
1401:. Loeb Classical Library 103. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 166–167.
217:
1885:
The non-Christian cross; an enquiry into the origin and history of the symbol eventually adopted as that of our religion
1572:. Loeb Classical Library 279. Translated by Oldfather, C. H. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 408–409.
395:
73:
318:
1329:. Loeb Classical Library 166. Translated by Lamb, W. R. M. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 348–349.
239:
1228:. Loeb Classical Library 118. Translated by Godley, A. D. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 154–155.
1117:. Loeb Classical Library 108. Translated by Smith, C. F. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 184–185.
35:
1702:. Loeb Classical Library. LCL 14. translated by A. M. Harmon. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press: 408–409.
663:
nor zulon ever mean two sticks joining each other at an angle, either in the New
Testament or in any other book.
377:, at the beginning of the second century AD, described the execution on three stakes of the eunuch Masabates as
1514:
184:
2019:
The
Archeology of the New Testament: The Life of Jesus and the Beginning of the Early Church - Revised Edition
260:, also in the fifth century, likewise described the execution of Inaros in this way. The practice was called
1161:
Schiemann, Gottfried (Tübingen) (2006). "Damnatio in crucem". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.).
698:
384:
1644:
1122:
2135:
208:
806:
were being carried out as indicating that from the first century AD there is evidence that the execution
1715:
1660:
1530:
848:
694:
243:
1699:
1577:
1788:
1785:
452:
general by his own soldiers using the verb ἀνασταυρόω, while
Plutarch, using the same verb, describes
1522:
892:
876:
678:
651:
435:
285:
229:
463:, though it is unclear what kind of "suspension punishment" was involved. In the first century BC
1585:
1517:. Loeb Classical Library 65. translated by Bernadotte Perrin. Harvard University Press: 136–137.
1485:
1414:
1342:
1241:
1130:
786:
414:
364:
284:'crucifixion' or 'impalement'). As described by Herodotus in the fifth century BC and by
1652:
1406:
1334:
1019:"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Α α, , ἀνασπογγίζω , ἀνασταυρ-ίζω"
943:
2104:
2098:
2077:
2050:
2023:
2017:
1996:
1984:
1963:
1936:
1906:
1862:
1824:
1818:
1804:
1756:
1619:
1613:
1444:
1438:
1373:
1176:
1089:
1049:
727:
586:
2071:
2044:
1930:
1900:
1856:
1233:
1957:
1707:
1703:
1648:
1573:
1518:
1473:
1402:
1330:
1229:
1168:
1118:
464:
449:
1775:
1728:
1673:
1543:
827:
795:
647:
548:
1477:
670:
History of the Cross: The Pagan Origin, and
Idolatrous Adoption and Worship of the Image
19:
1858:
History of the Cross: The Pagan Origin and
Idolatrous Adoption and Worship of the Image
853:
531:
520:
426:
400:
41:
1843:
2124:
1883:
1755:(Enlarged Type ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 1970 & Appendix 162.
149:
45:
1172:
712:"; which word signified a single piece of wood, and not two pieces joined together.
405:
559:
as "an upright pale or stake", interpreting crucifixion as "hung upon a stake ...
1779:
1750:
1367:
1083:
1043:
927:
544:
422:
153:
842:
782:
503:
involved in the threat to
Semiramis. Lucian of Samosata instead uses the verb
297:
293:
257:
200:
1298:"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, ἀνασκολοπ-ίζω"
1197:"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, ἀνασταύρ-ωσις"
468:
253:
249:
157:
107:
1271:"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, ἀνασταυρ-όω"
1781:
A Critical
Lexicon and Concordance to The English and Greek New Testament
574:
A Critical
Lexicon and Concordance to The English and Greek New Testament
453:
445:
374:
180:
131:
992:"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, σταυρ-όω"
510:
The Consonants at Law - Sigma vs. Tau, in the Court of the Seven Vowels
309:
235:
144:
139:
690:
301:
179:, 'I fence with pales' or 'I crucify'; this verb was used by
563:
was not two pieces of wood at any angle". In 1877 Bullinger wrote:
519:
394:
359:
305:
44:
word for a stake or an implement of capital punishment. The Greek
18:
1115:
Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, Volume I: Books 1-2
1399:
Lives, Volume XI: Aratus. Artaxerxes. Galba. Otho. General Index
1647:. Loeb Classical Library 302. Harvard University Press: 14–15.
