Steel - Knowledge (XXG)

45: 623: 2060: 1785: 611: 1477: 1581: 1493: 975: 824:(FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%, (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron. When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe 777: 5064: 2293: 6075: 1541:(BOS), developed in 1952, and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used, and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from a BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time. Today, 6065: 2012: 5551: 1699: 418: 1793: 1065: 6112: 2068: 2171: 1917: 674:, which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F). Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in the solid-state, by heating the ore in a 1747:(CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as 869:. Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a 308:

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the

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As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects

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has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure

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In 2021, it was estimated that around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions resulted from the steel industry. Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or

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With the advent of faster and cheaper production methods, steel has become easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel in some

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Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not create a general softening of the product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases:

950:. This rapid cooling results in a hard but brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or 1317:

were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though, given the technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The

391:(BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted 816:(BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called 258:

and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons.

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Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of

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to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity.

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Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make steel, several different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At

756:, but also more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys are nevertheless frequently used for components such as nuts, bolts, and washers in applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For the most part, however, 1751:, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength steel. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of 682:

the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily.

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Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Since the technology was acquired from the

44: 690:. Since the oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy ( 835:

phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for it to

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were second, third, and fourth, respectively, according to the survey. The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route.

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from its ore, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. In the past, steel facilities would

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in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have expanded to meet demand, such as

3417: 4397: 622: 844:, leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, cementite and ferrite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called 568:

techniques such as powder metal forming, it is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by

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managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil, a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.

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within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centred austenite and forms

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will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at the boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel. The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate.

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of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m (484 and 503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in).

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and improves the alloy's temperature resistance. Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include

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into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots.

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of over 60% globally; in the United States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%.

1253:, produced in South India by about the sixth century BC and exported globally. The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of 998:

which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and is

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Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. See:

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furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the

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to martensite without the addition of heat. Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy.

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by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as

4906: 1868:, or manganese steel, contains 12–14% manganese which, when abraded, strain-hardens to form a very hard skin which resists wearing. Uses of this particular alloy include 1041:, with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out. Sometimes after a steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare. 4329: 3436: 2332: 1928:

and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure employ steel for reinforcing. It sees widespread use in

1563: 3898: 1180:(202 BC—AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, thus producing a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD. 301:, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of 1676:

As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602

4275: 1559: 1054: 4401: 485:). Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called 1924:

Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure, appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as

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Alloy steels are plain-carbon steels in which small amounts of alloying elements like chromium and vanadium have been added. Some more modern steels include

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on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal

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Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry".

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Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W.; Ambler, C.; Achebe, N. (eds.).

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and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of

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has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase.

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intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a

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The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall

852:. In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at the austenite 2864:

Akanuma, H. (2005). "The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey".

329:, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility. 6143: 3979: 897:

and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible.

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is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include:

2725: 4245: 1265:, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the 1262: 1257:, Arabic, and Latin as the finest steel in the world exported to the Romans, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called 581:

properties. Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make

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for the transformation from austenite to martensite. There is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbours.

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as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.

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10 short tons) of crude steel was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled.

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is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains little carbon (0.01%). This creates a very strong but still

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employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale wootz steel production in

6098: 5819: 5392: 5761: 5751: 4732: 4188: 1889: 1329:, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in 1293:, famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. 4536:

Venables, John D.; Girifalco, Louis A.; Patel, C. Kumar N.; McCullough, R. L.; Marchant, Roger Eric; Kukich, Diane S. (2007).

1940:, steel is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, 6088: 5773: 4500:

Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. 1 pp. 1–5

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Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the

1744: 1014: 1010: 936: 395:. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and 1445:

The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During the 17th century, it was realized that the best steel came from

694:) that retains too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. 4333: 4161: 1124:

using crucibles occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy.

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King, P. W. (2003). "The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century".

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uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost steel for use in

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at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the austenite undergoes a

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using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern

2273:. Low-background steel, steel manufactured prior to 1945, is used for certain radiation-sensitive applications such as 6148: 6105: 5680: 5335: 4821: 4303:"Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history" 4279: 3666: 2532: 1592:. In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000. 1571: 1468:

in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots.

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in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus

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Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms):

4840: 1736:, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections. 1453:, Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used. 1282:

from South India, the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC.

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dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the

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also defines a series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan as well as in developing countries.

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and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel.

2059: 5665: 5407: 5259: 3284:"An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus" 2262: 2000: 1628: 255: 5572: 5350: 5148: 1538: 1534:, which complemented the Bessemer process. It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron. 1158: 396: 388: 124: 3133:

Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa".

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came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or

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is replacing steel in some cost insensitive applications such as sports equipment and high-end automobiles.

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Since the 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into

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by the 9th to 10th century AD. In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in

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Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with the desired properties.

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Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". In Schmidt, P. (ed.).

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or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into

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were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centered in

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has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite

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such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted.

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Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania".

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in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir

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Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or

821: 817: 813: 286: 251: 61: 2512: 3974: 3368: 1357: 1313:, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel. A recent study has speculated that 5879: 5869: 5814: 5639: 5629: 5577: 5515: 5048: 4825: 4800: 4781: 4702: 4674: 4655: 4636: 4617: 4598: 4474: 4200: 3854: 3764: 3709: 3588: 3561: 3555: 3468: 3462: 3426: 3249: 3107: 3057: 3018: 2941: 2840: 2561: 1524: 1465: 1319: 1254: 1150: 874: 776: 294: 4815: 3298: 6040: 6030: 5914: 5889: 5789: 5609: 5582: 5530: 5505: 5495: 5490: 5475: 5133: 5112: 4561: 4511: 3899:"How my great-grandfather's Dofasco steel empire rose and fell, and his descendants with it" 3675: 3617: 3512: 3495: 3391: 3328: 3142: 3091: 2982: 2850: 2636: 2447: 2434:

Allen, Robert C. (December 1979). "International Competition in Iron and Steel, 1850–1913".

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Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added.

