Steve Biko - Knowledge (XXG)

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absence of whiteness. In response, Biko replaced "non-white" with the category "black," which he regarded as being neither derivative nor negative. He defined blackness as a "mental attitude" rather than a "matter of pigmentation", referring to "blacks" as "those who are by law or tradition politically, economically and socially discriminated against as a group in the South African society" and who identify "themselves as a unit in the struggle towards the realization of their aspirations". In this way, he and the Black Consciousness Movement used "black" in reference not only to Bantu-speaking Africans but also to Coloureds and Indians, who together made up almost 90% of South Africa's population in the 1970s. Biko was not a Marxist and believed that it was oppression based on race, rather than class, which would be the main political motivation for change in South Africa. He argued that those on the "white left" often promoted a class-based analysis as a "defence mechanism... primarily because they want to detach us from anything relating to race. In case it has a rebound effect on them because they are white".

806:. Establishing a more permanent headquarters in Leopold Street, the branch served as a base from which to form new BCPs; these included self-help schemes such as classes in literacy, dressmaking and health education. For Biko, community development was part of the process of infusing black people with a sense of pride and dignity. Near King William's Town, a BCP Zanempilo Clinic was established to serve as a healthcare centre catering for rural black people who would not otherwise have access to hospital facilities. He helped to revive the Ginsberg crèche, a daycare for children of working mothers, and establish a Ginsberg education fund to raise bursaries for promising local students. He helped establish Njwaxa Home Industries, a leather goods company providing jobs for local women. In 1975, he co-founded the Zimele Trust, a fund for the families of political prisoners. 547: 1203:

for an anti-apartheid programme that was controlled by black people. Although he called on sympathetic whites to reject any concept that they themselves could be spokespeople for the black majority, Biko nevertheless believed that they had a place in the anti-apartheid struggle, asking them to focus their efforts on convincing the wider white community on the inevitability of apartheid's fall. Biko clarified his position to Woods: "I don't reject liberalism as such or white liberals as such. I reject only the concept that black liberation can be achieved through the leadership of white liberals." He added that "the liberal is no enemy, he's a friend – but for the moment he holds us back, offering a formula too gentle, too inadequate for our struggle".

571:(NUSAS). NUSAS had taken pains to cultivate a multi-racial membership but remained white-dominated because the majority of South Africa's students were from the country's white minority. As Clive Nettleton, a white NUSAS leader, put it: "the essence of the matter is that NUSAS was founded on white initiative, is financed by white money and reflects the opinions of the majority of its members who are white". NUSAS officially opposed apartheid, but it moderated its opposition in order to maintain the support of conservative white students. Biko and several other black African NUSAS members were frustrated when it organised parties in white dormitories, which black Africans were forbidden to enter. In July 1967, a NUSAS conference was held at 425: 904:. Under Woods' editorship, the newspaper had published articles criticising apartheid and the white-minority regime and had also given space to the views of various black groups, but not the BCM. Biko hoped to convince Woods to give the movement greater coverage and an outlet for its views. Woods was initially reticent, believing that Biko and the BCM advocated "for racial exclusivism in reverse". When he met Biko for the first time, Woods expressed his concern about the anti-white liberal sentiment of Biko's early writings. Biko acknowledged that his earlier "antiliberal" writings were "overkill", but said that he remained committed to the basic message contained within them. 724:

dismantling the apartheid state. SASO regarded student marches, pickets, and strikes to be ineffective and stated it would withdraw from public forms of protest. It deliberately avoided open confrontation with the state until such a point when it had a sufficiently large institutional structure. Instead, SASO's focus was on establishing community projects and spreading Black Consciousness ideas among other black organisations and the wider black community. Despite this policy, in May 1972 it issued the Alice Declaration, in which it called for students to boycott lectures in response to the expulsion of SASO member

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campaign poster suggesting that Biko had been a member of their party, which was untrue. Following the end of apartheid when the ANC formed the government, they were accused of appropriating his legacy. In 2002, AZAPO issued a statement declaring that "Biko was not a neutral, apolitical and mythical icon" and that the ANC was "scandalously" using Biko's image to legitimise their "weak" government. Members of the ANC have also criticised AZAPO's attitude to Biko; in 1997, Mandela said that "Biko belongs to us all, not just AZAPO." On the anniversary of Biko's death in 2015, delegations from both the ANC and the

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of attempting to hinder SASO's growth on various campuses. SASO's split from NUSAS was a traumatic experience for many white liberal youth who had committed themselves to the idea of a multi-racial organisation and felt that their attempts were being rebuffed. The NUSAS leadership regretted the split, but largely refrained from criticising SASO. The government – which regarded multi-racial liberalism as a threat and had banned multi-racial political parties in 1968 – was pleased with SASO's emergence, regarding it as a victory of apartheid thinking.

1132:, Ruben Marx, Daantjie Siebert, and Johan Beneke) appeared before the commission and requested amnesty in return for information about the events surrounding Biko's death. In December 1998, the Commission refused amnesty to the five men; this was because their accounts were conflicting and thus deemed untruthful, and because Biko's killing had no clear political motive, but seemed to have been motivated by "ill-will or spite". In October 2003, South Africa's justice ministry announced that the five policemen would not be prosecuted because the 7783: 1061:, a statement he later denied. His account was challenged by some of Biko's friends, including Woods, who said that Biko had told them that he would never kill himself in prison. Publicly, he stated that Biko had been plotting violence, a claim repeated in the pro-government press. South Africa's attorney general initially stated that no one would be prosecuted for Biko's death. Two weeks after the funeral, the government banned all Black Consciousness organisations, including the BCP, which had its assets seized. 846: 1264:'s motives in supporting African liberation movements, relating that "Russia is as imperialistic as America", although he acknowledged that "in the eyes of the Third World they have a cleaner slate". He also acknowledged that the material assistance provided by the Soviets was "more valuable" to the anti-apartheid cause than the "speeches and wrist-slapping" provided by Western governments. He was cautious of the possibility of a post-apartheid South Africa getting caught up in the imperialist 1352:

added: "we'll do what we can to restrain that, but frankly it's not one of our top priorities or one of our major concerns. Our main concern is the liberation of the blacks." Elsewhere, Biko argued that it was the responsibility of a vanguard movement to ensure that, in a post-apartheid society, the black majority would not seek vengeance upon the white minority. He stated that this would require an education of the black population in order to teach them how to live in a non-racial society.

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yoke of oppression with sheepish timidity", and stated that "the most potent weapon in the hands of the oppressor is the mind of the oppressed". He believed that blacks needed to affirm their own humanity by overcoming their fears and believing themselves worthy of freedom and its attendant responsibilities. He defined Black Consciousness as "an inward-looking process" that would "infuse people with pride and dignity". To promote this, the BCM adopted the slogan "Black is Beautiful".

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systems that seek to make him a foreigner in the country of his birth and reduce his basic human dignity." Black Consciousness centred on psychological empowerment, through combating the feelings of inferiority that most black South Africans exhibited. Biko believed that, as part of the struggle against apartheid and white-minority rule, blacks should affirm their own humanity by regarding themselves as worthy of freedom and its attendant responsibilities. It applied the term "

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work conditions, through poor pay, through difficult living conditions, through poor education, these are all external to him. Secondly, and this we regard as the most important, the black man in himself has developed a certain state of alienation, he rejects himself precisely because he attaches the meaning white to all that is good, in other words he equates good with white. This arises out of his living and it arises out of his development from childhood.

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system and the anti-apartheid movement, white people totally controlled the political arena, leaving black people marginalised. He believed white people were able to dominate the anti-apartheid movement because of their access to resources, education, and privilege. He nevertheless thought that white South Africans were poorly suited to this role because they had not personally experienced the oppression that their black counterparts faced.

623:; there, the group's constitution and basic policy platform were adopted. The group's focus was on the need for contact between centres of black student activity, including through sport, cultural activities, and debating competitions. Though Biko played a substantial role in SASO's creation, he sought a low public profile during its early stages, believing that this would strengthen its second level of leadership, such as his ally 1465: 1211:

would also help students to learn about the "daily struggles" of ordinary black people and to spread Black Consciousness ideas among the population. Among the projects that SASO set its members to conduct in the holidays were repairs to schools, house-building, and instructions on financial management and agricultural techniques. Healthcare was also a priority, with SASO members focusing on primary and preventative care.

1165:. The Martinique-born Fanon, in particular, has been cited as a profound influence over Biko's ideas about liberation. Biko's biographer Xolela Mangcu cautioned that it would be wrong to reduce Biko's thought to an interpretation of Fanon, and that the impact of "the political and intellectual history of the Eastern Cape" had to be appreciated too. Additional influences on Black Consciousness were the United States-based 7760: 7750: 960:. On 6 September, he was transferred from Walmer to room 619 of the security police headquarters in the Sanlam Building in central Port Elizabeth, where he was interrogated for 22 hours, handcuffed and in shackles, and chained to a grille. Exactly what happened has never been ascertained, but during the interrogation he was severely beaten by at least one of the ten security police officers. He suffered three 883:

state security services repeatedly sought to intimidate him; he received anonymous threatening phone calls, and gun shots were fired at his house. A group of young men calling themselves 'The Cubans' began guarding him from these attacks. The security services detained him four times, once for 101 days. With the ban preventing him from gaining employment, the strained economic situation impacted his marriage.

953:. Biko was arrested for having violated the order restricting him to King William's Town. Unsubstantiated claims have been made that the security services were aware of Biko's trip to Cape Town and that the road block had been erected to catch him. Jones was also arrested at the roadblock; he was subsequently held without trial for 533 days, during which time he was interrogated on numerous occasions. 645:

Drawing upon the writings and speeches of Frantz Fanon, Aimé Césaire, and Malcolm X, advocates of Black Consciousness supported cultural and social activities that promoted a knowledge of black protest history. They actively promoted the establishment of independent, black-owned institutions, and favored radical reforms within school curricula that nurtured a positive black identity for young people.

1241:, stating that the latter's co-operation with the South African government " the cause" of black liberation. He believed that those fighting apartheid in South Africa should link with anti-colonial struggles elsewhere in the world and with activists in the global African diaspora combating racial prejudice and discrimination. He also hoped that foreign countries would boycott South Africa's economy. 1365:, with Biko "you had a remarkable sense of being in the presence of a great mind". Woods felt that Biko "could enable one to share his vision" with "an economy of words" because "he seemed to communicate ideas through extraverbal media – almost psychically." Biko exhibited what Woods referred to as "a new style of leadership", never proclaiming himself to be a leader and discouraging any 7771: 1046: 753:(BPC), a vehicle for the promotion of Black Consciousness among the wider population. Biko voted in favour of the group's creation but expressed reservations about the lack of consultation with South Africa's Coloureds or Indians. A. Mayatula became the BPC's first president; Biko did not stand for any leadership positions. The group was formally launched in July 1972 in 1014:

kill such a prominent dissident leader. Biko's Anglican funeral service, held on 25 September 1977 at King William's Town's Victoria Stadium, took five hours and was attended by around 20,000 people. The vast majority were black, but a few hundred whites also attended, including Biko's friends, such as Russell and Woods, and prominent progressive figures like

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as a resurgent force in anti-apartheid politics. This brought about a shift in focus from the BCM's community organising to wider mass mobilisation, including attempts to follow Tambo's call to make South Africa "ungovernable", which involved increasing violence and clashes between rival anti-apartheid groups.

912:, who served as NUSAS President in 1969; Innes later commented that Biko was "invaluable in helping me to understand black oppression, not only socially and politically, but also psychologically and intellectually". Biko's friendship with these white liberals came under criticism from some members of the BCM. 1549:

Woods held the view that Biko had filled the vacuum within the country's African nationalist movement that arose in the late 1960s following the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and the banning of Sobukwe. Following Biko's death, the Black Consciousness Movement declined in influence as the ANC emerged

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One of the ways that Biko and the BCM sought to achieve psychological empowerment was through community development. Community projects were seen not only as a way to alleviate poverty in black communities but also as a means of transforming society psychologically, culturally, and economically. They

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Biko saw white racism in South Africa as the totality of the white power structure. He argued that under apartheid, white people not only participated in the oppression of black people but were also the main voices in opposition to that oppression. He thus argued that in dominating both the apartheid

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News of Biko's death spread quickly across the world, and became symbolic of the abuses of the apartheid system. His death attracted more global attention than he had ever attained during his lifetime. Protest meetings were held in several cities; many were shocked that the security authorities would

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My major problem at this moment is a strange kind of guilt. So many friends of mine have been arrested for activities in something that I was most instrumental in starting. A lot of them are blokes I spoke into the movement. And yet I am not with them. One does not think this way in political life of

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SASO decided after a debate to remain non-affiliated with NUSAS, but would nevertheless recognise the larger organisation as the national student body. One of SASO's founding resolutions was to send a representative to each NUSAS conference. In 1970 SASO withdrew its recognition of NUSAS, accusing it

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and African racialist ideas. Biko admired what he described as the PAC's "terribly good organisation" and the courage of many of its members, but he remained unconvinced by its racially exclusionary approach, believing that members of all racial groups should unite against the government. In December

1447:. Angered by her husband's serial adultery, Mashalaba ultimately moved out of their home, and by the time of his death, she had begun divorce proceedings. Biko had also begun an extra-marital relationship with Mamphela Ramphele. In 1974, they had a daughter, Lerato, who died after two months. A son, 1298:

Black, said Biko, is not a colour; Black is an experience. If you are oppressed, you are Black. In the South African context, this was truly revolutionary. Biko's subsidiary message was that the unity of the oppressed could not be achieved through clandestine armed struggle; it had to be achieved in

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Biko believed that while apartheid and white-minority rule continued, "sporadic outbursts" of violence against the white minority were inevitable. He wanted to avoid violence, stating that "if at all possible, we want the revolution to be peaceful and reconciliatory". He noted that views on violence

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initiated proceedings against the medical professionals who had been entrusted with Biko's care; eight years later two of the medics were found guilty of improper conduct. The failure of the government-employed doctors to diagnose or treat Biko's injuries has been frequently cited as an example of a

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Over the coming years the pair became close friends. Woods later related that, although he continued to have concerns about "the unavoidably racist aspects of Black Consciousness", it was "both a revelation and education" to socialise with blacks who had "psychologically emancipated attitudes". Biko

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and being a "negative influence" on black Africans. In one of his first published articles, Biko stated that although he was "not sneering at the liberals and their involvement" in the anti-apartheid movement, "one has to come to the painful conclusion that the liberal is in fact appeasing his own

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Like Black Power in the United States, South Africa's "Black Consciousness movement" was grounded in the belief that African-descendant peoples had to overcome the enormous psychological and cultural damage imposed on them by a succession of white racist domains, such as enslavement and colonialism.