734:
as an item for execution was different to the Christian cross.
495:'). Diodorus elsewhere referred to a bare bronze pole as a
693:, expressly states, "Stauroi; ortha xula perpegota," and both
135:
33:
1570:
Diodorus Siculus. Library of History, Volume I: Books 1-2.34
479:
349:
330:
272:
222:
174:
1888:. London, Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton Kent & co., ltd.
1820:
The Cross that Spoke: The Origins of the Passion Narrative
403:
of one of the two meanings that he attributed to the term
72:: "straighten up", "stand"), which in turn comes from the
1468:, I:86 (2010). Walbank, F. W; Habicht, Christian (eds.).
615:
adactum per medium hominem, qui per os emergat, stipitem
1932:
Ancient Jewish and Christian Perceptions of Crucifixion
1902:
Ancient Jewish and Christian Perceptions of Crucifixion
814:
referred to the upright part of a two-beam cross, with
774:
Ancient Jewish and Christian Perceptions of Crucifixion
322:, the verbs for "impale" and "crucify" (Ancient Greek:
1123:
10.4159/DLCL.thucydides-history_peloponnesian_war.1919
600:
The Greek word for cross σταυρός properly signified a
763:
In the 21st century, David W. Chapman counters that:
421:
was the Greek word for the Roman capital punishment
343:
168:
1578:10.4159/DLCL.diodorus_siculus-library_history.1933
183:to describe execution of prisoners by the general
1226:Herodotus. The Persian Wars, Volume II: Books 3-4
471:as threatened with 'crucifixion' (Ancient Greek:
392:in the context of pointed poles standing upright.
342:'I affix to a cross' or 'I crucify', or:
234:'I impale'). The fifth century BC writer
2097:Linda Hogan; Dylan Lee Lehrke (1 January 2009).
2073:Jesus and his World: The archaeological evidence
2022:. Princeton University Press. pp. 350–352.
833:Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross
456:as having thus executed his local guides in his
191:; Hannibal is then himself executed on the same
2100:Religion and the Politics of Peace and Conflict
1993:Religion and the Politics of Peace and Conflict
1523:10.4159/dlcl.plutarch-lives_fabius_maximus.1916
765:
756:An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words
746:
683:
660:
598:
565:
968:"Herodotus, The Histories, Book 5, chapter 16"
499:and no further details are provided about the
1991:. In Hogan, Linda; Lehrke, Dylan Lee (eds.).
1844:Early Christian Writings: Epistle of Barnabas
8:
2049:. Harvard University Press. pp. 15–17.
1590:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1490:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1470:Polybius. The Histories, Volume I: Books 1-2
1419:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1347:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1246:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1135:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1653:10.4159/dlcl.lucian-passing_peregrinus.1936
1407:10.4159/DLCL.plutarch-lives_artaxerxes.1926
1335:10.4159/DLCL.plato_philosopher-gorgias.1925
486:
337:
279:
119:, as the instrument of crucifixion", or a "
2103:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 185.
1995:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 185.
1823:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 121.
1594:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1494:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1351:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1250:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1139:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
944:"Homer (c.750 BC) - The Odyssey: Book XIV"
650:, a Millerite Adventist, claimed that the
362:refers to the punishment, in his dialogue
1734:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1679:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1549:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2046:The Cross: History, Art, and Controversy
1234:10.4159/DLCL.herodotus-persian_wars.1920
798:theologian John Granger Cook interprets
1708:10.4159/dlcl.lucian-consonants_law.1913
869:
358:stake' or 'impale') are ambiguous.