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Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes.

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At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.

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These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of

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The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel (

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The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an

912: 894: 582: 341: 216: 160: 140: 90: 52: 6132: 6015: 6005: 5874: 5824: 5685: 5655: 5624: 5535: 5188: 4977: 3687: 3631: 3524: 2613: 2382: 2347: 2239: 2116: 1857: 1644: 1617: 1613: 1596: 1439: 1394: 1378: 1296: 1274: 1273:, Sri Lanka had also adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the 1121: 1038: 906: 857: 718: 627: 615: 574: 369: 337: 3493:

Juleff, G. (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".

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Sheffield Steel and America: A Century of Commercial and Technological Independence

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When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1, Civil Engineering and Nautics

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics

2011: 1523:) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a 4696: 4592: 4586:. Vol. II, Crucible Steel: The Growth of Technology. London: Metals Society. 2584: 1709:

was one of the world's largest manufacturers of steel before its closure in 2003.

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To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard

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Making Steel: Sparrows Point and the Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might

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Bugayev, K.; Konovalov, Y.; Bychkov, Y.; Tretyakov, E.; Savin, Ivan V. (2001).

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All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the

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Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001

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It was originally created from several different materials including various

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Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as

5924: 5454: 5355: 5269: 5040: 4992: 4949: 4884: 4873:– online steel education resources, an initiative of World Steel Association 3363: 3253: 2888: 2372: 2153: 2150: 2035:, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for 1968: 1937: 1901: 1873: 1861: 1816: 1804: 1752: 1728:, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. 1450: 1423: 1366: 1279: 1246: 1234: 1218: 1132: 1117: 1113: 920: 841: 733: 706: 702: 647: 561: 494: 429: 422: 381: 314: 298: 290: 271: 267: 201: 196: 71: 66: 4879:

MATDAT Database of Properties of Unalloyed, Low-Alloy and High-Alloy Steels

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An Inherited Place: Broxmouth Hillfort and the South-East Scottish Iron Age

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Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion".

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contains a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist

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was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in

1064: 5660: 5239: 4981: 4967: 4959: 4846: 3708:(2nd ed.). London: Institute of Materials. pp. 95–99, 102–105. 3392:"Tissamaharama potsherd evidences ordinary early Tamils among population" 3317:"Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India" 2920: 2527: 1812: 1457: 1412: 1404: 1374: 1226: 1188: 1095: 1084: 1080: 1068: 986: 978: 845: 761: 714: 710: 691: 675: 659: 655: 651: 550: 522: 518: 514: 502: 486: 333: 310: 275: 104: 81: 3536: 3534: 3347:

Hobbies – Volume 68, Issue 5 – p. 45. Lightner Publishing Company (1963)

3245:

India's Legendary Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World

2067: 5980: 4137:"The Race to Remake the $ 2.5 Trillion Steel Industry With Green Steel" 4019:"Worldsteel | World crude steel output decreases by −2.8% in 2015" 3645:

Wayman, M. L.; Juleff, G. (1999). "Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka".

3103: 2507: 2459: 2403: 2183: 2170: 1925: 1916: 1819:, are nonmagnetic. Corrosion-resistant steels are abbreviated as CRES. 1461: 1145: 801: 679: 663: 570: 542: 530: 349: 109: 4719:

The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition

3179:. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press. pp. 267–276. 5485: 3516: 3000: 2028: 2024: 1992: 1960: 1827: 1640: 1431: 1173: 1140: 1030: 749: 698: 671: 554: 546: 538: 526: 498: 479: 243: 3975:

Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002

2963:"A Germanic ultrahigh carbon steel punch of the Late Roman-Iron Age" 2839:. Bangalore: Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science. 1904:, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States. The 1635:

was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share;

3333: 3316: 3162:

Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture

6020: 5904: 5525: 2837:"The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature" 2198: 2188: 2169: 2066: 2058: 2040: 2032: 2010: 1945: 1915: 1791: 1783: 1779: 1697: 1636: 1632: 1579: 1546: 1491: 1475: 1356: 1238: 1063: 995: 973: 775: 753: 621: 609: 510: 482: 416: 235: 4915: 4614:

The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England: Its Archaeology and Literature

2802: 2096: 1988: 1767: 1330: 1135:

from 490–375 BC, and ultrahigh-carbon steel was produced in the

745: 594: 475: 239: 5427: 4888: 4870: 2884:"Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel" 1102:) which are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC. 2872:. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology: 147–158. 2203: 2121:

The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.

947: 667: 643: 289:

with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and

2047:

applications due to their lower fabrication cost and weight.

1900:

has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as

1584:

Steel production (in million tons) by country as of 2007

5423: 4467:

Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards: Third Edition

1669:

Steel is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a

1213:

Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in

740:

to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in

1037:. In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one 356:. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of 4878: 4860: 4631:

Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J. T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003).

4400:. American Institute of Steel Construction. Archived from 2830: 2828: 2826: 1496:

White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace in

4566:

An introduction to microstructures, processing and design

3817: 3815: 3813: 3811: 3194:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley Blackwell. pp. 267–288. 2813: 2811: 2612:. Metallurgical Consultants. 28 June 2006. Archived from 618:

showing the conditions necessary to form different phases

4797:

Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering

4778:

Steel: A Handbook for Materials Research and Engineering

752:

decrease grain size, thereby making the steel easier to

1826:, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and 4881:– obtained from published results of materials testing 4764:

Mill & Mine: The CF&I in the Twentieth Century

4734:

The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain

4187:

Fenton, Michael D. (2008). "Iron and Steel Scrap". In

717:

also increases hardness while making it less prone to

670:, which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and 4111:"Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus" 3359:"An epigraphic perspective on the antiquity of Tamil" 3207:

The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production

3177:

The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production

2916:"East Lothian's Broxmouth fort reveals edge of steel" 2560:(with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1948:, and other household products and cooking utensils. 1430:

armor and files was described in a book published in

1116:

in the 1st millennium BCE. Metal production sites in

254:

compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high

4654:(11th ed.). Pittsburgh: AISE Steel Foundation. 3542:

Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World

3242:

Srinivasan, Sharada; Ranganathan, Srinivasa (2004).