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The charisma of Steve Biko was entirely his own. He had from an early age the unmistakable bearing and quality of a unique leader. I say unique because his style of leadership was his own – it was un-pushy, un-promotional, yet immediately acknowledged by his peers ... I was thirteen years

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described the police investigation of the incident as "perfunctory in the extreme". The security forces alleged that Biko had acted aggressively and had sustained his injuries in a scuffle, in which he had banged his head against the cell wall. The presiding magistrate accepted the security forces'

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in 1975. Biko disagreed with this action, correctly predicting that the government would use it to crack down on the BCM. The government arrested around 200 BCM activists, nine of whom were brought before the Supreme Court, accused of subversion by intent. The state claimed that Black Consciousness

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In Durban, Biko entered a relationship with a nurse, Nontsikelelo "Ntsiki" Mashalaba; they married at the King William's Town magistrates court in December 1970. Their first child, Nkosinathi, was born in 1971. Biko initially did well in his university studies, but his grades declined as he devoted

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Medical School. There, he joined what his biographer Xolela Mangcu called "a peculiarly sophisticated and cosmopolitan group of students" from across South Africa; many of them later held prominent roles in the post-apartheid era. The late 1960s was the heyday of radical student politics across the

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Although Biko's ideas have not received the same attention as Frantz Fanon's, in 2001 Ahluwalia and Zegeye wrote that the men shared "a highly similar pedigree in their interests in the philosophical psychology of consciousness, their desire for a decolonising of the mind, the liberation of Africa

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Biko and his comrades regarded multi-racial anti-apartheid groups as unwittingly replicating the structure of apartheid because they contained whites in dominant positions of control. For this reason, Biko and the others did not participate in these multi-racial organisations. Instead, they called

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In 1973, Biko had enrolled for a law degree by correspondence from the University of South Africa. He passed several exams, but had not completed the degree at his time of death. His performance on the course was poor; he was absent from several exams and failed his Practical Afrikaans module. The

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In conversation with Woods, Biko insisted that the BCM would not degenerate into anti-white hatred "because it isn't a negative, hating thing. It's a positive black self-confidence thing involving no hatred of anyone". He acknowledged that a "fringe element" may retain "anti-white bitterness"; he

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It becomes more necessary to see the truth as it is if you realise that the only vehicle for change are these people who have lost their personality. The first step therefore is to make the black man come to himself; to pump back life into his empty shell; to infuse him with pride and dignity, to

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Biko's approach to activism focused on psychological empowerment, and both he and the BCM saw their main purpose as combating the feeling of inferiority that most black South Africans experienced. Biko expressed dismay at how "the black man has become a shell, a shadow of man ... bearing the

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Black Consciousness directs itself to the black man and to his situation, and the black man is subjected to two forces in this country. He is first of all oppressed by an external world through institutionalised machinery and through laws that restrict him from doing certain things, through heavy

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on him. This prevented him from leaving the King William's Town magisterial district, prohibited him from speaking either in public or to more than one person at a time, barred his membership of political organisations, and forbade the media from quoting him. As a result, he returned to Ginsberg,

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I realized that for a long time I had been holding onto this whole dogma of nonracism almost like a religion ... But in the course of that debate I began to feel there was a lot lacking in the proponents of the nonracist idea ... they had this problem, you know, of superiority, and they

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in 1973, severely restricting his activities. He remained politically active, helping organise BCPs such as a healthcare centre and a crèche in the Ginsberg area. During his ban he received repeated anonymous threats, and was detained by state security services on several occasions. Following his

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Amid the dismantling of apartheid in the early 1990s, various political parties competed over Biko's legacy, with several saying they were the party that Biko would support if he were still alive. AZAPO in particular claimed exclusive ownership over Black Consciousness. In 1994, the ANC issued a

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Biko hoped that a future socialist South Africa could become a completely non-racial society, with people of all ethnic backgrounds living peacefully together in a "joint culture" that combined the best of all communities. He did not support guarantees of minority rights, believing that doing so

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While the BPC was primarily political, Black Consciousness activists also established the Black Community Programmes (BCPs) to focus on improving healthcare and education and fostering black economic self-reliance. The BCPs had strong ecumenical links, being part-funded by a program on Christian

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brought Biko's life and activism to a wider audience. The state censors initially permitted its release in South Africa, but after it began screening in the country's cinemas, copies were confiscated by police on the order of Police Commissioner General Hendrik de Wit, who claimed that it would

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The Nationalist government portrayed Biko as a hater of whites, but he had several close white friends, and both Woods and Wilson insisted that he was not a racist. Woods related that Biko "simply wasn't a hater of people", and that he did not even hate prominent National Party politicians like

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Biko developed SASO's ideology of "Black Consciousness" in conversation with other black student leaders. A SASO policy manifesto produced in July 1971 defined this ideology as "an attitude of mind, a way of life. The basic tenet of Black Consciousness is that the Blackman must reject all value

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Though internationally Steve Biko became a symbol of apartheid abuse in the years following his death, for the -minded (wherever they live) he has always been remembered for the life he led and the ethos he inspired among millions. And for his family and friends, he was much more: a husband, a

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Biko rejected the apartheid government's division of South Africa's population into "whites" and "non-whites," a distinction that was marked on signs and buildings throughout the country. Building on Fanon's work, Biko regarded "non-white" as a negative category, defining people in terms of an

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Biko and SASO were openly critical of NUSAS' protests against government policies. Biko argued that NUSAS merely sought to influence the white electorate; in his opinion, this electorate was not legitimate, and protests targeting a particular policy would be ineffective for the ultimate aim of

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group which the government had banned. Both Khaya and Steve were arrested and interrogated by the police; the former was convicted, then acquitted on appeal. No clear evidence of Steve's connection to Poqo was presented, but he was expelled from Lovedale. Commenting later on this situation, he

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rule in South Africa, Biko was frustrated that NUSAS and other anti-apartheid groups were dominated by white liberals, rather than by the blacks who were most affected by apartheid. He believed that well-intentioned white liberals failed to comprehend the black experience and often acted in a

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under the pseudonym "Frank Talk". His tenure as president was taken up largely by fundraising activities, and involved travelling around various campuses in South Africa to recruit students and deepen the movement's ideological base. Some of these students censured him for abandoning NUSAS'

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philosophy was likely to cause "racial confrontation" and therefore threatened public safety. Biko was called as a witness for the defence; he sought to refute the state's accusations by outlining the movement's aims and development. Ultimately, the accused were convicted and imprisoned on

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delegates but not the black Africans, who were told that they could sleep in a local church. Biko and other black African delegates walked out of the conference in anger. Biko later related that this event forced him to rethink his belief in the multi-racial approach to political activism:

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Biko was initially interested in studying law at university, but many of those around him discouraged this, believing that law was too closely intertwined with political activism. Instead they convinced him to choose medicine, a subject thought to have better career prospects. He secured a

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tended to take us for granted and wanted us to accept things that were second-class. They could not see why we could not consider staying in that church, and I began to feel that our understanding of our own situation in this country was not coincidental with that of these liberal whites.

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Tall and slim in his youth, by his twenties Biko was over six feet tall, with the "bulky build of a heavyweight boxer carrying more weight than when in peak condition", according to Woods. His friends regarded him as "handsome, fearless, a brilliant thinker". Woods saw him as "unusually

1391:. He enjoyed parties, and according to his biographer Linda Wilson, he often drank substantial quantities of alcohol. Religion did not play a central role in his life. He was often critical of the established Christian churches, but remained a believer in God and found meaning in the 1434:, something that Woods described as "well earned". He displayed no racial prejudice, sleeping with both black and white women. At NUSAS, he and his friends competed to see who could have sex with the most female delegates. Responding to this behaviour, the NUSAS general secretary 976:

Biko was examined by a doctor, Ivor Lang, who stated that there was no evidence of injury on Biko. Later scholarship has suggested Biko's injuries must have been obvious. He was then examined by two other doctors who, after a test showed blood cells to have entered Biko's

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Biko married Ntsiki Mashalaba in December 1970. They had two children together: Nkosinathi, born in 1971, and Samora, born in 1975. Biko's wife chose the name Nkosinathi ("The Lord is with us"), and Biko named their second child after the Mozambican revolutionary leader

1426:, a BCM activist and doctor at the Zanempilo Clinic, including that women tended to be given responsibility for the cleaning and catering at functions. "There was no way you could think of Steve making a cup of tea or whatever for himself", another activist said. 801:

Biko's banning order in 1973 prevented him from working officially for the BCPs from which he had previously earned a small stipend, but he helped to set up a new BPC branch in Ginsberg, which held its first meeting in the church of a sympathetic white clergyman,

945:. Biko drove to the city with his friend Peter Jones on 17 August, but Alexander refused to meet with Biko, fearing that he was being monitored by the police. Biko and Jones drove back toward King William's Town, but on 18 August they were stopped at a police 667:" not only to Bantu-speaking Africans, but also to Indians and Coloureds. SASO adopted this term over "non-white" because its leadership felt that defining themselves in opposition to white people was not a positive self-description. Biko promoted the slogan " 44: 314:. It organised Black Community Programmes (BCPs) and focused on the psychological empowerment of black people. Biko believed that black people needed to rid themselves of any sense of racial inferiority, an idea he expressed by popularizing the slogan " 1386:

Biko and many others in his activist circle had an antipathy toward luxury items because most South African blacks could not afford them. He owned few clothes and dressed in a low-key manner. He had a large record collection and particularly liked

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multi-racial approach; others disapproved of SASO's decision to allow Indian and Coloured students to be members. Biko stepped down from the presidency after a year, insisting that it was necessary for a new leadership to emerge and thus avoid any

459:. In 1963 he transferred to the Forbes Grant Secondary School in the township. Biko excelled at maths and English and topped the class in his exams. In 1964 the Ginsberg community offered him a bursary to join his brother Khaya as a student at 1222:

remind him of his complicity in the crime of allowing himself to be mis-used and therefore letting evil reign supreme in the land of his birth. That is what we mean by an inward-looking process. This is the definition of Black Consciousness.

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on 6 September. Following this incident, Biko's captors forced him to remain standing and shackled to the wall. The police later said that Biko had attacked one of them with a chair, forcing them to subdue him and place him in handcuffs and

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but in which all land was owned by the state and in which state industries played a significant part in forestry, mining, and commerce. He believed that, if post-apartheid South Africa remained capitalist, some black people would join the

1005:". He was the twenty-first person to die in a South African prison in twelve months, and the forty-sixth political detainee to die during interrogation since the government introduced laws permitting imprisonment without trial in 1963. 1438:

accused Biko of sexism, to which he responded: "Don't worry about my sexism. What about your white racist friends in NUSAS?" Sobukwe also admonished Biko for his womanising, believing that it set a bad example to other activists.

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donated money to the group to establish a Steve Biko Centre in Ginsberg, opened in 2012. The Foundation launched its annual Steve Biko Memorial Lecture in 2000, each given by a prominent black intellectual. The first speaker was

1042:, produced a T-shirt marking the event; the design was banned the following year. Martins also created a commemorative poster for the funeral, the first in a tradition of funeral posters that proved popular throughout the 1980s. 732:

increasing time to political activism. Six years after starting his degree, he found himself repeating his third year. In 1972, as a result of his poor academic performance, the University of Natal barred him from further study.

1030:. The event was later described as "the first mass political funeral in the country". Biko's coffin had been decorated with the motifs of a clenched black fist, the African continent, and the statement "One Azania, One Nation"; 1144:

The ideas of the Black Consciousness Movement were not developed solely by Biko, but through lengthy discussions with other black students who were rejecting white liberalism. Biko was influenced by his reading of authors like

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from growing up around him. Other activists did regard him as a leader and often deferred to him at meetings. When engaged in conversations, he displayed an interest in listening and often drew out the thoughts of others.