296:. Herodotus described the execution of
1959:Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World
1956:John Granger Cook (10 December 2018).
1724:
1713:
1669:
1658:
1583:
1539:
1528:
1483:
1412:
1340:
1239:
1128:
2131:New Testament Greek words and phrases
1924:
1922:
1817:John Dominic Crossan (1 March 2008).
1607:
1605:
1432:
1430:
1292:
1290:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
911:
909:
907:
905:
856:, the modern Greek name derived from
781:Chapman stresses the comparison with
7:
1985:"Prisoner Abuse: From Abu Ghraib to
1861:(reprint). Cosimo, Inc. p. 27.
1478:10.4159/DLCL.polybius-histories.2010
1013:
1011:
148:or as piles for the foundation of a
1618:. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 273–274.
677:A similar view was put forward by
14:
2043:Robin M. Jensen (17 April 2017).
316:. According to the authoritative
2070:Craig Evans (17 February 2012).
1935:. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 11–12.
1855:Henry Dana Ward (1 April 2007).
1515:"Lives vol. III. Fabius Maximus"
1372:. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 42–43.
1327:Plato. Lysis. Symposium. Gorgias
1088:. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 59–61.
897:Etymological Dictionary of Greek
881:Etymological Dictionary of Greek
838:Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion
388:. Usually, Plutarch referred to
54:instrument of Jesus' crucifixion
1807:(London, 1874), Vol. I, p. 376.
1173:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e12223450
16:Greek word for a stake or cross
1962:. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 5–8.
248:, describes the impalement of
1:
2016:Jack Finegan (14 July 2014).
1801:The Imperial Bible-Dictionary
1443:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 277.
1048:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 273.
467:describes the mythical queen
448:reports the crucifixion of a
238:, in a fragment preserved by
84:"pole", related to the root *
1905:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 11.
1882:Parson, John Denham (1896).
1784:. (1877), edition from 1895
737:Vine's Expository Dictionary
480:
350:
331:
273:
223:
175:
68:comes from the verb ἵστημι (
1645:"The Passing of Peregrinus"
1612:Samuelsson, Gunnar (2013).
1437:Samuelsson, Gunnar (2013).
1366:Samuelsson, Gunnar (2013).
1082:Samuelsson, Gunnar (2013).
1042:Samuelsson, Gunnar (2013).
948:www.poetryintranslation.com
932:, Mohr Siebeck 2011, p. 241
534:of the crucifixion of Jesus
517:(σταυρός) is not mentioned.
240:Photios I of Constantinople
2152:
1929:Chapman, David W. (2008).
1899:Chapman, David W. (2008).
1749:Bullinger, E. W. (1999) .
916:Liddell and Scott: σταυρός
802:living when executions by
740:'s definition states that
472:
344:
323:
288:in the second century AD,
265:
212:
169:
34:
1987:The Passion of the Christ
640:Imperial Bible Dictionary
590:Imperial Bible Dictionary
2076:. SPCK. pp. 58–59.
1615:Crucifixion in Antiquity
1440:Crucifixion in Antiquity
1369:Crucifixion in Antiquity
1085:Crucifixion in Antiquity
1045:Crucifixion in Antiquity
930:Crucifixion in Antiquity
1700:"The Consonants at Law"
883:, Brill, 2009, p. 1391.
730:also reasoned that the
719:The Non-Christian Cross
701:affirm that it meant a
583:Free Church of Scotland
440:'sentencing to the
319:A Greek–English Lexicon
1723:Cite journal requires
1668:Cite journal requires
1538:Cite journal requires
899:, Brill, 2009, p. 601.
779:
761:
724:
675:
645:
625:.). In another place (
579:
535:
430:
410:
126:In older Greek texts,
24:
1983:Tombs, David (2009).