3222:"Ancient Smelter Used Wind To Make High-Grade Steel" 3209:. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press. 2708: 2706: 1381:. Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use 465: 458: 451: 444: 293:

their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the

5963: 5782: 5694: 5648: 5558: 5461: 5373: 5288: 5220: 5197: 5187: 5157: 5126: 5086: 5071: 5013: 4958: 4945: 4372: 3883:. Vol. 2 (online ed.). 2005. p. 168. 2604: 2602: 2600: 2556:Ashby, Michael F. & Jones, David R.H. (1992) . 2496: 2494: 780:

Fe-C phase diagram for carbon steels, showing the A

26:"Steel worker" redirects here. For other uses, see 4332:. Tampere University of Technology. Archived from 4278:. Intota Expert Knowledge Services. Archived from 3746:Technological Change and the British Iron Industry 3017:(2nd ed.). Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 243. 2665: 1456:Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a 915:processes available to steel. The most common are 705:in steel add to its tensile strength and make the 4473:(3rd. ed.). ASTM International. p. 14. 1530:Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the 1079:Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in 736:, keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing 4845:. University of Pittsburgh Press. Archived from 4671:Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 4077:"Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand" 3584:The Story of Civilization, Our Oriental Heritage 3056:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 69. 1407:made from raw iron ore was refined (fined) in a 1139:from the 2nd-4th centuries AD. The Roman author 1005:The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and 889:on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of 713:increases hardness and melting temperature, and 4795:Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, ed. (1993). 4776:Verein Deutscher Eisenhüttenleute, ed. (1992). 3994:"India's steel industry steps onto world stage" 4767:. University of Nebraska Press. Archived from 4516:Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Architecture 3934: 3851:History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages 820:. At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a 709:form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, 5439: 4900: 4453:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–62. 1299:, apparently ultimately from the writings of 728:forms on the metal surface; this is known as 8: 4722:. Cambridge University Press. Archived from 4220:The World Steel Association (1 March 2018). 3836: 3783: 2940:. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. 2013. 2790: 2778: 2766: 2754: 2712: 2697: 2685: 2659: 2333:History of the steel industry (1970–present) 1564:History of the steel industry (1970–present) 387:Further refinements in the process, such as 3699: 3697: 1655:carbon capture and utilization technology. 812:, the most stable form of pure iron is the 5446: 5432: 5424: 5194: 5083: 4955: 4907: 4893: 4885: 4752:. Harvard University Press. Archived from 4669:Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006). 4652:The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel 4650:Fruehan, R. J.; Wakelin, David H. (1998). 4197:United States Government Publishing Office 3488: 3486: 3484: 3248:. National Institute of Advanced Studies. 3237: 3235: 2671: 2579: 2577: 1898:American Society for Testing and Materials 1545:(EAF) are a common method of reprocessing 34: 4050:. World Steel Association. Archived from 3621: 3608:Sanderson, Katharine (15 November 2006). 3332: 3164:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 1560:History of the steel industry (1850–1970) 1263:200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama 1055:History of the steel industry (1850–1970) 796:critical temperatures for heat treatments 662:, was first applied to metals with lower 352:in the mid-19th century, and then by the 283:body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic 4633:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing 3980:United States Government Printing Office 3763:(3rd ed.). Chichester: Phillimore. 3321:Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 2892:. Chennai. 26 March 2009. Archived from 2835:Srinivasan, S.; Ranganathan, S. (1994). 2817: 1788:Forging a structural member out of steel 1732:is alloyed with other elements, usually 4162:"Global Steel Industry's GHG Emissions" 3761:The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire 3220:Wilford, John Noble (6 February 1996). 2426: 1766:, through hot-dip or electroplating in 1415:, which was then used in steel-making. 981:pellets used in the production of steel 589:objects. Steel is distinguishable from 188: 132: 89: 51: 37: 16:Metal alloy of iron with other elements 4616:. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. 3357:Mahathevan, Iravatham (24 June 2010). 3277: 3275: 2961:Godfrey, Evelyne; et al. (2004). 1983:such as bulldozers, office furniture, 856:until the percentage of carbon in the 638:Iron is commonly found in the Earth's 457:'made of steel', which is related to * 4749:History of the British Steel Industry 4564:; Jones, David Rayner Hunkin (1992). 3892: 3890: 3587:. Simon & Schuster. p. 529. 2551: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2474:"Decarbonization in steel | McKinsey" 1807:. Some stainless steels, such as the 1143:identifies steel weapons such as the 970:List of countries by steel production 873:(BCT) structure. There is no thermal 7: 6111: 4512:"Steel in 20th Century Architecture" 4195:. Vol. 1: Metals and Minerals. 3897:Sherman, Zander (4 September 2019). 3557:Ancient and Medieval India. Volume 2 3464:Ancient and Mediæval India. Volume 2 3425:. Taipei: Caves Books. p. 282. 1385:, which has proven more economical. 4817:Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist 4510:Ochshorn, Jonathan (11 June 2002). 3042:. Taipei: Caves Books. p. 563. 401:recycling rate of over 60% globally 274:, typically need an additional 11% 3610:"Sharpest cut from nanotube sword" 1951:Other common applications include 1896:defining many types of steel. The 1309:was rewarded by the defeated King 1245:and Dehigaha Alakanda, regions of 1127:High-carbon steel was produced in 885:on the crystals of martensite and 732:. Tungsten slows the formation of 14: 4377:American Iron and Steel Institute 4328:Mirko, Centi; Saliceti, Stefano. 