7596: 1411:, instead hating their ideas. It was rare and uncharacteristic of him to display any rage, and was rare for him to tell people about his doubts and inner misgivings, reserving those for a small number of confidants. 1488:

wrote that his death had "created a vivid symbol of black resistance" to apartheid that "continues to inspire new black activists" over a decade after the transition to majority rule. Johann de Wet, a professor of

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system was "the greatest single fraud ever invented by white politicians", stating that it was designed to divide the Bantu-speaking African population along tribal lines. He openly criticised the Zulu leader

1323:, he called for "a socialist solution that is an authentic expression of black communalism". This idea was derided by some of his Marxist contemporaries, but later found parallels in the ideas of the Mexican 1590:, edited by Millard Arnold. Woods fled to England that year, where he campaigned against apartheid and further publicised Biko's life and death, writing many newspaper articles about him, as well as a book, 853:

In December 1975, attempting to circumvent the restrictions of the banning order, the BPC declared Biko their honorary president. After Biko and other BCM leaders were banned, a new leadership arose, led by

344:, and African racial nationalists criticised his united front with Coloureds and Indians. Nonetheless, Biko became one of the earliest icons of the movement against apartheid, and is regarded as a political 413:, and English were all spoken. After resigning from the police force, Mzingaye worked as a clerk in the King William's Town Native Affairs Office, while studying for a law degree by correspondence from the 1711:. Over 10,000 people attended the monument's unveiling in September 1997. In the following months it was vandalised several times; in one instance it was daubed with the letters "AWB", an acronym of the 1480:

called him "the spark that lit a veld fire across South Africa", adding that the Nationalist government "had to kill him to prolong the life of apartheid". Opening an anthology of his work in 2008,

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was established to investigate past human-rights abuses. The commission made plans to investigate Biko's death, but his family petitioned against this on the grounds that the commission could grant

886: 825:, a leading ANC figure. Biko's negotiations with the PAC were primarily through intermediaries who exchanged messages between him and Sobukwe; those with the Unity Movement were largely via 1344:

but inequality and poverty would remain. As he put it, if South Africa transitioned to proportional democracy without socialist economic reforms, then "it would not change the position of

1676:, the song helped to integrate anti-apartheid themes into Western popular culture. Biko's life was also commemorated through theatre. The inquest into his death was dramatised as a play, 440:("a person is a person by means of other people"). As a child he was nicknamed "Goofy" and "Xwaku-Xwaku", the latter a reference to his unkempt appearance. He was raised in his family's 369:. The third child of Mzingaye Mathew Biko and Alice 'Mamcete' Biko, he had an older sister, Bukelwa, an older brother, Khaya, and a younger sister, Nobandile. His parents had married in 7913: 7569: 1807: 1096:

stated that he would not prosecute the officers. After the inquest, Biko's family brought a civil case against the state; at the advice of their lawyers, they agreed to a settlement of

720:

conscience, or at best is eager to demonstrate his identification with the black people only insofar as it does not sever all ties with his relatives on his side of the colour line."

455:

Biko spent two years at St. Andrews Primary School and four at Charles Morgan Higher Primary School, both in Ginsberg. Regarded as a particularly intelligent pupil, he was allowed to

7948: 7888: 1072:

courthouse in November 1977, and lasted for three weeks. Both the running of the inquest and the quality of evidence submitted came in for extensive criticism. An observer from the

7878: 7584: 306:, Biko and his compatriots developed Black Consciousness as SASO's official ideology. The movement campaigned for an end to apartheid and the transition of South Africa toward 1109:

repressive state influencing medical practitioners' decisions, and Biko's death as evidence of the need for doctors to serve the needs of patients before those of the state.

267:

manner. He developed the view that to avoid white domination, black people had to organise independently, and to this end he became a leading figure in the creation of the

1113: 6002: 7863: 6555: 7828: 421:

in King William's Town. According to his sister, it was this observation of his mother's difficult working conditions that resulted in Biko's earliest politicisation.

1073: 1232:

Biko opposed any collaboration with the apartheid government, such as the agreements that the Coloured and Indian communities made with the regime. In his view, the

7868: 7843: 7833: 4355: 564:, and Biko was eager to involve himself in this environment. Soon after he arrived at the university, he was elected to the Students' Representative Council (SRC). 6317: 1376:

older than Steve, yet I always had the feeling I was talking to someone older and wiser, and like many others I often sought his advice on all manner of problems.

7918: 6206:

Hadfield, Leslie (2010). "Biko, Black Consciousness, and 'the System' eZinyoka: Oral History and Black Consciousness in Practice in a Rural Ciskei Village".

1256:, Biko saw the South African situation as a "microcosm" of the broader "black–white power struggle" which manifests as "the global confrontation between the 6530: 7514: 1608:

as Biko. Many film critics and Black Consciousness proponents were concerned that the film foregrounded white characters like Woods over Biko himself, but

728:

from the University of the North after he made a speech criticising its administration. The Tiro incident convinced the government that SASO was a threat.

6746: 1395:. Woods described him as "not conventionally religious, although he had genuine religious feeling in broad terms". Mangcu noted that Biko was critical of 1249:

and believers in violent revolution – although the group had agreed to operate peacefully, and unlike the PAC and ANC, had no armed wing.

6292: 1034:

was the name that many activists wanted South Africa to adopt post-apartheid. Biko was buried in the cemetery at Ginsberg. Two BCM-affiliated artists,

7953: 7554: 989:, naked and manacled, and drove him 740 miles (1,190 km) to the hospital. There, Biko died alone in a cell on 12 September 1977. According to an 322:(BPC) to promote Black Consciousness ideas among the wider population. The government came to see Biko as a subversive threat and placed him under a 6972: 1105: 568: 247: 1673: 1451:, was born to Ramphele in 1978, after Biko's death. Biko was also in a relationship with Lorrain Tabane; they had a child named Motlatsi in 1977. 1684:

and broadcast on television. Anti-apartheid activists used Biko's name and memory in their protests; in 1979, a mountaineer climbed the spire of

813:(ANC) – in order to concentrate their anti-apartheid efforts. To this end, he reached out to leading members of the ANC, PAC, and 616: 268: 142: 503:

political culture, and Biko developed his political consciousness there. He became particularly interested in the replacement of South Africa's

7923: 7908: 7590: 6333:

Macqueen, Ian (2013). "Resonances of Youth and Tensions of Race: Liberal Student Politics, White Radicals and Black Consciousness, 1968–1973".

1566: 876: 775: 1715:, a far-right Afrikaner paramilitary group. In 1997, the cemetery where Biko was buried was renamed the Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance. The 7853: 7468: 6803: 6704: 6645: 6511: 6467: 6448: 6429: 6085: 5983: 1613:

inflame tensions and endanger public safety. The South African government banned many books about Biko, including those of Arnold and Woods.

1324: 615:. There, the black African members decided to hold a December conference to discuss the formation of an independent black student group. The 287:. He was careful to keep his movement independent of white liberals, but opposed anti-white hatred and had white friends. The white-minority 7938: 7549: 1121: 6572: 1361:

gifted ... His quick brain, superb articulation of ideas and sheer mental force were highly impressive." According to Biko's friend

993:, an "extensive brain injury" had caused "centralisation of the blood circulation to such an extent that there had been intravasal blood 7933: 7883: 6362:

Macqueen, Ian (2014). "Black Consciousness in Dialogue in South Africa: Steve Biko, Richard Turner and the 'Durban Moment', 1970–1974".

484:

stated: "I began to develop an attitude which was much more directed at authority than at anything else. I hated authority like hell."

7705: 7519: 6919: 6900: 6881: 6841: 6822: 6780: 6244: 6196: 608: 441: 6458:

Marable, Manning; Joseph, Peniel (2008). "Series Editors' Preface: Steve Biko and the International Context of Black Consciousness".

1649:

in his 1979 exhibition. A triptych, it depicted the three police officers implicated in Biko's death. Kenya released a commemorative

837:

By 1973, the government regarded Black Consciousness as a threat. It sought to disrupt Biko's activities, and in March 1973 placed a

7898: 7838: 7579: 6727: 6153:

Drewett, Michael (February 2007). "The Eyes of the World Are Watching Now: The Political Effectiveness of "Biko" by Peter Gabriel".

5777: 5671: 779: 476: 5349: 956:

The security services took Biko to the Walmer police station in Port Elizabeth, where he was held naked in a cell with his legs in

424: 7893: 7823: 1554: 208: 6462:. Andile Mngxitama, Amanda Alexander, and Nigel C. Gibson (eds.). New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. vii–x. 6183: 330:

Biko's fame spread posthumously. He became the subject of numerous songs and works of art, while a 1978 biography by his friend

7659: 6506:. Andile Mngxitama, Amanda Alexander, and Nigel C. Gibson (eds.). New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–20. 1759: 1493:, described him as "one of South Africa's most gifted political strategists and communicators". In 2004 he was elected 13th in 1049:

Biko's coffin featured the motif of a clenched black fist. Many in the Black Consciousness Movement used this fist as a symbol.

488: 6547: 5994: 7903: 6486: 5843: 1685: 871: 7818: 7730: 7559: 7488: 1774:

published an online archive containing documents and photographs owned by the Steve Biko Foundation. On 18 December 2016,

288: 276: 204: 809:

Biko endorsed the unification of South Africa's black liberationist groups – among them the BCM, PAC, and

7544: 7529: 6965: 6309: 1712: 1565:. Several figures associated with the ANC denigrated Biko during the 1980s. For instance, members of the ANC-affiliated 1562: 1520: 750: 708: 319: 220: 147: 7674: 1574: 1069: 291:

government were initially supportive, seeing SASO's creation as a victory for apartheid's ethos of racial separatism.

7208: 1154: 327:

arrest in August 1977, Biko was beaten to death by state security officers. Over 20,000 people attended his funeral.

1750:

Buildings, institutes and public spaces around the world have been named after Biko, such as the Steve Bikoplein in

7928: 7873: 7858: 7483: 1327:. Noting that there was significant inequality in the distribution of wealth in South Africa, Biko believed that a 814: 414: 340:. During Biko's life, the government alleged that he hated whites, various anti-apartheid activists accused him of 1744: 1430:

was viewed as irrelevant "bra-burning". Surrounded by women who cared about him, Biko developed a reputation as a

1088:

The verdict was treated with scepticism by much of the international media and the US Government led by President

223:

during the late 1960s and 1970s. His ideas were articulated in a series of articles published under the pseudonym

7539: 7504: 6522: 1787: 1771: 1704: 1672:" in tribute to him, which was a hit single in 1980, and was banned in South Africa soon after. Along with other 1558: 1476:

Biko is viewed as the "father" of the Black Consciousness Movement and the anti-apartheid movement's first icon.

810: 393:. This was a settlement of around 800 families, with every four families sharing a water supply and toilet. Both 445: 7695: 7444: 7349: 7273: 7113: 6738: 6676: 1524: 890:

Biko became a close friend of white liberal activist Donald Woods, who wrote a book about Biko after his death.

791: 374: 370: 6284: 7753: 7725: 7720: 7710: 7564: 7524: 7258: 7153: 7099: 6958: 746: 679: 671:", explaining that this meant "Man, you are okay as you are. Begin to look upon yourself as a human being." 460: 402: 394: 130: 550:

The apartheid system of racial segregation pervaded all areas of life; Biko was committed to its overthrow.

7534: 7173: 7022: 1626: 1133: 803: 579:; after the students arrived, they found that dormitory accommodation had been arranged for the white and 519: 390: 386: 382: 235: 111: 6851:

Goodwin, June; Schiff, Ben (13 November 1995). "Who Killed Steve Biko?: Exhuming Truth in South Africa".

1515:

in 2015, Isaac Kamola wrote that Biko's critique of white liberalism was relevant to situations like the

1293:

as desirable, but regarded it as a lesser priority than access to food, employment, and social security.

786:, the International University Exchange Fund, and Scandinavian churches. In 1972, the BCP hired Biko and 7943: 7775: 7439: 1723: 1490: 1035: 725: 620: 580: 284: 72: 1026:. Foreign diplomats from thirteen nations were present, as was an Anglican delegation headed by Bishop 683: 1719:

also held an exhibition of artwork marking the 20th anniversary of his death by examining his legacy.

7848: 7813: 7808: 7621: 7574: 7304: 7228: 7193: 6573:"The Beat that Beat Apartheid: The Role of Music in the Resistance against Apartheid in South Africa" 1601: 1586:. The defence that Biko provided for arrested SASO activists was used as the basis for the 1978 book 1498: 1435: 1278: 1238: 1166: 1101: 632: 303: 7664: 7638: 7359: 7002: 1755: 1716: 1689: 1582: 1388: 1366: 692: 675: 556: 480: 468: 418: 259: 243: 212: 6095:

Denis, Philippe (2010). "Seminary Networks and Black Consciousness in South Africa in the 1970s".