1566:Bibliotheca historica
1302:www.perseus.tufts.edu
1275:www.perseus.tufts.edu
1201:www.perseus.tufts.edu
1023:www.perseus.tufts.edu
996:www.perseus.tufts.edu
972:www.perseus.tufts.edu
849:Theology of the Cross
726:In the 20th century,
717:John Denham Parsons,
523:
491:'to nail up on a
398:
354:, 'fix on a pole
167:was derived the verb
22:
1694:Lucian of Samosata,
1639:Lucian of Samosata,
1752:The Companion Bible
1068:Ctesias of Cnidus,
928:Gunnar Samuelsson,
754:William Edwy Vine,
679:John Denham Parsons
652:Epistle of Barnabas
638:Patrick Fairbairn,
587:Patrick Fairbairn's
581:Nineteenth-century
543:Nineteenth-century
298:Polycrates of Samos
286:Xenophon of Ephesus
92:"to stand, to set"
74:Proto-Indo-European
1641:de morte Peregrini
1564:Diodorus Siculus,
1224:, III:125 (1921).
1113:, I:110:3 (1919).
787:Caucasus Mountains
772:David W. Chapman,
658:as a plain stake.
627:Consul. ad Marciam
536:
481:staurō prosēlōsein
473:σταυρῷ προσηλώσειν
431:damnatio in crucem
415:Hellenistic period
411:
25:
2110:978-1-63087-823-8
2083:978-0-281-06794-7
2056:978-0-674-08880-1
2029:978-1-4008-6318-1
2002:978-1-63087-823-8
1969:978-3-16-156001-9
1942:978-3-16-149579-3
1912:978-3-16-149579-3
1868:978-1-60206-330-3
1830:978-1-55635-819-7
1805:Patrick Fairbairn
1696:Iudicium Vocalium
1625:978-3-16-152508-7
1450:978-3-16-152508-7
1379:978-3-16-152508-7
1164:Brill's New Pauly
1095:978-3-16-152508-7
1055:978-3-16-152508-7
728:William Edwy Vine
668:Henry Dana Ward,
490:
478:
439:
341:
329:
283:
271:
233:
221:
199:was the verb for
121:pale for impaling
104:meant either an "
100:In ancient Greek
2143:
2115:
2114:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1980:
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1636:
1630:
1629:
1609:
1600:
1599:
1589:
1581:
1568:, II:18 (1933).
1561:
1555:
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1547:
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1534:
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1079:
1073:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1039:
1033:
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1030:
1029:
1015:
1006:
1005:
1003:
1002:
988:
982:
981:
979:
978:
964:
958:
957:
955:
954:
940:
934:
925:
919:
913:
900:
890:
884:
874:
777:
759:
722:
673:
643:
632:
624:
608:(from which our
577:
524:Justus Lipsius:
488:
485:
483:
477:romanized:
476:
474:
465:Diodorus Siculus
434:
353:
347:
346:
339:
336:
334:
328:romanized:
327:
325:
281:
278:
276:
270:romanized:
269:
267:
264:(Ancient Greek:
256:in these terms.
228:
226:
216:
214:
178:
172:
171:
39:
38:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2111:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1928:
1927:
1920:
1913:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1842:
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1811:
1799:
1795:
1776:E. W. Bullinger
1774:
1770:
1763:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1722:
1712:
1698:, XII. (1913).
1693:
1692:
1688:
1678:
1667:
1657:
1643:, XIII (1936).
1638:
1637:
1633:
1626:
1611:
1610:
1603:
1582:
1563:
1562:
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1508:
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1503:
1482:
1463:
1462:
1458:
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1411:
1397:, XVII (1926).
1392:
1391:
1387:
1380:
1365:
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1360:
1339:
1325:, 473C (1925).
1320:
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1160:
1159:
1148:
1127:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1072:3c, 688 F 14.39
1067:
1063:
1056:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1027:
1025:
1017:
1016:
1009:
1000:
998:
990:
989:
985:
976:
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966:
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942:
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937:
926:
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914:
903:
893:R. S. P. Beekes
891:
887:
877:R. S. P. Beekes
875:
871:
866:
847:Staurology, or
828:Christian cross
824:
785:chained to the
778:
771:
760:
753:
723:
716:
705:stake or pole.