4135:Rossi, Marcello (4 August 2022). 3992:Chopra, Anuj (12 February 2007). 3540:Coghlan, Herbert Henery. (1977). 3054:A History of Chinese Civilization 2967:Journal of Archaeological Science 1995:in the form of personal vests or 1936:. Despite the growth in usage of 1876:edges, and cutting blades on the 1426:from 1601. A similar process for 646:, usually an iron oxide, such as 407:Definitions and related materials 6110: 6074: 6073: 6063: 5820:Extended producer responsibility 5549: 5062: 4746:Carr, J. C.; Taplin, W. (1962). 4701:. University of Illinois Press. 4449:Tweedale, Geoffrey, ed. (1987). 4246:"High strength low alloy steels" 2866:Anatolian Archaeological Studies 2666:Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003 2291: 2079:As reinforcing bars and mesh in 1472:Processes starting from pig iron 1389:Processes starting from bar iron 43: 6144:2nd-millennium BC introductions 4424:"Properties of Maraging Steels" 4189:United States Geological Survey 3297:: 27–43 (p. 29). Archived from 3015:Iron and Steel in Ancient China 2436:The Journal of Economic History 2101:Input to reforging applications 2093:in modern buildings and bridges 2019:Before the introduction of the 1890:Society of Automotive Engineers 1527:material to remove phosphorus. 1507:began with the introduction of 1418:The production of steel by the 848:, named for its resemblance to 4612:Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1994). 4166:Global Efficiency Intelligence 4083:. 1 March 2008. Archived from 3390:Ragupathy, P. (28 June 2010). 3192:A Companion to African History 1834:. This also allows the use of 1830:or other elements to maximize 1745:corporate average fuel economy 1: 5986:Container-deposit legislation 4932:History of ferrous metallurgy 4673:(4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. 3798:Journal of Industrial History 3748:. Princeton University Press. 3096:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085 1770:for protection against rust. 1738:High strength low alloy steel 1484:in the Museum of Industry in 1345:via repeated forging under a 1051:History of ferrous metallurgy 384:until the late 20th century. 28:Steel worker (disambiguation) 5175:Argon oxygen decarburization 3935:Fruehan & Wakelin (1998) 3315:Srinivasan, Sharada (1994). 3135:Journal of Field Archaeology 2378:Second Industrial Revolution 1815:, while others, such as the 1568:Global steel industry trends 1269:. The Chinese and locals in 1176:steel, while Chinese of the 1172:(403–221 BC) had 1075:in the 5th to 15th centuries 344:. This was followed by the 5681:Materials recovery facility 5336:Differential heat treatment 4814:Verhoeven, John D. (2007). 4737:. Routledge. Archived from 4731:Hasegawa, Harukiyu (1996). 4582:Barraclough, K. C. (1984). 4573:Barraclough, K. C. (1984). 3849:Swank, James Moore (1892). 3822:"Iron and steel industry". 3667:Journal of Economic History 2726:"Quench hardening of steel" 2533:Online Etymology Dictionary 1572:Steel production by country 1249:. This came to be known as 994:the raw steel product into 6170: 4761:Scamehorn, H. Lee (1992). 3554:Manning, Charlotte Speir. 3461:Manning, Charlotte Speir. 3147:10.1179/009346983791504228 3013:Wagner, Donald B. (1993). 2444:Cambridge University Press 2250: 2163: 2129: 2039:, including those used in 1777: 1717: 1691: 1662: 1557: 1498:Brackenridge, Pennsylvania 1392: 1202: 1048: 967: 961: 904: 410: 189:Other iron-based materials 25: 18: 6059: 5547: 5311: 5260:Ferritic nitrocarburizing 5060: 4927: 4594:Iron and Steel Production 4464:Bringas, John E. (2004). 4222:"Steel and raw materials" 4045:"Top Steelmakers in 2017" 3731:A Dynasty of Ironfounders 3680:10.1017/S0022050700061842 2987:10.1016/j.jas.2004.02.002 2452:10.1017/S0022050700098673 2400:, used in Japanese swords 2257:Steel manufactured after 2071:A steel pylon suspending 2001:rolled homogeneous armour 1629:British Geological Survey 760:elements such as sulfur, 654:. Iron is extracted from 285:. The interaction of the 266:, which are resistant to 5351:Post weld heat treatment 4839:Warren, Kenneth (2001). 4568:. Butterworth-Heinemann. 3998:Cristian Science Monitor 3918:"Basic oxygen process". 3704:Tylecote, R. F. (1992). 3416:Needham, Joseph (1986). 3052:Gernet, Jacques (1982). 3038:Needham, Joseph (1986). 2791:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2779:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2767:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2755:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2713:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2698:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2686:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2660:Smith & Hashemi 2006 2593:(online ed.). 2007. 2501:Hartman, Roy A. (2009). 1762:Carbon Steels are often 1539:basic oxygen steelmaking 1460:rather than having been 1191:by the ancestors of the 911:There are many types of 389:basic oxygen steelmaking 125:Widmanstätten structures 6011:Reverse vending machine 4937:List of steel producers 4865:World Steel Association 4635:(9th ed.). Wiley. 4543:Encyclopædia Britannica 4358:Encyclopædia Britannica 4355:"Galvanic protection". 3921:Encyclopædia Britannica 3880:Encyclopædia Britannica 3824:Encyclopædia Britannica 3706:A History of Metallurgy 3282:Feuerbach, Ann (2005). 3160:Schmidt, Peter (1978). 2590:Encyclopædia Britannica 2558:Engineering Materials 2 2343:List of blade materials 2271:nuclear weapons testing 2224:Body piercing jewellery 2209:Rail passenger vehicles 1836:precipitation hardening 1707:Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 1665:Ferrous metal recycling 1576:List of steel producers 1183:There is evidence that 871:body-centred tetragonal 467: 460: 453: 446: 397:greenhouse gas emission 393:standards organizations 378:Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 6051:Water recycling shower 5895:Reuse of human excreta 5865:Recycling (ecological) 5850:Material flow analysis 5165:Electro-slag remelting 4695:Reutter, Mark (2005). 4193:Minerals Yearbook 2008 3729:Raistrick, A. (1953). 2672:Ashby & Jones 1992 2178: 2075: 2064: 2016: 1921: 1797: 1789: 1710: 1622:largest steel producer 1616:. As of 2017, though, 1585: 1532:Siemens-Martin process 1521:basic Bessemer process 1500: 1489: 1370: 1076: 982: 797: 635: 619: 606:Origins and production 432: 332:Steel was produced in 21:Steel (disambiguation) 5840:Interchangeable parts 5835:Industrial metabolism 5375:Production by country 4716:Burn, Duncan (1961). 