1362: 942: 787: 628: 522:. He later said that most of the "politicos" in his family were sympathetic to the PAC, which had 7690: 7669: 7394: 7344: 7319: 7309: 7294: 7248: 7233: 6408: 6379: 6350: 6271: 6223: 6170: 6141: 6112: 6064: 6035: 5962: 1511: 1408: 1396: 1336: 1286: 1120:

to those responsible, thereby preventing the family's right to justice and redress. In 1996, the

1097: 859: 855: 783: 668: 315: 307: 255: 7314: 6815:

Black Consciousness in South Africa: The Dialectics of Ideological Resistance to White Supremacy

826: 546: 7627: 7158: 7143: 7086: 7027: 7007: 6945: 6915: 6896: 6877: 6860: 6837: 6818: 6799: 6776: 6723: 6700: 6641: 6616: 6507: 6463: 6444: 6425: 6240: 6192: 6081: 5979: 1699:

Following apartheid's collapse, Woods raised funds to commission a bronze statue of Biko from

1656:

Biko's death also inspired several songs, including from artists outside South Africa such as

1605: 1423: 1320: 1092:. On 2 February 1978, based on the evidence given at the inquest, the attorney general of the 930: 790:, allowing Biko to continue his political and community work. In September 1972, Biko visited 572: 504: 348:

and the "Father of Black Consciousness". His political legacy remains a matter of contention.

345: 216: 182: 6047:

Bucher, Jesse (2012). "The Possibility of Care: Medical Ethics and the Death of Steve Biko".

1580:

A year after Biko's death, his "Frank Talk" writings were published as an edited collection,

7643: 7419: 7354: 7334: 7329: 7148: 7017: 6608: 6400: 6371: 6342: 6263: 6254:

Kamola, Isaac (2015). "Steve Biko and a Critique of Global Governance as White Liberalism".

6215: 6162: 6133: 6104: 6056: 6027: 5954: 1795: 1253: 1129: 818: 754: 745:

In August 1971, Biko attended a conference on "The Development of the African Community" in

561: 511: 1112:

After the abolition of apartheid and the establishment of a majority government in 1994, a

7763: 7454: 7434: 7364: 7198: 7163: 7068: 6637: 6629: 1767: 1763: 1732: 1727: 1708: 1642: 1621: 1481: 1304: 1282: 757:. By 1973, it had 41 branches and 4000 members, sharing much of its membership with SASO. 651: 515: 464: 417:. Alice was employed first in domestic work for local white households, then as a cook at 7183: 6185:

Debating African Philosophy: Perspectives on Decolonial Ethics and Comparative Philosophy

5945:

Ahluwalia, Pal; Zegeye, Abebe (2001). "Frantz Fanon and Steve Biko: Towards Liberation".

5769: 6478: 6018:

Brown, Julian (2010). "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972".

5663: 5341: 1464: 1080:'s statements were "sometimes redundant, sometimes inconsistent, frequently ambiguous"; 7735: 7700: 7449: 7409: 7399: 7268: 7263: 7253: 7243: 7178: 7138: 7047: 6981: 1700: 1693: 1516: 1477: 1170: 1124:

ruled against the family, allowing the investigation to proceed. Five police officers (

998: 900: 795: 624: 523: 496: 456: 444:

Christian faith. In 1950, when Biko was four, his father fell ill, was hospitalised in

433: 406: 378: 1766:, a Steve Biko Institute was established to promote educational attainment among poor 43: 7802: 7787: 7633: 7509: 7429: 7424: 7404: 7384: 7369: 7324: 7238: 7223: 7203: 7188: 7168: 6791: 6612: 6412: 6383: 6354: 6275: 6227: 6174: 6145: 6116: 6068: 6039: 5966: 4317: 1779: 1740: 1681: 1665: 1661: 1650: 1634: 1485: 1444: 1404: 1332: 1125: 1058: 863: 838: 655: 471:. Within three months of Steve's arrival, Khaya was accused of having connections to 449: 323: 1707:

on the Eastern cape, opposite a statue commemorating British soldiers killed in the

1331:

was necessary to ensure social justice. In his view, this required a move towards a

7414: 7339: 7128: 7012: 6420:

Mandela, Nelson (2014). "A Tribute to Stephen Bantu Biko". In Xolela Mangcu (ed.).

5835: 1448: 1261: 1162: 1146: 1093: 1089: 1081: 1054: 1039: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 978: 961: 934: 909: 895: 822: 664: 604: 535: 507: 366: 331: 299: 272: 239: 231: 193: 102:

Extensive brain injuries sustained from beatings by South African security officers

7601: 7079: 6874:

White Man's Justice: South African Political Trials in the Black Consciousness Era

6346: 6267: 6137: 6031: 1577:(CIA). These demonstrations resulted in clashes with Biko supporters from AZAPO. 1277:

would continue to recognise divisions along racial lines. Instead he supported a

7289: 7213: 7073: 6656: 1669: 1596: 1431: 1341: 1257: 994: 965: 950: 716: 612: 576: 510:

with an administration that represented the country's black majority. Among the

492: 336: 264: 7770: 1505:

and in the politics of nationalism and socialism for the 'wretched of the earth

845: 361:

Bantu Stephen Biko was born on 18 December 1946, at his grandmother's house in

219:, he was at the forefront of a grassroots anti-apartheid campaign known as the 7389: 6219: 6166: 6108: 5958: 1791: 1657: 1509:". Some academics argue that Biko's thought remains relevant; for example, in 1316: 1158: 986: 867: 712: 500: 295: 6864: 6599:

Silove, Derrick (1990). "Doctors and the State: Lessons from the Biko Case".

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and denominationalism and that he was "at best an unconventional Christian".

7379: 7374: 7218: 7042: 7037: 7032: 1790:

independently visited his grave. In March 2017, the South African President

1751: 1736: 1529: 1328: 1312: 1233: 1150: 1077: 970: 946: 926: 528: 410: 398: 362: 311: 280: 251: 68: 17: 6716: 686:

in January 1971. He also expanded on his ideas in a column written for the

373:, where his father worked as a police officer. Mzingaye was transferred to 6620: 6502:

Mngxitama, Andile; Alexander, Amanda; Gibson, Nigel (2008). "Biko Lives".

6404: 1688:

in San Francisco to unfurl a banner with the names of Biko and imprisoned

7133: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4748: 1539:

father, a son, a brother, a confidant, a self-described freedom fighter.

1427: 1265: 1246: 1136:

had elapsed and there was insufficient evidence to secure a prosecution.

982: 957: 532: 90: 6893:

The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968–1977

2601: 2599: 2597: 1680:, first performed in London in 1978; a 1984 performance was directed by 7715: 6941: 6912:

Bounds of Possibility: The Legacy of Steve Biko and Black Consciousness

1469: 1290: 1117: 1065: 990: 938: 842:

living initially in his mother's house and later in his own residence.

674:

Biko presented a paper on "White Racism and Black Consciousness" at an

538:

ceremony, symbolically marking his transition from boyhood to manhood.

7597:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

4875: 4873: 821:, and plans were being made to smuggle him out of the country to meet 7093: 7052: 6285:"Peter Gabriel on 30 years of Womad – and mixing music with politics" 1775: 1494: 1419: 1415: 1392: 1245:

differed widely within the BCM – which contained both

1031: 1002: 749:. There, a resolution was presented calling for the formation of the 341: 6124:

de Wet, Johann (2013). "Steve Biko as Existentialist Communicator".

1053:

Speaking publicly about Biko's death, the country's police minister

1422:

in his politics. The sexism was evident in many ways, according to

1260:

and the rich white nations of the world". He was suspicious of the

1068:

to be held, to which the government agreed. It began in Pretoria's

428:

Biko was briefly educated at the Lovedale boarding school in Alice.

5369: 5367: 4659: 4657: 4655: 4653: 1620: 1463: 1285:

were appropriate for Africa, he developed a more positive view of

1085:

account of events and refused to prosecute any of those involved.

1044: 885: 844: 545: 423: 6950: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2284: 2282: 1468:

Steve Biko on a stained glass window in the Saint Anna Church in

619:(SASO) was officially launched at a July 1969 conference at the 472: 452:, and died, making the family dependent on his mother's income. 207:(18 December 1946 – 12 September 1977) was a South African 6954: 1045: 981:, agreed that he should be transported to a prison hospital in 6910:

Pityana, B.; Ramphele, M.; Mpumlwana, M.; Wilson, L. (1991).

1064:

Both domestic and international pressure called for a public

763:

course. Casualties are expected and should be bargained for.

607:, many of its members attended a July 1968 conference of the 514:

leaders who became Biko's heroes at this time were Algeria's

908:

also remained friends with another prominent white liberal,

736:

Black Consciousness activities and Biko's banning: 1971–1977

594:

Founding the South African Students' Organisation: 1968–1972

6191:. George Hull (ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 97–117. 1633:

Biko was commemorated in several artworks after his death.

1573:, an allegation that Biko was a spy for the United States' 794:, where he met the PAC founder and anti-apartheid activist 6677:"No prosecution for death of anti-apartheid activist Biko" 4616: 4614: 2686: 2684: 1754:. In 2008, the Pretoria Academic Hospital was renamed the 487:

From 1964 to 1965, Biko studied at St. Francis College, a

6936: 6834:

Black Power in South Africa: The Evolution of an Ideology

5215: 5213: 5211: 5146: 5144: 4521: 4519: 4248: 4246: 3874: 3872: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3423: 3421: 3187: 3185: 3128: 3126: 3113: 3111: 3109: 866:. Myeza and Cooper organised a BCM demonstration to mark 627:. Nonetheless, he was elected as SASO's first president; 7570:

Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa

6393:

Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa

4967: 4965: 4784: 4782: 4769: 4767: 4758: 4601: 4599: 4597: 4536: 4534: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4073: 4071: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3084: 3082: 3025: 3023: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2971: 2969: 2761: 2759: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2631: 2629: 2605: 1808:

List of people subject to banning orders under apartheid

1778:

marked what would have been Biko's 70th birthday with a

1703:. It was erected outside the front door of city hall in 985:. On 11 September, police loaded him into the back of a 711:(BCM) was on criticising anti-racist white liberals and 5875: 5873: 5634: 5632: 5595: 5593: 5496: 5494: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5018: 5016: 4952: 4950: 4948: 4429: 4427: 4425: 3606: 3604: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 2792: 2790: 2616: 2614: 2245: 2243: 1169:, and forms of Christianity like the activist-oriented 925:

In 1977, Biko broke his banning order by travelling to

6182:

Epstein, Brian (2018). "Biko on Black vs. Non-White".

4400: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4381: 4379: 4377: 1914: 1912: 1722:

Also in September 1997, Biko's family established the

5836:"Steve Biko South Africa archive published by Google" 1268:

rivalries of the United States and the Soviet Union.

1104:

78,000) in July 1979. Shortly after the inquest, the

7585:

Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes

6391:

Mamdani, Mahmood (2012). "A Tribute to Steve Biko".

6237:

Biko's Ghost: The Iconography of Black Consciousness

1299:

the open, through a peaceful but militant struggle.