674:
667:
648:Henry Dana Ward
644:
637:
630:
622:
578:
572:
553:Companion Bible
549:E. W. Bullinger
541:
529:
98:
89:
81:
62:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2149:
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2139:
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2123:
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2117:
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2109:
2089:
2082:
2062:
2055:
2035:
2028:
2008:
2001:
1975:
1968:
1948:
1941:
1918:
1911:
1891:
1874:
1867:
1847:
1836:
1829:
1809:
1793:
1768:
1761:
1741:
1725:|journal=
1686:
1670:|journal=
1631:
1624:
1601:
1556:
1540:|journal=
1501:
1456:
1449:
1426:
1385:
1378:
1358:
1313:
1286:
1257:
1212:
1188:
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1094:
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1007:
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959:
935:
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885:
868:
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862:
861:
860:
851:
845:
840:
835:
830:
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820:
769:
751:
714:
665:
635:
570:
540:
539:Interpretation
537:
532:Justus Lipsius
460:Fabius Maximus
401:Justus Lipsius
189:siege of Tunis
97:
94:
87:
79:
61:
58:
48:uses the word
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2148:
2137:
2136:Cross symbols
2134:
2132:
2129:
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2112:
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1762:9780825420993
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1512:
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1471:
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813:
809:
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801:
797:
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788:
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764:
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729:
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711:
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682:
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628:
620:
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611:
607:
603:
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562:
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366:
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321:
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287:
275:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
246:
241:
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231:
225:
219:
210:
209:Ancient Greek
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
177:
166:
161:
159:
156:recounted by
155:
151:
150:lake dwelling
147:
146:
141:
137:
133:
129:
124:
122:
118:
114:
110:
109:
103:
95:
93:
91:
83:
75:
71:
67:
59:
57:
55:
51:
47:
46:New Testament
43:
37:
31:
30:
21:
2099:
2092:
2072:
2065:
2045:
2038:
2018:
2011:
1992:
1986:
1978:
1958:
1951:
1931:
1901:
1894:
1884:
1877:
1857:
1850:
1839:
1819:
1812:
1803:, edited by
1800:
1796:
1780:
1771:
1751:
1744:
1716:cite journal
1695:
1689:
1661:cite journal
1640:
1634:
1614:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1531:cite journal
1510:
1504:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1439:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1368:
1361:
1326:
1322:
1316:
1305:. Retrieved
1301:
1278:. Retrieved
1274:
1225:
1221:
1215:
1204:. Retrieved
1200:
1191:
1163:
1114:
1110:
1109:Thucydides,
1104:
1084:
1077:
1069:
1064:
1044:
1037:
1026:. Retrieved
1022:
999:. Retrieved
995:
986:
975:. Retrieved
971:
962:
951:. Retrieved
947:
938:
929:
923:
896:
888:
880:
872:
857:
815:
811:
807:
803:
796:Presbyterian
791:
780:
773:
766:
762:
755:
747:
741:
735:
731:
725:
718:
709:
707:
702:
688:
684:
676:
669:
661:
655:
646:
639:
626:
618:
614:
609:
605:
601:
599:
593:
589:
580:
573:
566:
560:
556:
552:
542:
525:
514:
508:
505:anaskolopizo
504:
500:
496:
492:
457:
450:Carthaginian
441:
419:Anastaurosis
418:
412:
406:crux simplex
404:
389:
382:
379:anastaurosis
378:
370:
363:
355:
351:anaskolopizō
345:ἀνασκολοπίζω
317:
314:anastaurosis
313:
292:referred to
290:anastaurosis
289:
274:anastaúrōsis
266:ἀνασταύρωσις
262:anastaurosis
261:
244:
204:
196:
195:. Also from
192:
164:
162:
154:Prasiad Lake
143:
127:
125:
120:
116:
112:
105:
101:
99:
96:In Antiquity
85:
77:
69:
65:
63:
49:
28:
27:
26:
1786:pp, 818-819
1220:Herodotus,
585:theologian
547:theologian
513:; the word
423:crucifixion
245:Bibliotheca
224:anastaurízō
213:ἀνασταυρίζω
205:anastaurizo
123:a corpse".