4584:Steel Before Bessemer 4575:Steel before Bessemer 3647:Historical Metallurgy 3623:10.1038/news061113-11 3581:Durant, Will (1942). 3544:. Oxprint. pp. 99–100 2173: 2138:Intermodal containers 2070: 2062: 2014: 1965:offshore construction 1919: 1811:stainless steels are 1795: 1787: 1701: 1583: 1543:electric arc furnaces 1495: 1479: 1449:of a region north of 1360: 1170:Warring States period 1067: 977: 779: 630:steel workpiece in a 625: 613: 420: 6046:Water heat recycling 6036:Waste management law 5361:Superplastic forming 5280:Quench polish quench 5170:Vacuum arc remelting 5149:Basic oxygen process 5144:Electric arc furnace 4256:on 21 September 2020 3759:Trinder, B. (2000). 3744:Hyde, C. K. (1977). 2853:on 19 November 2018. 2662:, p. 363—2.08%. 2610:"Alloying of Steels" 2253:Low-background steel 2194:Surgical instruments 2126:Weathering (COR-TEN) 2073:overhead power lines 2015:A carbon steel knife 1920:A roll of steel wool 1796:Cor-Ten rust coating 1590:economic development 1403:In these processes, 1301:Zosimos of Panopolis 1187:was made in Western 1071:smelting during the 577:than steel and good 439:originates from the 19:For other uses, see 5996:Ethical consumerism 5930:Urban lumberjacking 5860:Product stewardship 5810:Eco-industrial park 5316:Cryogenic treatment 5139:Open hearth furnace 5127:Primary (Post-1850) 5118:Cementation process 5005:Direct reduced iron 4871:SteelUniversity.org 4538:"Materials science" 4490:on 27 January 2007. 4430:on 25 February 2009 4404:on 22 December 2007 4398:"Steel Interchange" 4309:on 23 December 2007 4250:SchoolScience.co.uk 3837:Barraclough (1984b) 3784:Barraclough (1984a) 3509:1996Natur.379...60J 3260:on 11 February 2019 3088:1978Sci...201.1085S 3082:(4361): 1085–1089. 2979:2004JArSc..31.1117G 2803:Bugayev et al. 2001 2793:, pp. 361–362. 2736:on 17 February 2009 2715:, pp. 373–378. 2700:, pp. 365–372. 2668:, p. 75—2.11%. 2616:on 21 February 2007 2279:radiation shielding 2081:reinforced concrete 1680:10 long tons; 1.795 1482:open hearth furnace 1420:cementation process 1307:Alexander the Great 1285:The manufacture of 1092:archaeological site 1017:. Slabs are hot or 840:out of solution as 601:Material properties 354:open-hearth furnace 323:tempering behaviour 315:quenching behaviour 252:fracture resistance 120:Tempered martensite 6149:Building materials 6069:Environment portal 5940:Waste minimisation 5885:Reusable packaging 5830:Industrial ecology 5087:Primary (Pre-1850) 4546:(online ed.). 4276:"Dual-phase steel" 4115:The New York Times 4109:(1 January 2009). 4025:on 2 February 2017 3904:The Globe and Mail 3875:"Bessemer process" 3226:The New York Times 2924:. 15 January 2014. 2637:"Density of Steel" 2179: 2174:A stainless steel 2142:Outdoor sculptures 2076: 2065: 2041:clocks and watches 2017: 1922: 1832:solution hardening 1798: 1790: 1711: 1586: 1503:The modern era in 1501: 1490: 1442:during the 1610s. 1371: 1363:Bessemer converter 1341:that used partial 1199:Wootz and Damascus 1133:Broxmouth Hillfort 1077: 983: 822:face-centred cubic 814:body-centred cubic 798: 744:. The addition of 642:in the form of an 636: 620: 573:as it has a lower 433: 340:and production of 287:allotropes of iron 6154:Roofing materials 6126: 6125: 5880:Resource recovery 5870:Refill (campaign) 5815:Ecological design 5795:Dematerialization 5605:Fluorescent lamps 5421: 5420: 5369: 5368: 5183: 5182: 5058: 5057: 5049:Induction furnace 4867:(WorldSteel.org) 4822:ASM International 4741:on 18 April 2012. 4708:978-0-252-07233-8 4604:978-0-89499-109-7 4597:. Minerva Group. 4562:Ashby, Michael F. 4234:on 9 August 2018. 4206:978-1-4113-3015-3 4057:on 23 August 2018 3937:, pp. 48–52. 3853:. Burt Franklin. 3786:, pp. 48–52. 3567:978-0-543-92943-3 3474:978-0-543-92943-3 3304:on 30 April 2011. 2999:"Noricus ensis", 2947:978-1-908332-05-9 2526:Harper, Douglas. 2515:on 14 April 2008. 1999:(better known as 1840:weathering steels 1466:Benjamin Huntsman 1320:ancient Sinhalese 1151:Iberian Peninsula 1108:was developed in 1000:continuously cast 937:recrystallization 875:activation energy 471:'standing firm'. 370:The German states 295:crystal structure 229: 228: 6161: 6114: 6113: 6077: 6076: 6067: 6041:Waste management 6031:Waste collection 5890:Reuse of bottles 5790:Circular economy 5767:Northern Ireland 5553: 5448: 5441: 5434: 5425: 5195: 5134:Bessemer process 5084: 5066: 4956: 4909: 4902: 4895: 4886: 4861:Official website 4850: 4835: 4810: 4791: 4772: 4771:on 26 July 2012. 4757: 4756:on 29 July 2012. 4742: 4727: 4726:on 26 July 2012. 4712: 4684: 4665: 4646: 4627: 4608: 4587: 4578: 4569: 4548: 4547: 4533: 4527: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4507: 4501: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4483:. Archived from 4472: 4461: 4455: 4454: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4426:. Archived from 4420: 4414: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4394: 4388: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4373:"Steel Glossary" 4369: 4363: 4362: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4305:. Archived from 4298: 4292: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4263: 4261: 4252:. Archived from 4242: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4227:. Archived from 4226: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4168:. 6 January 2021 4158: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4107:Uchitelle, Louis 4103: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4073: 4067: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4056: 4049: 4041: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4021:. Archived from 4015: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3989: 3983: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3950:. Archived from 3948:"Steel Industry" 3944: 3938: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3894: 3885: 3884: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3819: 3806: 3805: 3793: 3787: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3701: 3692: 3691: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3625: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3578: 3572: 3571: 3551: 3545: 3538: 3529: 3528: 3517:10.1038/379060a0 3490: 3479: 3478: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3441: 3435:. Archived from 3424: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3367:. Archived from 3354: 3348: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3336: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3288: 3279: 3270: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3256:. Archived from 3239: 3230: 3229: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3071: 3065: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3010: 3004: 2997: 2991: 2990: 2973:(8): 1117–1125. 