7683: 7652: 7614: 7497: 7476: 7467: 7282: 7121: 7112: 7061: 6995: 6988: 6548:"Biko's grave a political battleground for parties" 6424:. London and New York: I. B. Tauris. pp. 7–9. 1637:, a South African artist based in France, produced 1057:initially implied that it had been the result of a 817:. His communications with the ANC were largely via 188: 178: 155: 136: 126: 118: 106: 98: 79: 50: 34: 6775:(revised ed.). New York City: HarperCollins. 6771:Biko, Stephen Bantu (1984). Arnold Millard (ed.). 6739:"Google celebrates Biko with commemorative doodle" 6715: 6078:Maids and Madams: Domestic Workers Under Apartheid 1289:after conversations with Woods. He saw individual 275:", a term that Biko used in reference not just to 6504:Biko Lives! Contesting the Legacies of Steve Biko 6460:Biko Lives! Contesting the Legacies of Steve Biko 6310:"Nelson Mandela: The Triumph of the Protest Song" 27:South African anti-apartheid activist (1946–1977) 6796:I Write What I Like: A Selection of His Writings 5995:"SA editor's escape from apartheid, 30 years on" 1569:assembled outside Biko's Ginsberg home shouting 7914:South African people who died in prison custody 5373: 5259: 4879: 4836: 4816: 4800: 4687: 4663: 4445: 2658: 1536: 1373: 1296: 1219: 1185: 760: 642: 586: 436:; Biko interpreted this in terms of the saying 6817:. Albany: State University of New York Press. 6580:Wiener Zeitschrift für kritische Afrikastudien 6239:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 5978:. London: International Defence and Aid Fund. 4312: 4310: 1553:Followers of Biko's ideas re-organised as the 894:During his ban, Biko asked for a meeting with 7949:African politicians assassinated in the 1970s 7889:Prisoners who died in South African detention 6966: 6859:(16). New York: The Nation Company: 565–568. 5316: 2588: 1074:Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law 703:Attitude to liberalism and personal relations 567:The university's SRC was affiliated with the 271:(SASO) in 1968. Membership was open only to " 242:. In 1966, he began studying medicine at the 8: 6523:"Zuma Commemorates Biko on Human Rights Day" 5342:"The 10 Greatest South Africans of all time" 849:Steve Biko's house in Ginsberg, Eastern Cape 432:Biko's given name "Bantu" means "people" in 318:". In 1972, he was involved in founding the 7879:People murdered by law enforcement officers 1641:in 1978, and another South African artist, 1557:(AZAPO), which subsequently split into the 7473: 7118: 6992: 6973: 6959: 6951: 5903: 1762:has a Steve Biko Centre for Bioethics. In 937:branch of the BCM, which was dominated by 872:independence from Portuguese colonial rule 42: 31: 7555:Organisation of African Trade Union Unity 6722:. New York and London: Paddington Press. 6634:New Dictionary of South African Biography 4915: 4318:"South Africa Will Pay Biko Kin $ 78,000" 3914: 3694: 3392: 3263: 3235: 1594:(1978). This was made into the 1987 film 7864:Deaths in police custody in South Africa 7515:All-African People's Revolutionary Party 6546:Ngcukana, Lubabalo (13 September 2015). 5915: 5611: 5473: 5107: 4632: 4620: 4552: 4356:"No prosecution of Biko's interrogators" 4301: 4205: 4201: 3650: 3634: 3364: 3344: 3207: 3191: 3176: 3132: 3117: 2960: 2860: 2836: 2730: 2576: 2520: 1106:South African Medical and Dental Council 569:National Union of South African Students 248:National Union of South African Students 7829:20th-century South African male writers 7274:I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson 6699:. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. 6655:Somerville, Keith (12 September 2002). 5822: 5599: 5584: 5304: 5292: 5280: 4864: 4493: 4481: 1824: 929:, hoping to meet Unity Movement leader 603:Following the 1968 NUSAS conference in 7869:Extrajudicial killings in South Africa 7844:Assassinated South African politicians 7834:20th-century South African politicians 5927: 5810: 5798: 5756: 5744: 5720: 5704: 5512: 5485: 5461: 5449: 5437: 5421: 5409: 5397: 5385: 5328: 5247: 5243: 5231: 5219: 5202: 5186: 5174: 5162: 5150: 5123: 5079: 5050: 5034: 4903: 4840: 4820: 4804: 4759:Mngxitama, Alexander & Gibson 2008 4739: 4699: 4644: 4605: 4588: 4576: 4540: 4510: 4457: 4284: 4252: 4157: 4089: 4077: 4050: 4030: 4014: 3978: 3970: 3954: 3942: 3918: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3878: 3863: 3846: 3834: 3810: 3798: 3782: 3778: 3762: 3758: 3742: 3730: 3706: 3702: 3682: 3678: 3666: 3662: 3535: 3499: 3487: 3455: 3439: 3427: 3412: 3400: 3396: 3380: 3360: 3332: 3320: 3308: 3296: 3279: 3251: 3239: 3223: 3211: 3160: 3148: 3100: 3088: 3073: 3057: 3045: 3029: 3002: 2975: 2781: 2765: 2750: 2734: 2690: 2675: 2635: 2606:Mngxitama, Alexander & Gibson 2008 2564: 2536: 2524: 2516: 2500: 2472: 2460: 2456: 2428: 2392: 2380: 2364: 2352: 2340: 2328: 2316: 2312: 2292: 2273: 2261: 2249: 2234: 2222: 2218: 2198: 2186: 2182: 2162: 2158: 2142: 2138: 2126: 2114: 2110: 2094: 2082: 2062: 2058: 2042: 2026: 2014: 1990: 1974: 1970: 1958: 1942: 1930: 1918: 1903: 1891: 1887: 1871: 1851: 1835: 1794:laid a wreath at Biko's grave to mark 776:Christian Institute of Southern Africa 593: 7919:South African prisoners and detainees 6749:from the original on 19 December 2016 6443:. London and New York: I. B. Tauris. 6005:from the original on 20 December 2016 5780:from the original on 15 February 2017 5198: 5135: 5119: 5103: 5091: 5067: 5022: 5007: 4995: 4983: 4956: 4939: 4927: 4891: 4852: 4832: 4788: 4773: 4735: 4723: 4711: 4675: 4564: 4469: 4280: 4264: 4233: 4221: 4189: 4173: 4153: 4046: 4026: 4002: 3930: 3822: 3794: 3774: 3754: 3718: 3698: 3646: 3622: 3610: 3595: 3578: 3566: 3547: 3523: 3511: 3483: 3471: 3451: 3356: 3267: 3203: 3172: 3144: 3069: 3041: 3014: 2948: 2936: 2924: 2912: 2900: 2888: 2876: 2848: 2832: 2820: 2808: 2796: 2777: 2746: 2714: 2702: 2620: 2560: 2548: 2512: 2496: 2484: 2452: 2440: 2416: 2404: 2308: 2210: 2074: 2038: 1831: 933:and deal with growing dissent in the 635:elected secretary. Durban became its 555:scholarship, and in 1966 entered the 7: 7550:International African Service Bureau 6675:Whitaker, Raymond (8 October 2003). 6364:Journal of Asian and African Studies 6320:from the original on 9 February 2017 6049:Journal of Asian and African Studies 5891: 5879: 5864: 5732: 5708: 5692: 5650: 5638: 5623: 5572: 5560: 5548: 5536: 5524: 5500: 5425: 5263: 5038: 4971: 4525: 4433: 4416: 4404: 4385: 4342: 4268: 4237: 4209: 4177: 4161: 4141: 4129: 4117: 4105: 4093: 4062: 4034: 3990: 3974: 3958: 3459: 3368: 2864: 2718: 2376: 2304: 2288: 2214: 2178: 2166: 2154: 2106: 2078: 2054: 2002: 1986: 1954: 1875: 1867: 1855: 1839: 617:South African Students' Organisation 269:South African Students' Organisation 143:South African Students' Organisation 7591:Rassemblement Démocratique Africain 6876:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6558:from the original on 8 January 2016 6308:Lynskey, Dorian (6 December 2013). 1177:Black Consciousness and empowerment 1114:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 334:formed the basis for the 1987 film 7520:All-African Trade Union Federation 6533:from the original on 21 March 2017 6489:from the original on 21 March 2016 6479:"Black Brazilians learn from Biko" 6477:Martins, Alejandra (25 May 2005). 6295:from the original on 19 April 2017 5674:from the original on 13 March 2017 5664:"Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance" 1414:Biko never addressed questions of 898:, the white liberal editor of the 862:, who were considered part of the 735: 110:Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance, 25: 7580:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 6895:. Athens: Ohio University Press. 6737:Zulu, Sifiso (18 December 2016). 6521:Ngcobo, Ziyanda (21 March 2017). 5993:Blandy, Fran (31 December 2007). 5352:from the original on 29 July 2017 964:that resulted in a massive brain 782:. Additional funds came from the 780:South African Council of Churches 542:Early student activism: 1966–1968 250:(NUSAS). Strongly opposed to the 140: 7954:Politicians assassinated in 1977 7781: 7769: 7759: 7758: 7749: 7748: 6335:South African Historical Journal 6283:Lynskey, Dorian (26 July 2012). 6208:South African Historical Journal 6097:South African Historical Journal 6020:South African Historical Journal 5846:from the original on 28 May 2017 5774:The Steve Biko Academic Hospital 4324:. Associated Press. 28 July 1979 1664:. The English singer-songwriter 389:, where he and Alice settled in 7706:All-African Peoples' Conference 1760:University of the Witwatersrand 1281:system. Initially arguing that 631:was elected vice president and 168: 5759:, pp. 317, 318, 320, 322. 1319:. Described as a proponent of 1215:Foreign and domestic relations 1: 7924:South African revolutionaries 7909:South African pan-Africanists 7731:United States of Latin Africa 7560:Organisation of African Unity 7489:African Leadership University 6657:"Row clouds Biko anniversary" 6630:"Biko, Bantu Stephen (Steve)" 6080:. Johannesburg: Ravan Press. 1629:cemetery, King William's Town 1555:Azanian People's Organisation 1356:Personal life and personality 609:University Christian Movement 7854:Black Consciousness Movement 7545:First Pan-African Conference 6613:10.1016/0277-9536(90)90344-R 6347:10.1080/02582473.2013.770062 6268:10.1080/14725843.2014.961281 6138:10.1080/02500167.2013.835524 6032:10.1080/02582473.2010.519940 1713:Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging 1521:Millennium Development Goals 709:Black Consciousness Movement 221:Black Consciousness Movement 7939:Victims of police brutality 6914:. Cape Town: David Philip. 6773:The Testimony of Steve Biko 6601:Social Science and Medicine 5374:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 5260:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 4880:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 4837:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 4817:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 4801:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 4688:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 4664:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 4446:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 2659:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001 1645:, included a work entitled 1588:The Testimony of Steve Biko 1575:Central Intelligence Agency 1348:oppression of the blacks". 1272:On a post-apartheid society 774:action, established by the 560:world, as reflected in the 211:activist. Ideologically an 7970: 7934:University of Natal alumni 7884:Police brutality in Africa 7484:African Leadership Academy 6836:. Los Angeles: Greenberg. 5189:, pp. 62–63, 114–115. 4362:. Reuters. 2 February 1978 1735:; later speakers included 1009:Response and investigation 784:Anglo-American Corporation 740: 415:University of South Africa 7776:Pan-Africanism portal 7744: 7540:Economic Freedom Fighters 7530:Convention People's Party 7505:African Unification Front 6937:The Steve Biko Foundation 6832:Gerhart, Gail M. (1999). 6632:. In E. J. Verwey (ed.). 6235:Hill, Shannen L. (2015). 6220:10.1080/02582471003778342 6167:10.1080/03007760500504929 6155:Popular Music and Society 6109:10.1080/02582471003778417 5974:Bernstein, Hilda (1978). 5959:10.1080/13504630120087262 5317:Marable & Joseph 2008 2589:Marable & Joseph 2008 1788:Economic Freedom Fighters 1772:Google Cultural Institute 1563:Black People's Convention 1559:Socialist Party of Azania 811:African National Congress 751:Black People's Convention 741:Black People's Convention 320:Black People's Convention 302:and the African-American 148:Black People's Convention 41: 7899:South African Christians 7839:Anti-apartheid activists 7696:African-American leftism 7445:Henry Sylvester Williams 7209:Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo 6872:Lobban, Michael (1996). 6376:10.1177/0021909613493609 6061:10.1177/0021909612452710 3490:, pp. 189–190, 213. 1525:Invisible Children, Inc. 475:, the armed wing of the 438:"Umntu ngumntu ngabantu" 234:family, Biko grew up in 7894:South African activists 7824:20th-century Christians 7754:Pan-Africanism category 7726:United States of Africa 7721:Union of African States 7711:East African Federation 7660:Ethnic groups of Africa 7565:Pan African Association 7154:Jean-Jacques Dessalines 7100:United States of Africa 6813:Fatton, Robert (1986). 6636:. HSRC Press. pp. 6571:Schumann, Anne (2008). 6439:Mangcu, Xolela (2014). 4160:, pp. 24–25, 262; 1653:featuring Biko's face. 1567:United Democratic Front 715:itself, accusing it of 707:The early focus of the 680:University of Cape Town 621:University of the North 477:Pan Africanist Congress 277:Bantu-speaking Africans 131:Anti-apartheid activist 7535:East African Community 7174:Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof 7023:Anti-Western sentiment 6891:Magaziner, D. (2010). 6714:Woods, Donald (1978). 6695:Wilson, Lindy (2012). 