2125:Categories
1509:Plutarch,
1464:Polybius,
1395:Artaxerxes
1393:Plutarch,
1307:2020-04-19
1280:2020-04-19
1206:2020-04-19
1028:2020-04-19
1001:2020-04-19
977:2020-04-19
953:2020-04-19
864:References
843:Staurogram
783:Prometheus
695:Eustathius
617:. Seneca,
385:Artaxerxes
371:anastauroó
332:anastauroó
324:ἀνασταυρόω
294:impalement
258:Thucydides
201:impalement
1586:cite book
1486:cite book
1466:Historiae
1415:cite book
1343:cite book
1242:cite book
1222:Historiae
1131:cite book
1111:Historiae
816:patibulum
699:Hesychius
681:in 1896.
530:Image by
469:Semiramis
413:From the
399:Image by
254:Megabyzus
250:Inaros II
218:romanized
158:Herodotus
64:The word
60:Etymology
822:See also
770:—
752:—
715:—
703:straight
666:—
636:—
592:defined
571:—
555:glossed
545:Anglican
526:De cruce
458:Life of
454:Hannibal
446:Polybius
444:').
383:Life of
375:Plutarch
185:Hannibal
181:Polybius
132:palisade
106:upright
52:for the
23:Palisade
1323:Gorgias
1321:Plato,
858:stauros
854:Stavros
812:stauros
808:stauros
804:stauros
800:writers
792:stauros
742:stauros
732:stauros
710:skolops
656:stauros
594:stauros
561:stauros
557:stauros
528:, p. 47
515:stauros
501:stauros
497:stauros
493:stauros
489:
438:
390:stauroi
381:in his
365:Gorgias
340:
310:Oroetus
300:by the
282:
242:in his
236:Ctesias
232:
220::
197:stauros
193:stauros
187:at the
176:stauróō
170:σταυρόω
165:stauros
152:on the
145:Odyssey
142:in the
140:Eumaeus
128:stauros
102:stauros
70:histēmi
66:stauros
50:stauros
40:) is a
36:σταυρός
29:Stauros
2107:
2080:
2053:
2026:
1999:
1966:
1939:
1909:
1865:
1827:
1759:
1622:
1511:Fabius
1447:
1376:
1179:
1092:
1052:
776:, 2008
758:, 1940
721:, 1896
691:Suidas
672:, 1871
642:, 1866
596:thus:
576:, 1877
369:using
302:satrap
115:", a "
76:root *
610:cross
602:stake
427:Latin
360:Plato
312:, as
306:Lydia
163:From
117:cross
113:stake
42:Greek
2105:ISBN
2078:ISBN
2051:ISBN
2024:ISBN
1997:ISBN
1964:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1907:ISBN
1863:ISBN
1825:ISBN
1757:ISBN
1736:link
1729:help
1681:link
1674:help
1620:ISBN
1596:link
1592:link
1551:link
1544:help
1496:link
1492:link
1445:ISBN
1421:link
1374:ISBN
1353:link
1349:link
1252:link
1248:link
1177:ISBN
1141:link
1137:link
1090:ISBN
1070:FGrH
1050:ISBN
697:and
606:crux
487:lit.
442:crux
436:lit.
338:lit.
280:lit.
230:lit.
134:pig
108:pale
86:steh
78:steh
1789:194
1704:doi
1649:doi
1574:doi
1519:doi
1474:doi
1403:doi
1331:doi
1230:doi
1169:doi
1119:doi
623:xiv
551:'s
304:of
252:by
138:by
136:sty
111:or
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356:or
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