2958: 2952: 2951: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2896:on 29 March 2009 2880: 2874: 2873: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2849:. Archived from 2832: 2821: 2815: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2782: 2776: 2770: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2732:. Archived from 2722: 2716: 2710: 2701: 2695: 2689: 2683: 2677: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2632: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2606: 2595: 2594: 2581: 2572: 2571: 2553: 2538: 2537: 2523: 2517: 2516: 2511:. Archived from 2498: 2489: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2470: 2464: 2463: 2431: 2338:Iron in folklore 2313:Direct reduction 2301: 2299:Chemistry portal 2296: 2295: 2294: 2132:Weathering steel 2112:Major appliances 2091:Structural steel 2021:Bessemer process 1977:washing machines 1930:major appliances 1892:has a series of 1757:phase transition 1749:dual-phase steel 1683: 1679: 1339:Bessemer process 1315:carbon nanotubes 1305:In 327 BC, 1304: 1267:classical period 1241:, as well as in 1157:was used by the 1027:structural steel 854:grain boundaries 810:room temperature 742:high-speed steel 666:points, such as 545:, and traces of 470: 463: 456: 449: 346:Bessemer process 264:Stainless steels 256:tensile strength 176:Weathering steel 171:High-speed steel 47: 35: 6169: 6168: 6164: 6163: 6162: 6160: 6159: 6158: 6129: 6128: 6127: 6122: 6055: 6026:Waste-to-energy 5991:Dumpster diving 5959: 5935:Waste hierarchy 5910:Right to repair 5778: 5747:The Netherlands 5702:Rate by country 5690: 5644: 5554: 5545: 5457: 5452: 5422: 5417: 5365: 5341:Decarburization 5307: 5284: 5225: 5216: 5179: 5153: 5122: 5094:Pattern welding 5075: 5067: 5054: 5009: 4998:Anthracite iron 4947: 4946:Iron production 4941: 4923: 4913: 4857: 4838: 4832: 4813: 4807: 4794: 4788: 4775: 4760: 4745: 4730: 4715: 4709: 4694: 4691: 4689:Further reading 4681: 4668: 4662: 4649: 4643: 4630: 4624: 4611: 4605: 4590: 4581: 4572: 4560: 4557: 4552: 4551: 4535: 4534: 4530: 4520: 4518: 4509: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4495: 4487: 4481: 4470: 4463: 4462: 4458: 4448: 4447: 4443: 4433: 4431: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4407: 4405: 4396: 4395: 4391: 4381: 4379: 4371: 4370: 4366: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4339: 4337: 4336:on 7 March 2008 4327: 4326: 4322: 4312: 4310: 4301:Werner, Ewald. 4300: 4299: 4295: 4285: 4283: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4259: 4257: 4244: 4243: 4239: 4231: 4224: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4207: 4186: 4185: 4181: 4171: 4169: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4145: 4143: 4141:Singularity Hub 4134: 4133: 4129: 4119: 4117: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4090: 4088: 4075: 4074: 4070: 4060: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4043: 4042: 4038: 4028: 4026: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3971: 3967: 3957: 3955: 3954:on 18 June 2009 3946: 3945: 3941: 3933: 3929: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3896: 3895: 3888: 3873: 3872: 3868: 3861: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3835: 3831: 3821: 3820: 3809: 3795: 3794: 3790: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3758: 3757: 3753: 3743: 3742: 3738: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3716: 3703: 3702: 3695: 3663: 3662: 3658: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3607: 3606: 3602: 3595: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3568: 3553: 3552: 3548: 3539: 3532: 3492: 3491: 3482: 3475: 3460: 3459: 3455: 3445: 3443: 3439: 3433: 3422: 3415: 3414: 3410: 3400: 3398: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3374: 3372: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3301: 3286: 3281: 3280: 3273: 3263: 3261: 3241: 3240: 3233: 3219: 3218: 3214: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3189: 3188: 3184: 3174: 3173: 3169: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3073: 3072: 3068: 3051: 3047: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3012: 3011: 3007: 3003:, Odes, i. 16.9 2998: 2994: 2960: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2899: 2897: 2882: 2881: 2877: 2863: 2862: 2858: 2847: 2834: 2833: 2824: 2818:Davidson (1994) 2816: 2809: 2801: 2797: 2789: 2785: 2777: 2773: 2765: 2761: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2737: 2730:keytometals.com 2724: 2723: 2719: 2711: 2704: 2696: 2692: 2684: 2680: 2655: 2651: 2641: 2639: 2634: 2633: 2629: 2619: 2617: 2608: 2607: 2598: 2583: 2582: 2575: 2568: 2555: 2554: 2541: 2525: 2524: 2520: 2500: 2499: 2492: 2482: 2480: 2472: 2471: 2467: 2433: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2297: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2275:Geiger counters 2255: 2249: 2244: 2168: 2166:Stainless steel 2162: 2134: 2128: 2108: 2086:Railroad tracks 2057: 2009: 2003:in this role). 