6681:The New Zealand Herald 6076:Cock, Jacklyn (1989). 1630: 1541: 1473: 1378: 1301: 1224: 1190: 1134:statute of limitations 1050: 891: 850: 765: 647: 591: 551: 527:1964, he travelled to 520:Jaramogi Oginga Odinga 446:St. Matthew's Hospital 429: 246:, where he joined the 7904:South African writers 7440:Frances Cress Welsing 6798:. London: Heinemann. 6405:10.1353/trn.2012.0045 5424:, pp. 266, 296; 5348:. 27 September 2004. 4322:Youngstown Vindicator 1724:Steve Biko Foundation 1624: 1491:communication studies 1467: 1155:Léopold Sédar Senghor 1048: 889: 848: 726:Abram Onkgopotse Tiro 549: 427: 357:Early life: 1946–1966 7819:1977 in South Africa 7622:Black Star of Africa 7575:Pan-African Congress 7525:Conseil de l'Entente 7305:Edward Wilmot Blyden 7229:Abdias do Nascimento 7194:Toussaint Louverture 6790:Biko, Steve (1987). 6628:Smit, B. F. (1995). 5707:, pp. 312–313; 4472:, pp. 164, 166. 4419:, pp. 191, 211. 4156:, pp. 166–167; 3893:, pp. 418–419; 3701:, pp. 70, 159; 3486:, pp. 69, 116; 3458:, pp. 193–194; 3383:, pp. 204, 212. 3163:, pp. 205, 215. 2863:, pp. 366–367; 2563:, pp. 36, 120; 2539:, pp. 169, 170. 2499:, pp. 118–119; 1674:anti-apartheid music 1639:Homage to Steve Biko 1602:Richard Attenborough 1571:U-Steve Biko, I-CIA! 1499:Great South Africans 1279:one person, one vote 1239:Mangosuthu Buthelezi 1167:Black Power movement 1122:Constitutional Court 695:forming around him. 499:. The college had a 401:people lived in the 304:Black Power movement 7675:Conflicts in Africa 7665:Languages of Africa 7639:Pan-African colours 7360:Yosef Ben-Jochannan 7003:African nationalism 5999:Mail & Guardian 5976:No. 46 – Steve Biko 5894:, pp. 202–203. 5842:. 10 October 2012. 5747:, pp. 316–317. 5723:, pp. 312–313. 5695:, pp. 247–248. 5527:, pp. 158–159. 5464:, pp. 177–178. 5412:, pp. 288–289. 5234:, pp. 206–207. 4882:, pp. 461–462. 4807:, pp. 280–281. 4555:, pp. 515–516. 4224:, pp. 173–174. 4212:, pp. 54, 117. 3905:, pp. 261–262. 3837:, pp. 260–261. 3685:, pp. 251–254. 3502:, pp. 213–214. 3415:, pp. 191–192. 3335:, pp. 247–148. 3214:, pp. 218–221. 3076:, pp. 186–187. 2951:, pp. 724–727. 2903:, pp. 719–720. 2737:, pp. 178–181. 2503:, pp. 157–159. 2487:, pp. 153–154. 2463:, pp. 123–125. 2276:, pp. 111–112. 2237:, pp. 109–110. 2221:, pp. 24, 27; 2161:, pp. 23, 27; 2145:, pp. 104–105. 2117:, pp. 100–101. 1756:Steve Biko Hospital 1717:District Six Museum 1690:Black Panther Party 1583:I Write What I Like 1367:cult of personality 1311:Biko was neither a 1287:multi-party systems 693:cult of personality 676:academic conference 557:University of Natal 491:boarding school in 481:African nationalist 469:Alice, Eastern Cape 387:King William's Town 244:University of Natal 213:African nationalist 112:King William's Town 99:Cause of death 7691:African philosophy 7670:Religion in Africa 7395:Zephania Mothopeng 7345:Amy Ashwood Garvey 7320:John Henrik Clarke 7310:Stokely Carmichael 7295:Molefi Kete Asante 7249:John Nyathi Pokela 7234:Gamal Abdel Nasser 6256:African Identities 4360:The Calgary Herald 4132:, pp. 25, 60. 4033:, pp. 28–30; 3625:, pp. 57, 58. 3581:, pp. 45, 48. 3175:, pp. 56–57; 2459:, pp. 30–31; 2315:, pp. 28–29; 1945:, pp. 20, 22. 1631: 1512:African Identities 1474: 1409:Andries Treurnicht 1397:organised religion 1337:private enterprise 1051: 1036:Dikobé Ben Martins 892: 860:Sathasivian Cooper 851: 669:black is beautiful 552: 430: 316:black is beautiful 308:universal suffrage 294:Influenced by the 256:racial segregation 202:Bantu Stephen Biko 55:Bantu Stephen Biko 7929:Steve Biko affair 7874:People from Qonce 7859:Deaths by beating 7796: 7795: 7788:Africa portal 7628:Le Marron Inconnu 7610: 7609: 7463: 7462: 7259:Ahmed Sékou Touré 7108: 7107: 7028:Black nationalism 7008:African socialism 6805:978-0-435-90598-9 6706:978-0-8214-4441-2 6647:978-0-7969-1648-8 6513:978-0-230-60519-0 6469:978-0-230-60519-0 6450:978-1-78076-785-7 6431:978-1-78076-785-7 6087:978-0-7043-4165-4 5985:978-0-904759-21-1 5947:Social Identities 5614:, pp. 17–39. 5138:, pp. 61–62. 5053:, pp. 15–16. 4986:, pp. 60–61. 4345:, pp. 82–83. 3514:, pp. 77–78. 3462:, pp. 36–37. 2851:, pp. 48–49. 2693:, pp. 43–44. 2085:, pp. 97–98. 1745:Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o 1647:The Interrogators 1606:Denzel Washington 1472:, the Netherlands 1424:Mamphela Ramphele 1329:socialist society 1321:African socialism 931:Neville Alexander 684:Abe Bailey Centre 573:Rhodes University 391:Ginsberg township 312:socialist economy 236:Ginsberg township 230:Raised in a poor 217:African socialist 199: 198: 183:Mamphela Ramphele 83:12 September 1977 73:South Africa 16:(Redirected from 7961: 7786: 7785: 7784: 7774: 7773: 7762: 7761: 7752: 7751: 7644:Pan-African flag 7474: 7420:Randall Robinson 7355:Leonard Jeffries 7335:W. E. B. Du Bois 7330:Cheikh Anta Diop 7325:Martin R. Delany 7149:David Comissiong 7119: 7018:Anti-imperialism 6993: 6975: 6968: 6961: 6952: 6925: 6906: 6887: 6868: 6847: 6828: 6809: 6786: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6733: 6721: 6710: 6691: 6689: 6687: 6671: 6669: 6667: 6651: 6624: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6577: 6567: 6565: 6563: 6542: 6540: 6538: 6517: 6498: 6496: 6494: 6473: 6454: 6435: 6416: 6387: 6358: 6329: 6327: 6325: 6304: 6302: 6300: 6279: 6250: 6231: 6202: 6190: 6178: 6149: 6120: 6091: 6072: 6043: 6014: 6012: 6010: 5989: 5970: 5931: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5877: 5868: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5832: 5826: 5820: 5814: 5808: 5802: 5796: 5790: 5789: 5787: 5785: 5766: 5760: 5754: 5748: 5742: 5736: 5730: 5724: 5718: 5712: 5702: 5696: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5679: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5636: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5597: 5588: 5582: 5576: 5570: 5564: 5558: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5534: 5528: 5522: 5516: 5510: 5504: 5498: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5471: 5465: 5459: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5429: 5419: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5395: 5389: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5357: 5338: 5332: 5326: 5320: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5296: 5290: 5284: 5278: 5267: 5257: 5251: 5241: 5235: 5229: 5223: 5217: 5206: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5139: 5133: 5127: 5117: 5111: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5083: 5077: 5071: 5065: 5054: 5048: 5042: 5041:, p. xxiii. 5032: 5026: 5020: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4975: 4969: 4960: 4954: 4943: 4937: 4931: 4925: 4919: 4913: 4907: 4901: 4895: 4889: 4883: 4877: 4868: 4862: 4856: 4850: 4844: 4830: 4824: 4814: 4808: 4798: 4792: 4786: 4777: 4771: 4762: 4756: 4743: 4733: 4727: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4697: 4691: 4685: 4679: 4673: 4667: 4661: 4648: 4642: 4636: 4630: 4624: 4618: 4609: 4603: 4592: 4586: 4580: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4529: 4528:, p. xviii. 4523: 4514: 4508: 4497: 4491: 4485: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4437: 4431: 4420: 4414: 4408: 4402: 4389: 4383: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4314: 4305: 4299: 4288: 4278: 4272: 4262: 4256: 4250: 4241: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4199: 4193: 4187: 4181: 4171: 4165: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4087: 4081: 4075: 4066: 4060: 4054: 4044: 4038: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3968: 3962: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3912: 3906: 3888: 3882: 3876: 3867: 3861: 3850: 3844: 3838: 3832: 3826: 3820: 3814: 3808: 3802: 3792: 3786: 3772: 3766: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3692: 3686: 3676: 3670: 3660: 3654: 3644: 3638: 3632: 3626: 3620: 3614: 3608: 3599: 3593: 3582: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3551: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3527: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3497: 3491: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3449: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3283: 3277: 3271: 3261: 3255: 3249: 3243: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3180: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3121: 3115: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3077: 3067: 3061: 3055: 3049: 3039: 3033: 3027: 3018: 3012: 3006: 3000: 2979: 2973: 2964: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2940: 2934: 2928: 2922: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2858: 2852: 2846: 2840: 2830: 2824: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2785: 2775: 2769: 2763: 2754: 2744: 2738: 2728: 2722: 2712: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2679: 2673: 2662: 2656: 2639: 2633: 2624: 2618: 2609: 2603: 2592: 2591:, pp. ix–x. 2586: 2580: 2574: 2568: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2528: 2510: 2504: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2350: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2320: 2302: 2296: 2286: 2277: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2253: 2247: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2190: 2176: 2170: 2152: 2146: 2136: 2130: 2124: 2118: 2104: 2098: 2092: 2086: 2072: 2066: 2052: 2046: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2018: 2012: 2006: 2000: 1994: 1984: 1978: 1968: 1962: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1934: 1928: 1922: 1916: 1907: 1901: 1895: 1885: 1879: 1865: 1859: 1849: 1843: 1829: 1796:Human Rights Day 1678:The Biko Inquest 1625:Biko's grave in 1545: 1508: 1382: 1307: 1283:one-party states 1254:anti-imperialist 1228: 1194: 1130:Gideon Nieuwoudt 1076:stated that the 921:Arrest and death 819:Griffiths Mxenge 769: 755:Pietermaritzburg 658: 562:protests of 1968 512:anti-colonialist 463:, a prestigious 172: 170: 161:Ntsiki Mashalaba 119:Other names 86: 71:, Eastern Cape, 65:18 December 1946 64: 62: 46: 32: 21: 7969: 7968: 7964: 7963: 7962: 7960: 7959: 7958: 7799: 7798: 7797: 7792: 7782: 7780: 7768: 7764:Africa category 7740: 7679: 7648: 7606: 7493: 7459: 7455:Omali Yeshitela 7435:Issa Laye Thiaw 7365:Maulana Karenga 7350:John G. Jackson 7278: 7199:Patrice Lumumba 7164:Muammar Gaddafi 7104: 7069:African century 7057: 6984: 6979: 6933: 6928: 6922: 6909: 6903: 6890: 6884: 6871: 6850: 6844: 6831: 6825: 6812: 6806: 6789: 6783: 6770: 6766: 6764:Further reading 6761: 6752: 6750: 6743:Eyewitness News 6736: 6730: 6713: 6707: 6694: 6685: 6683: 6674: 6665: 6663: 6654: 6648: 6627: 6598: 6589: 6587: 6575: 6570: 6561: 6559: 6545: 6536: 6534: 6527:Eyewitness News 6520: 6514: 6501: 6492: 6490: 6476: 6470: 6457: 6451: 6438: 6432: 6419: 6390: 6361: 6332: 6323: 6321: 6307: 6298: 6296: 6282: 6253: 6247: 6234: 6205: 6199: 6188: 6181: 6152: 6123: 6094: 6088: 6075: 6046: 6017: 6008: 6006: 5992: 5986: 5973: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5904:Somerville 2002 5902: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5878: 5871: 5863: 5859: 5849: 5847: 5834: 5833: 5829: 5821: 5817: 5809: 5805: 5797: 5793: 5783: 5781: 5768: 5767: 5763: 5755: 5751: 5743: 5739: 5731: 5727: 5719: 5715: 5703: 5699: 5691: 5687: 5677: 5675: 5662: 5661: 5657: 5649: 5645: 5637: 5630: 5622: 5618: 5610: 5606: 5598: 5591: 5583: 5579: 5571: 5567: 5559: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5535: 5531: 5523: 5519: 5511: 5507: 5499: 5492: 5484: 5480: 5472: 5468: 5460: 5456: 5448: 5444: 5436: 5432: 5420: 5416: 5408: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5380: 5372: 5365: 5355: 5353: 5340: 5339: 5335: 5327: 5323: 5315: 5311: 5303: 5299: 5291: 5287: 5279: 5270: 5266:, p. xiii. 5262:, p. 460; 5258: 5254: 5246:, p. 116; 5242: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5218: 5209: 5197: 5193: 5185: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5149: 5142: 5134: 5130: 5118: 5114: 5102: 5098: 5090: 5086: 5078: 5074: 5066: 5057: 5049: 5045: 5033: 5029: 5021: 5014: 5006: 5002: 4994: 4990: 4982: 4978: 4974:, p. xxii. 4970: 4963: 4955: 4946: 4938: 4934: 4926: 4922: 4914: 4910: 4902: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4878: 4871: 4863: 4859: 4851: 4847: 4839:, p. 462; 4835:, p. 102; 4831: 4827: 4819:, p. 462; 4815: 4811: 4803:, p. 462; 4799: 4795: 4787: 4780: 4772: 4765: 4757: 4746: 4738:, p. 104; 4734: 4730: 4722: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4698: 4694: 4686: 4682: 4674: 4670: 4662: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4631: 4627: 4619: 4612: 4604: 4595: 4587: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4563: 4559: 4551: 4547: 4539: 4532: 4524: 4517: 4509: 4500: 4492: 4488: 4480: 4476: 4468: 4464: 4456: 4452: 4444: 4440: 4432: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4403: 4392: 4384: 4375: 4365: 4363: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4341: 4337: 4327: 4325: 4316: 4315: 4308: 4300: 4291: 4283:, p. 180; 4279: 4275: 4267:, p. 177; 4263: 4259: 4251: 4244: 4236:, p. 176; 4232: 4228: 4220: 4216: 4208:, p. 522; 4200: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4176:, p. 167; 4172: 4168: 4152: 4148: 4140: 4136: 4128: 4124: 4116: 4112: 4104: 4100: 4088: 4084: 4076: 4069: 4061: 4057: 4049:, p. 169; 4045: 4041: 4029:, p. 169; 4025: 4021: 4013: 4009: 4001: 3997: 3989: 3985: 3973:, p. 263; 3969: 3965: 3957:, p. 417; 3953: 3949: 3941: 3937: 3929: 3925: 3913: 3909: 3901:, p. 569; 3897:, p. 139; 3889: 3885: 3877: 3870: 3862: 3853: 3845: 3841: 3833: 3829: 3821: 3817: 3809: 3805: 3793: 3789: 3781:, p. 569; 3777:, p. 159; 3773: 3769: 3761:, p. 418; 3757:, p. 177; 3753: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3729: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3705:, p. 131; 3693: 3689: 3681:, p. 130; 3677: 3673: 3665:, p. 129; 3661: 3657: 3645: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3621: 3617: 3609: 3602: 3594: 3585: 3577: 3573: 3565: 3554: 3546: 3542: 3534: 3530: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3482: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3454:, p. 114; 3450: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3426: 3419: 3411: 3407: 3399:, p. 122; 3391: 3387: 3379: 3375: 3363:, p. 190; 3355: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3262: 3258: 3250: 3246: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3202: 3198: 3190: 3183: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3155: 3147:, p. 152; 3143: 3139: 3131: 3124: 3116: 3107: 3099: 3095: 3087: 3080: 3068: 3064: 3056: 3052: 3040: 3036: 3028: 3021: 3013: 3009: 3001: 2982: 2974: 2967: 2959: 2955: 2947: 2943: 2935: 2931: 2923: 2919: 2911: 2907: 2899: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2875: 2871: 2859: 2855: 2847: 2843: 2831: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2795: 2788: 2780:, p. 120; 2776: 2772: 2764: 2757: 2749:, p. 147; 2745: 2741: 2733:, p. 368; 2729: 2725: 2717:, p. 126; 2713: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2682: 2674: 2665: 2657: 2642: 2634: 2627: 2619: 2612: 2604: 2595: 2587: 2583: 2575: 2571: 2559: 2555: 2547: 2543: 2535: 2531: 2523:, p. 367; 2515:, p. 119; 2511: 2507: 2495: 2491: 2483: 2479: 2471: 2467: 2455:, p. 117; 2451: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2403: 2399: 2391: 2387: 2375: 2371: 2363: 2359: 2351: 2347: 2339: 2335: 2327: 2323: 2303: 2299: 2287: 2280: 2272: 2268: 2260: 2256: 2248: 2241: 2233: 2229: 2209: 2205: 2197: 2193: 2177: 2173: 2165:, p. 106; 2153: 2149: 2137: 2133: 2125: 2121: 2105: 2101: 2093: 2089: 2073: 2069: 2053: 2049: 2037: 2033: 2025: 2021: 2013: 2009: 2001: 1997: 1985: 1981: 1969: 1965: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1937: 1929: 1925: 1917: 1910: 1902: 1898: 1886: 1882: 1866: 1862: 1850: 1846: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1804: 1770:. In 2012, the 1768:Afro-Brazilians 1764:Salvador, Bahia 1747:, and Mandela. 1733:Njabulo Ndebele 1728:Ford Foundation 1709:Second Boer War 1686:Grace Cathedral 1643:Peter Stopforth 1619: 1547: 1544:Shannen L. Hill 1543: 1506: 1482:Manning Marable 1462: 1457: 1436:Sheila Lapinsky 1384: 1380: 1358: 1309: 1305:Mahmood Mamdani 1303: 1274: 1230: 1226: 1217: 1196: 1192: 1179: 1142: 1011: 923: 918: 835: 771: 767: 743: 738: 705: 688:SASO Newsletter 660: 652:Manning Marable 649: 633:Wuila Mashalaba 601: 599:Developing SASO 596: 544: 516:Ahmed Ben Bella 465:boarding school 359: 354: 174: 171: 1970) 166: 162: 94: 88: 84: 75: 66: 60: 58: 57: 56: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7967: 7965: 7957: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7801: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7790: 7778: 7766: 7756: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7736:Year of Africa 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7701:Africanization 7698: 7693: 7687: 7685: 7681: 7680: 7678: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7656: 7654: 7650: 7649: 7647: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7624: 7618: 7616: 7612: 7611: 7608: 7607: 7605: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7501: 7499: 7495: 7494: 7492: 7491: 7486: 7480: 7478: 7471: 7465: 7464: 7461: 7460: 7458: 7457: 7452: 7450:Amos N. Wilson 7447: 7442: 7437: 7432: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7410:Runoko Rashidi 7407: 7402: 7400:George Padmore 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7286: 7284: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7276: 7271: 7269:Robert Sobukwe 7266: 7264:Haile Selassie 7261: 7256: 7254:Thomas Sankara 7251: 7246: 7244:Julius Nyerere 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7179:Kenneth Kaunda 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7159:Anténor Firmin 7156: 7151: 7146: 7144:Amílcar Cabral 7141: 7139:Nnamdi Azikiwe 7136: 7131: 7125: 7123: 7116: 7110: 7109: 7106: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7097: 7090: 7083: 7076: 7071: 7065: 7063: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7050: 7048:Uhuru Movement 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 6999: 6997: 6990: 6986: 6985: 6982:Pan-Africanism 6980: 6978: 6977: 6970: 6963: 6955: 6949: 6948: 6939: 6932: 6931:External links 6929: 6927: 6926: 6921:978-0864862105 6920: 6907: 6902:978-0821419175 6901: 6888: 6883:978-0198258094 6882: 6869: 6848: 6843:978-0520039339 6842: 6829: 6824:978-0887061295 6823: 6810: 6804: 6787: 6782:978-0586050057 6781: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6759: 6734: 6728: 6711: 6705: 6692: 6672: 6661:news.bbc.co.uk 6652: 6646: 6625: 6607:(4): 417–429. 6596: 6568: 6543: 6518: 6512: 6499: 6474: 6468: 6455: 6449: 6436: 6430: 6417: 6388: 6370:(5): 511–525. 6359: 6341:(3): 365–382. 6330: 6305: 6280: 6251: 6246:978-0816676361 6245: 6232: 6203: 6198:978-1138344952 6197: 6179: 6150: 6132:(3): 293–304. 6121: 6103:(1): 162–182. 6092: 6086: 6073: 6055:(5): 567–579. 6044: 6026:(4): 716–734. 6015: 5990: 5984: 5971: 5953:(3): 455–469. 5941: 5939: 5936: 5933: 5932: 5920: 5908: 5896: 5884: 5882:, p. 201. 5869: 5857: 5827: 5815: 5813:, p. 301. 5803: 5801:, p. 276. 5791: 5761: 5749: 5737: 5735:, p. 275. 5725: 5713: 5711:, p. 244. 5697: 5685: 5655: 5653:, p. 246. 5643: 5641:, p. 244. 5628: 5626:, p. 242. 5616: 5604: 5589: 5577: 5565: 5563:, p. 162. 5553: 5541: 5539:, p. 151. 5529: 5517: 5515:, p. 417. 5505: 5503:, p. 160. 5490: 5478: 5476:, p. 520. 5466: 5454: 5452:, p. 295. 5442: 5440:, p. 289. 5430: 5428:, p. 193. 5414: 5402: 5400:, p. 287. 5390: 5378: 5376:, p. 455. 5363: 5333: 5331:, p. 293. 5321: 5309: 5297: 5285: 5268: 5252: 5250:, p. 205. 5236: 5224: 5222:, p. 133. 5207: 5201:, p. 69; 5191: 5179: 5177:, p. 134. 5167: 5165:, p. 113. 5155: 5153:, p. 114. 5140: 5128: 5122:, p. 61; 5112: 5110:, p. 514. 5106:, p. 61; 5096: 5084: 5082:, p. 300. 5072: 5055: 5043: 5037:, p. 15; 5027: 5012: 5000: 4988: 4976: 4961: 4944: 4932: 4920: 4916:Bernstein 1978 4908: 4896: 4894:, p. 102. 4884: 4869: 4857: 4855:, p. 108. 4845: 4843:, p. 282. 4825: 4823:, p. 282. 4809: 4793: 4791:, p. 107. 4778: 4776:, p. 100. 4763: 4744: 4742:, p. 198. 4728: 4716: 4714:, p. 104. 4704: 4702:, p. 250. 4692: 4690:, p. 463. 4680: 4668: 4666:, p. 462. 4649: 4647:, p. 279. 4637: 4625: 4610: 4593: 4581: 4569: 4567:, p. 124. 4557: 4545: 4530: 4515: 4498: 4496:, p. 108. 4486: 4484:, p. 100. 4474: 4462: 4450: 4448:, p. 459. 4438: 4436:, p. 215. 4421: 4409: 4390: 4373: 4347: 4335: 4306: 4289: 4287:, p. 264. 4273: 4257: 4255:, p. 419. 4242: 4226: 4214: 4204:, p. 95; 4194: 4192:, p. 173. 4182: 4166: 4146: 4134: 4122: 4110: 4098: 4092:, p. 31; 4082: 4067: 4055: 4039: 4019: 4017:, p. 263. 4007: 4005:, p. 166. 3995: 3983: 3981:, p. 147. 3977:, p. 47; 3963: 3947: 3935: 3933:, p. 182. 3923: 3921:, p. 262. 3915:Bernstein 1978 3907: 3883: 3881:, p. 567. 3868: 3866:, p. 569. 3851: 3849:, p. 260. 3839: 3827: 3825:, p. 263. 3815: 3813:, p. 261. 3803: 3801:, p. 569. 3797:, p. vi; 3787: 3785:, p. 259. 3767: 3765:, p. 260. 3747: 3745:, p. 132. 3735: 3733:, p. 256. 3723: 3721:, p. 159. 3711: 3709:, p. 256. 3697:, p. 10; 3695:Bernstein 1978 3687: 3671: 3669:, p. 243. 3655: 3653:, p. 375. 3649:, p. 88; 3639: 3637:, p. 376. 3627: 3615: 3600: 3583: 3571: 3552: 3540: 3538:, p. 228. 3528: 3516: 3504: 3492: 3476: 3474:, p. 158. 3464: 3444: 3442:, p. 193. 3432: 3430:, p. 192. 3417: 3405: 3403:, p. 190. 3393:Bernstein 1978 3385: 3373: 3371:, p. 151. 3367:, p. 84; 3359:, p. 49; 3349: 3337: 3325: 3323:, p. 246. 3313: 3311:, p. 245. 3301: 3299:, p. 244. 3284: 3282:, p. 234. 3272: 3264:Bernstein 1978 3256: 3254:, p. 222. 3244: 3242:, p. 224. 3236:Bernstein 1978 3228: 3226:, p. 227. 3216: 3210:, p. 79; 3206:, p. 57; 3196: 3181: 3165: 3153: 3151:, p. 119. 3137: 3122: 3105: 3103:, p. 211. 3093: 3091:, p. 188. 3078: 3072:, p. 97; 3062: 3060:, p. 185. 3050: 3048:, p. 189. 3044:, p. 49; 3034: 3032:, p. 189. 3019: 3007: 3005:, p. 205. 2980: 2978:, p. 204. 2965: 2963:, p. 367. 2953: 2941: 2939:, p. 722. 2929: 2927:, p. 723. 2917: 2915:, p. 721. 2905: 2893: 2881: 2869: 2853: 2841: 2839:, p. 375. 2835:, p. 31; 2825: 2823:, p. 119. 2813: 2811:, p. 147. 2801: 2799:, p. 120. 2786: 2784:, p. 176. 2770: 2768:, p. 170. 2755: 2753:, p. 177. 2739: 2723: 2707: 2705:, p. 121. 2695: 2680: 2678:, p. 278. 2663: 2661:, p. 460. 2640: 2638:, p. 272. 2625: 2623:, p. 166. 2610: 2593: 2581: 2579:, p. 512. 2569: 2567:, p. 169. 2553: 2541: 2529: 2527:, p. 169. 2519:, p. 36; 2505: 2489: 2477: 2465: 2445: 2443:, p. 117. 2433: 2431:, p. 126. 2421: 2409: 2397: 2395:, p. 117. 2385: 2383:, p. 117. 2379:, p. 18; 2369: 2357: 2355:, p. 150. 2345: 2343:, p. 116. 2333: 2331:, p. 115. 2321: 2319:, p. 113. 2311:, p. 49; 2307:, p. 18; 2297: 2291:, p. 18; 2278: 2266: 2254: 2239: 2227: 2225:, p. 108. 2217:, p. 18; 2213:, p. 49; 2203: 2191: 2189:, p. 107. 2185:, p. 23; 2181:, p. 18; 2171: 2169:, p. xxi. 2157:, p. 18; 2147: 2141:, p. 23; 2131: 2129:, p. 102. 2119: 2113:, p. 22; 2109:, p. 18; 2099: 2087: 2081:, p. 18; 2077:, p. 49; 2067: 2061:, p. 19; 2057:, p. 18; 2047: 2041:, p. 96; 2031: 2019: 2007: 1995: 1989:, p. 18; 1979: 1973:, p. 19; 1963: 1957:, p. 18; 1947: 1935: 1933:, p. 235. 1923: 1908: 1896: 1890:, p. 19; 1880: 1878:, p. xxi. 1874:, p. 18; 1870:, p. 18; 1860: 1858:, p. xxi. 1854:, p. 18; 1844: 1842:, p. xxi. 1838:, p. 18; 1834:, p. 49; 1823: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1810: 1803: 1800: 1701:Naomi Jacobson 1694:Geronimo Pratt 1618: 1615: 1535: 1517:United Nations 1478:Nelson Mandela 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1372: 1357: 1354: 1295: 1273: 1270: 1218: 1216: 1213: 1184: 1178: 1175: 1171:black theology 1141: 1138: 1010: 1007: 999:kidney failure 922: 919: 917: 914: 901:Daily Dispatch 834: 831: 815:Unity Movement 796:Robert Sobukwe 759: 742: 739: 737: 734: 704: 701: 641: 639:headquarters. 625:Barney Pityana 600: 597: 595: 592: 543: 540: 524:anti-communist 505:white minority 385:, and finally 379:Port Elizabeth 358: 355: 353: 350: 289:National Party 260:white-minority 209:anti-apartheid 197: 196: 190: 186: 185: 180: 176: 175: 164: 160: 159: 157: 153: 152: 151: 150: 145: 138: 134: 133: 128: 124: 123: 120: 116: 115: 114:, Eastern Cape 108: 104: 103: 100: 96: 95: 93:, South Africa 89: 87:(aged 30) 81: 77: 76: 67: 54: 52: 48: 47: 39: 38: 35: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7966: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7789: 7779: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7765: 7757: 7755: 7747: 7746: 7743: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7688: 7686: 7682: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7657: 7655: 7651: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7634:Lion of Judah 7632: 7630: 7629: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7617: 7613: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7592: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7510:African Union 7508: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7500: 7496: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7481: 7479: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7469:Organizations 7466: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7430:Burning Spear 7428: 7426: 7425:Walter Rodney 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7405:Motsoko Pheko 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7385:Archie Mafeje 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7370:Alice Kinloch 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7281: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7239:Kwame Nkrumah 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7224:Robert Mugabe 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7204:Samora Machel 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7189:Jomo Kenyatta 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7169:Marcus Garvey 