1981:heavy equipment 1914: 1886: 1874:bulldozer blade 1866:Robert Hadfield 1801:Stainless steel 1782: 1776: 1730:Low alloy steel 1722: 1716: 1703:Bethlehem Steel 1696: 1690: 1681: 1677: 1667: 1661: 1620:is the world's 1578: 1556: 1474: 1447:oregrounds iron 1401: 1393:Main articles: 1391: 1355: 1343:decarburization 1294: 1211: 1203:Main articles: 1201: 1174:quench-hardened 1100:Kaman-Kalehöyük 1062: 1057: 1049:Main articles: 1047: 972: 966: 960: 909: 903: 850:mother of pearl 827: 795: 791: 787: 783: 774: 730:stainless steel 614:An iron-carbon 608: 603: 415: 409: 166:Stainless steel 91:Microstructures 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6167: 6165: 6157: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6131: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6120: 6108: 6103: 6102: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6071: 6060: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5971:Bottle cutting 5967: 5965: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5845:Land recycling 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5786: 5784: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5776: 5771: 5770: 5769: 5762:United Kingdom 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5698: 5696: 5692: 5691: 5689: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5591: 5590: 5580: 5575: 5573:Automotive oil 5570: 5564: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5548: 5546: 5544: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5467: 5465: 5459: 5458: 5453: 5451: 5450: 5443: 5436: 5428: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5379: 5377: 5371: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5327: 5322: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5305: 5300: 5294: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5245:Carbonitriding 5242: 5237: 5231: 5229: 5227:Case-hardening 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5209: 5203: 5201: 5192: 5189:Heat treatment 5185: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5159: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5130: 5128: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5120: 5115: 5113:Tatara furnace 5110: 5103:Damascus steel 5099:Crucible steel 5096: 5090: 5088: 5081: 5069: 5068: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5055: 5053: 5052: 5045:Cupola furnace 5038: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5007: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4975: 4964: 4962: 4953: 4943: 4942: 4940: 4939: 4934: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4914: 4912: 4911: 4904: 4897: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4856: 4855:External links 4853: 4852: 4851: 4849:on 1 May 2010. 4836: 4830: 4811: 4805: 4792: 4786: 4773: 4758: 4743: 4728: 4713: 4707: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4685: 4679: 4666: 4660: 4647: 4641: 4628: 4622: 4609: 4603: 4588: 4579: 4570: 4556: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4528: 4502: 4493: 4479: 4456: 4441: 4415: 4389: 4364: 4347: 4320: 4293: 4282:on 25 May 2011 4267: 4237: 4212: 4205: 4179: 4153: 4127: 4098: 4087:on 25 May 2024 4068: 4036: 4010: 3984: 3965: 3939: 3927: 3910: 3886: 3866: 3859: 3841: 3829: 3807: 3788: 3776: 3769: 3751: 3736: 3721: 3714: 3693: 3656: 3637: 3600: 3593: 3573: 3566: 3546: 3530: 3480: 3473: 3453: 3442:on 3 July 2017 3431: 3408: 3382: 3371:on 1 July 2010 3349: 3340: 3334:10.5334/pia.60 3307: 3271: 3231: 3212: 3197: 3182: 3167: 3152: 3141:(4): 421–434. 3125: 3066: 3045: 3030: 3023: 3005: 2992: 2953: 2946: 2927: 2907: 2875: 2856: 2845: 2822: 2807: 2795: 2783: 2771: 2769:, p. 388. 2759: 2757:, p. 249. 2747: 2717: 2702: 2690: 2688:, p. 363. 2678: 2676: 2675: 2669: 2663: 2649: 2635:Elert, Glenn. 2627: 2596: 2573: 2566: 2539: 2518: 2490: 2465: 2425: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2416: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2395: 2390: 2388:Steel abrasive 2385: 2380: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2323:Damascus steel 2320: 2315: 2310: 2304: 2303: 2302: 2286: 2283: 2251:Main article: 2248: 2247:Low-background 2245: 2243: 2242: 2240:space stations 2234:Components of 2232: 2226: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2180: 2164:Main article: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2156: 2148: 2143: 2140: 2130:Main article: 2127: 2124: 2123: 2122: 2119: 2117:Magnetic cores 2114: 2107: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2094: 2088: 2083: 2063:A steel bridge 2056: 2053: 2008: 2005: 1997:vehicle armour 1913: 1910: 1885: 1882: 1864:, named after 1862:Hadfield steel 1844:Maraging steel 1778:Main article: 1775: 1772: 1718:Main article: 1715: 1712: 1689: 1686: 1671:recycling rate 1663:Main article: 1660: 1657: 1610:Baosteel Group 1604:(which bought 1555: 1552: 1509:Henry Bessemer 1473: 1470: 1428:case hardening 1399:Crucible steel 1390: 1387: 1354: 1351: 1327:Crucible steel 1297:trace elements 1291:Damascus steel 1231:Andhra Pradesh 1209:Damascus steel 1200: 1197: 1159:Roman military 1110:Southern India 1061: 1058: 1046: 1043: 962:Main article: 959: 956: 905:Main article: 902: 901:Heat treatment 899: 895:work hardening 825: 793: 789: 785: 781: 773: 770: 678:fire and then 607: 604: 602: 599: 583:malleable iron 564:. With modern 441:Proto-Germanic 408: 405: 342:crucible steel 327:yield strength 246:with improved 227: 226: 225: 224: 219: 217:Malleable iron 214: 209: 204: 199: 191: 190: 186: 185: 184: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 161:Maraging steel 158: 153: 148: 143: 141:Crucible steel 135: 134: 130: 129: 128: 127: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 94: 93: 87: 86: 85: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 56: 55: 49: 48: 40: 39: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6166: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6119: 6118: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6100: 6099:organizations 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6072: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6061: 6058: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6016:Simple living 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6006:Pallet crafts 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5962: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5945:Waste picking 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5920: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5875:Repairability 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5825:Green economy 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5781: 5775: 5774:United States 5772: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5693: 5687: 5686:Waste sorting 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5615:Mobile phones 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5561: 5557: 5552: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5449: 5444: 5442: 5437: 5435: 5430: 5429: 5426: 5414: 5413:United States 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5378: 5376: 5372: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5310: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5275:Precipitation 