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7111: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7095: 7091: 7089: 7088: 7084: 7082: 7081: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7060: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6994: 6991: 6987: 6983: 6976: 6971: 6969: 6964: 6962: 6957: 6956: 6953: 6947: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6934: 6930: 6923: 6917: 6913: 6908: 6904: 6898: 6894: 6889: 6885: 6879: 6875: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6849: 6845: 6839: 6835: 6830: 6826: 6820: 6816: 6811: 6807: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6792:Aelred Stubbs 6788: 6784: 6778: 6774: 6769: 6768: 6763: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6735: 6731: 6729:0-8050-1899-9 6725: 6720: 6719: 6712: 6708: 6702: 6698: 6693: 6682: 6678: 6673: 6662: 6658: 6653: 6649: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6597: 6585: 6581: 6574: 6569: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6544: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6519: 6515: 6509: 6505: 6500: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6475: 6471: 6465: 6461: 6456: 6452: 6446: 6442: 6437: 6433: 6427: 6423: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6331: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6306: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6252: 6248: 6242: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6204: 6200: 6194: 6187: 6186: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6093: 6089: 6083: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6016: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5991: 5987: 5981: 5977: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5943: 5942: 5937: 5929: 5924: 5921: 5917: 5916:Ngcukana 2015 5912: 5909: 5905: 5900: 5897: 5893: 5888: 5885: 5881: 5876: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5861: 5858: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5831: 5828: 5824: 5819: 5816: 5812: 5807: 5804: 5800: 5795: 5792: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5765: 5762: 5758: 5753: 5750: 5746: 5741: 5738: 5734: 5729: 5726: 5722: 5717: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5701: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5686: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5659: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5644: 5640: 5635: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5620: 5617: 5613: 5612:Schumann 2008 5608: 5605: 5601: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5581: 5578: 5575:, p. 92. 5574: 5569: 5566: 5562: 5557: 5554: 5551:, p. 87. 5550: 5545: 5542: 5538: 5533: 5530: 5526: 5521: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5506: 5502: 5497: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5479: 5475: 5474:Macqueen 2014 5470: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5455: 5451: 5446: 5443: 5439: 5434: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5406: 5403: 5399: 5394: 5391: 5388:, p. 63. 5387: 5382: 5379: 5375: 5370: 5368: 5364: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5337: 5334: 5330: 5325: 5322: 5318: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5301: 5298: 5294: 5289: 5286: 5282: 5277: 5275: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5256: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5240: 5237: 5233: 5228: 5225: 5221: 5216: 5214: 5212: 5208: 5205:, p. 15. 5204: 5200: 5195: 5192: 5188: 5183: 5180: 5176: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5159: 5156: 5152: 5147: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5132: 5129: 5126:, p. 17. 5125: 5121: 5116: 5113: 5109: 5108:Macqueen 2014 5105: 5100: 5097: 5094:, p. 61. 5093: 5088: 5085: 5081: 5076: 5073: 5070:, p. 69. 5069: 5064: 5062: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5028: 5025:, p. 64. 5024: 5019: 5017: 5013: 5010:, p. 68. 5009: 5004: 5001: 4998:, p. 57. 4997: 4992: 4989: 4985: 4980: 4977: 4973: 4968: 4966: 4962: 4959:, p. 30. 4958: 4953: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4942:, p. 60. 4941: 4936: 4933: 4930:, p. 66. 4929: 4924: 4921: 4917: 4912: 4909: 4906:, p. 22. 4905: 4900: 4897: 4893: 4888: 4885: 4881: 4876: 4874: 4870: 4867:, p. 78. 4866: 4861: 4858: 4854: 4849: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4829: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4785: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4729: 4726:, p. 71. 4725: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4693: 4689: 4684: 4681: 4678:, p. 98. 4677: 4672: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4641: 4638: 4635:, p. 82. 4634: 4633:Hadfield 2010 4629: 4626: 4623:, p. 81. 4622: 4621:Hadfield 2010 4617: 4615: 4611: 4608:, p. 14. 4607: 4602: 4600: 4598: 4594: 4591:, p. 65. 4590: 4585: 4582: 4579:, p. 64. 4578: 4573: 4570: 4566: 4561: 4558: 4554: 4553:Macqueen 2014 4549: 4546: 4543:, p. 16. 4542: 4537: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4522: 4520: 4516: 4513:, p. 66. 4512: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4490: 4487: 4483: 4478: 4475: 4471: 4466: 4463: 4460:, p. 14. 4459: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4442: 4439: 4435: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4413: 4410: 4407:, p. 84. 4406: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4391: 4388:, p. 85. 4387: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4374: 4361: 4357: 4351: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4336: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4302:Whitaker 2003 4298: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4274: 4271:, p. 70. 4270: 4266: 4261: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4240:, p. 69. 4239: 4235: 4230: 4227: 4223: 4218: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4206:Macqueen 2013 4203: 4202:Hadfield 2010 4198: 4195: 4191: 4186: 4183: 4180:, p. 52. 4179: 4175: 4170: 4167: 4164:, p. 50. 4163: 4159: 4155: 4150: 4147: 4144:, p. 10. 4143: 4138: 4135: 4131: 4126: 4123: 4120:, p. 25. 4119: 4114: 4111: 4108:, p. 63. 4107: 4102: 4099: 4096:, p. 63. 4095: 4091: 4086: 4083: 4080:, p. 30. 4079: 4074: 4072: 4068: 4065:, p. 62. 4064: 4059: 4056: 4053:, p. 30. 4052: 4048: 4043: 4040: 4037:, p. 62. 4036: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3996: 3993:, p. 47. 3992: 3987: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3967: 3964: 3961:, p. 52. 3960: 3956: 3951: 3948: 3945:, p. 11. 3944: 3939: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3924: 3920: 3917:, p. 5; 3916: 3911: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3843: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3819: 3816: 3812: 3807: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3791: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3751: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3736: 3732: 3727: 3724: 3720: 3715: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3675: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3651:Macqueen 2013 3648: 3643: 3640: 3636: 3635:Macqueen 2013 3631: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3616: 3613:, p. 56. 3612: 3607: 3605: 3601: 3598:, p. 54. 3597: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3572: 3569:, p. 55. 3568: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3553: 3550:, p. 76. 3549: 3544: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3529: 3526:, p. 78. 3525: 3520: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3480: 3477: 3473: 3468: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3395:, p. 9; 3394: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3365:Hadfield 2010 3362: 3358: 3353: 3350: 3347:, p. 94. 3346: 3345:Hadfield 2010 3341: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3305: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3273: 3270:, p. 69. 3269: 3266:, p. 9; 3265: 3260: 3257: 3253: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3238:, p. 9; 3237: 3232: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3208:Hadfield 2010 3205: 3200: 3197: 3194:, p. 80. 3193: 3192:Hadfield 2010 3188: 3186: 3182: 3179:, p. 84. 3178: 3177:Hadfield 2010 3174: 3169: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3135:, p. 84. 3134: 3133:Hadfield 2010 3129: 3127: 3123: 3120:, p. 83. 3119: 3118:Hadfield 2010 3114: 3112: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3024: 3020: 3017:, p. 49. 3016: 3011: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2961:Macqueen 2013 2957: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2906: 2902: 2897: 2894: 2891:, p. 51. 2890: 2885: 2882: 2879:, p. 36. 2878: 2873: 2870: 2867:, p. 35. 2866: 2862: 2861:Macqueen 2013 2857: 2854: 2850: 2845: 2842: 2838: 2837:Macqueen 2013 2834: 2829: 2826: 2822: 2817: 2814: 2810: 2805: 2802: 2798: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2743: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2731:Macqueen 2013 2727: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2687: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2617: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2585: 2582: 2578: 2577:Macqueen 2014 2573: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2554: 2551:, p. 33. 2550: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2521:Macqueen 2013 2518: 2514: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2478: 2475:, p. 31. 2474: 2469: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2419:, p. 32. 2418: 2413: 2410: 2407:, p. 31. 2406: 2401: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2373: 2370: 2367:, p. 30. 2366: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2298: 2295:, p. 28. 2294: 2290: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2267: 2264:, p. 27. 2263: 2258: 2255: 2252:, p. 25. 2251: 2246: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2204: 2201:, p. 23. 2200: 2195: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2135: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2103: 2100: 2097:, p. 98. 2096: 2091: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2071: 2068: 2065:, p. 88. 2064: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2048: 2045:, p. 19. 2044: 2040: 2035: 2032: 2029:, p. 32. 2028: 2023: 2020: 2017:, p. 18. 2016: 2011: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1996: 1993:, p. 20. 1992: 1988: 1983: 1980: 1977:, p. 88. 1976: 1972: 1967: 1964: 1961:, p. 88. 1960: 1956: 1951: 1948: 1944: 1939: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1924: 1921:, p. 20. 1920: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1906:, p. 19. 1905: 1900: 1897: 1894:, p. 89. 1893: 1889: 1884: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1848: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1825: 1818: 1813: 1809: 1806: 1805: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1783: 1781: 1780:Google Doodle 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1741:Chinua Achebe 1738: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1682:Albert Finney 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1666:Peter Gabriel 1663: 1662:Peter Hammill 1659: 1654: 1652: 1651:postage stamp 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1635:Gerard Sekoto 1628: 1623: 1617:Commemoration 1616: 1614: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1598: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1584: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1540: 1534: 1532: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1513: 1502: 1501:public poll. 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1486:Peniel Joseph 1483: 1479: 1471: 1466: 1459: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1445:Samora Machel 1440: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1412: 1410: 1406: 1405:B. J. 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2039:Woods 1978 1832:Woods 1978 1814:References 1792:Jacob Zuma 1668:released " 1658:Tom Paxton 1533:campaign. 1325:Zapatistas 1317:capitalist 1252:A staunch 1227:Steve Biko 1193:Steve Biko 1159:James Cone 987:Land Rover 868:Mozambique 827:Fikile Bam 713:liberalism 508:government 479:(PAC), an 375:Queenstown 371:Whittlesea 296:Martinican 254:system of 225:Frank Talk 127:Occupation 122:Frank Talk 61:1946-12-18 36:Steve Biko 7498:Political 7380:Malcolm X 7375:Fela Kuti 7219:Tom Mboya 7080:Négritude 7043:Sankarism 7038:Nkrumaism 7033:Garveyism 6865:0027-8378 6413:154736810 6399:: 76–79. 6384:146298315 6355:145138768 6276:143526446 6228:143822840 6175:143464359 6146:218574270 6117:144308914 6069:143996881 6040:144826918 5967:143223447 5892:Hill 2015 5880:Hill 2015 5865:Zulu 2016 5733:Hill 2015 5709:Hill 2015 5693:Hill 2015 5668:SA Venues 5651:Hill 2015 5639:Hill 2015 5624:Hill 2015 5573:Hill 2015 5561:Hill 2015 5549:Hill 2015 5537:Hill 2015 5525:Hill 2015 5501:Hill 2015 5426:Hill 2015 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