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5223: 5219: 5213: 5212:Short circuit 5210: 5208: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5200: 5196: 5193: 5190: 5186: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5156: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5079: 5074: 5070: 5065: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5039: 5036: 5033: 5030: 5029:Reverberatory 5026: 5022: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5012: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4978:Blast furnace 4976: 4973: 4969: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4957: 4954: 4951: 4944: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4929: 4926: 4921: 4917: 4910: 4905: 4903: 4898: 4896: 4891: 4890: 4887: 4880: 4877: 4872: 4869: 4868: 4866: 4862: 4859: 4858: 4854: 4848: 4844: 4843: 4837: 4833: 4831:9781615030569 4827: 4823: 4819: 4818: 4812: 4808: 4806:3-540-54075-X 4802: 4798: 4793: 4789: 4787:3-540-52968-3 4783: 4779: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4765: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4735: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4720: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4700: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4680:0-07-295358-6 4676: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4661:0-930767-03-9 4657: 4653: 4648: 4644: 4642:0-471-65653-4 4638: 4634: 4629: 4625: 4623:0-85115-355-0 4619: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4600: 4596: 4595: 4589: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4545: 4544: 4539: 4532: 4529: 4517: 4513: 4506: 4503: 4497: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4480:0-8031-3362-6 4476: 4469: 4468: 4460: 4457: 4452: 4445: 4442: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4416: 4403: 4399: 4393: 4390: 4378: 4374: 4368: 4365: 4360: 4359: 4351: 4348: 4335: 4331: 4324: 4321: 4308: 4304: 4297: 4294: 4281: 4277: 4271: 4268: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4241: 4238: 4230: 4223: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4183: 4180: 4167: 4163: 4157: 4154: 4142: 4138: 4131: 4128: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4099: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4072: 4069: 4053: 4046: 4040: 4037: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4011: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3976: 3969: 3966: 3953: 3949: 3943: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3928: 3923: 3922: 3914: 3911: 3906: 3905: 3900: 3893: 3891: 3887: 3882: 3881: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3862: 3860:0-8337-3463-6 3856: 3852: 3845: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3830: 3825: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3792: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3777: 3772: 3770:9781860771330 3766: 3762: 3755: 3752: 3747: 3740: 3737: 3732: 3725: 3722: 3717: 3715:0-901462-88-8 3711: 3707: 3700: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3668: 3660: 3657: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3604: 3601: 3596: 3594:0-671-54800-X 3590: 3586: 3585: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3563: 3559: 3558: 3550: 3547: 3543: 3537: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3497: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3470: 3466: 3465: 3457: 3454: 3438: 3434: 3432:0-521-05802-3 3428: 3421: 3420: 3412: 3409: 3397: 3393: 3386: 3383: 3370: 3366: 3365: 3360: 3353: 3350: 3344: 3341: 3335: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3311: 3308: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3285: 3278: 3276: 3272: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3246: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3213: 3208: 3201: 3198: 3193: 3186: 3183: 3178: 3171: 3168: 3163: 3156: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3129: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3067: 3063: 3062:0-521-49781-7 3059: 3055: 3049: 3046: 3041: 3034: 3031: 3026: 3024:90-04-09632-9 3020: 3016: 3009: 3006: 3002: 2996: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2957: 2954: 2949: 2943: 2939: 2938: 2931: 2928: 2923: 2922: 2917: 2911: 2908: 2895: 2891: 2890: 2885: 2879: 2876: 2871: 2867: 2860: 2857: 2852: 2848: 2846:0-85115-355-0 2842: 2838: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2823: 2820:, p. 20. 2819: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2805:, p. 225 2804: 2799: 2796: 2792: 2787: 2784: 2781:, p. 361 2780: 2775: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2748: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2694: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2638: 2631: 2628: 2615: 2611: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2591: 2586: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2569: 2567:0-08-032532-7 2563: 2559: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2534: 2529: 2522: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2509: 2504: 2497: 2495: 2491: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2466: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2427: 2420: 2415: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2383:Silicon steel 2381: 2379: 2376: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 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product 6084:by country 6001:Freeganism 5981:Composting 5955:Zero waste 5855:Precycling 5676:Collection 5666:Blue boxes 5568:Appliances 5403:Luxembourg 5383:Bangladesh 5325:Deflashing 5235:Ausforming 5078:Steel mill 4988:Cold blast 4980:(produces 4970:(produces 4922:production 4091:2 November 3401:31 October 3375:31 October 3264:5 December 2585:"Smelting" 2421:References 2398:Tamahagane 2393:Steel mill 2236:spacecraft 2219:Trash Cans 2176:gravy boat 2154:train cars 2007:Historical 1985:steel wool 1817:austenitic 1764:galvanized 1734:molybdenum 1692:See also: 1643:, and the 1608:in 2007), 1602:Tata Steel 1558:See also: 1517:mild steel 1347:cold blast 1335:Song China 1259:Seric Iron 1223:Tamil Nadu 1215:South Asia 1081:bloomeries 1029:, such as 1007:hot rolled 968:See also: 958:Production 867:martensite 833:austenitic 772:Properties 766:phosphorus 738:martensite 688:Bronze Age 632:blacksmith 535:phosphorus 507:molybdenum 454:stakhlijan 411:See also: 374:Pittsburgh 362:Mild steel 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