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absence of whiteness. In response, Biko replaced "non-white" with the category "black," which he regarded as being neither derivative nor negative. He defined blackness as a "mental attitude" rather than a "matter of pigmentation", referring to "blacks" as "those who are by law or tradition politically, economically and socially discriminated against as a group in the South
African society" and who identify "themselves as a unit in the struggle towards the realization of their aspirations". In this way, he and the Black Consciousness Movement used "black" in reference not only to Bantu-speaking Africans but also to Coloureds and Indians, who together made up almost 90% of South Africa's population in the 1970s. Biko was not a Marxist and believed that it was oppression based on race, rather than class, which would be the main political motivation for change in South Africa. He argued that those on the "white left" often promoted a class-based analysis as a "defence mechanism... primarily because they want to detach us from anything relating to race. In case it has a rebound effect on them because they are white".
806:. Establishing a more permanent headquarters in Leopold Street, the branch served as a base from which to form new BCPs; these included self-help schemes such as classes in literacy, dressmaking and health education. For Biko, community development was part of the process of infusing black people with a sense of pride and dignity. Near King William's Town, a BCP Zanempilo Clinic was established to serve as a healthcare centre catering for rural black people who would not otherwise have access to hospital facilities. He helped to revive the Ginsberg crèche, a daycare for children of working mothers, and establish a Ginsberg education fund to raise bursaries for promising local students. He helped establish Njwaxa Home Industries, a leather goods company providing jobs for local women. In 1975, he co-founded the Zimele Trust, a fund for the families of political prisoners.
547:
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for an anti-apartheid programme that was controlled by black people. Although he called on sympathetic whites to reject any concept that they themselves could be spokespeople for the black majority, Biko nevertheless believed that they had a place in the anti-apartheid struggle, asking them to focus their efforts on convincing the wider white community on the inevitability of apartheid's fall. Biko clarified his position to Woods: "I don't reject liberalism as such or white liberals as such. I reject only the concept that black liberation can be achieved through the leadership of white liberals." He added that "the liberal is no enemy, he's a friend – but for the moment he holds us back, offering a formula too gentle, too inadequate for our struggle".
571:(NUSAS). NUSAS had taken pains to cultivate a multi-racial membership but remained white-dominated because the majority of South Africa's students were from the country's white minority. As Clive Nettleton, a white NUSAS leader, put it: "the essence of the matter is that NUSAS was founded on white initiative, is financed by white money and reflects the opinions of the majority of its members who are white". NUSAS officially opposed apartheid, but it moderated its opposition in order to maintain the support of conservative white students. Biko and several other black African NUSAS members were frustrated when it organised parties in white dormitories, which black Africans were forbidden to enter. In July 1967, a NUSAS conference was held at
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904:. Under Woods' editorship, the newspaper had published articles criticising apartheid and the white-minority regime and had also given space to the views of various black groups, but not the BCM. Biko hoped to convince Woods to give the movement greater coverage and an outlet for its views. Woods was initially reticent, believing that Biko and the BCM advocated "for racial exclusivism in reverse". When he met Biko for the first time, Woods expressed his concern about the anti-white liberal sentiment of Biko's early writings. Biko acknowledged that his earlier "antiliberal" writings were "overkill", but said that he remained committed to the basic message contained within them.
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dismantling the apartheid state. SASO regarded student marches, pickets, and strikes to be ineffective and stated it would withdraw from public forms of protest. It deliberately avoided open confrontation with the state until such a point when it had a sufficiently large institutional structure. Instead, SASO's focus was on establishing community projects and spreading Black
Consciousness ideas among other black organisations and the wider black community. Despite this policy, in May 1972 it issued the Alice Declaration, in which it called for students to boycott lectures in response to the expulsion of SASO member
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campaign poster suggesting that Biko had been a member of their party, which was untrue. Following the end of apartheid when the ANC formed the government, they were accused of appropriating his legacy. In 2002, AZAPO issued a statement declaring that "Biko was not a neutral, apolitical and mythical icon" and that the ANC was "scandalously" using Biko's image to legitimise their "weak" government. Members of the ANC have also criticised AZAPO's attitude to Biko; in 1997, Mandela said that "Biko belongs to us all, not just AZAPO." On the anniversary of Biko's death in 2015, delegations from both the ANC and the
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of attempting to hinder SASO's growth on various campuses. SASO's split from NUSAS was a traumatic experience for many white liberal youth who had committed themselves to the idea of a multi-racial organisation and felt that their attempts were being rebuffed. The NUSAS leadership regretted the split, but largely refrained from criticising SASO. The government – which regarded multi-racial liberalism as a threat and had banned multi-racial political parties in 1968 – was pleased with SASO's emergence, regarding it as a victory of apartheid thinking.
1132:, Ruben Marx, Daantjie Siebert, and Johan Beneke) appeared before the commission and requested amnesty in return for information about the events surrounding Biko's death. In December 1998, the Commission refused amnesty to the five men; this was because their accounts were conflicting and thus deemed untruthful, and because Biko's killing had no clear political motive, but seemed to have been motivated by "ill-will or spite". In October 2003, South Africa's justice ministry announced that the five policemen would not be prosecuted because the
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1061:, a statement he later denied. His account was challenged by some of Biko's friends, including Woods, who said that Biko had told them that he would never kill himself in prison. Publicly, he stated that Biko had been plotting violence, a claim repeated in the pro-government press. South Africa's attorney general initially stated that no one would be prosecuted for Biko's death. Two weeks after the funeral, the government banned all Black Consciousness organisations, including the BCP, which had its assets seized.
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1264:'s motives in supporting African liberation movements, relating that "Russia is as imperialistic as America", although he acknowledged that "in the eyes of the Third World they have a cleaner slate". He also acknowledged that the material assistance provided by the Soviets was "more valuable" to the anti-apartheid cause than the "speeches and wrist-slapping" provided by Western governments. He was cautious of the possibility of a post-apartheid South Africa getting caught up in the imperialist
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added: "we'll do what we can to restrain that, but frankly it's not one of our top priorities or one of our major concerns. Our main concern is the liberation of the blacks." Elsewhere, Biko argued that it was the responsibility of a vanguard movement to ensure that, in a post-apartheid society, the black majority would not seek vengeance upon the white minority. He stated that this would require an education of the black population in order to teach them how to live in a non-racial society.
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yoke of oppression with sheepish timidity", and stated that "the most potent weapon in the hands of the oppressor is the mind of the oppressed". He believed that blacks needed to affirm their own humanity by overcoming their fears and believing themselves worthy of freedom and its attendant responsibilities. He defined Black
Consciousness as "an inward-looking process" that would "infuse people with pride and dignity". To promote this, the BCM adopted the slogan "Black is Beautiful".
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systems that seek to make him a foreigner in the country of his birth and reduce his basic human dignity." Black
Consciousness centred on psychological empowerment, through combating the feelings of inferiority that most black South Africans exhibited. Biko believed that, as part of the struggle against apartheid and white-minority rule, blacks should affirm their own humanity by regarding themselves as worthy of freedom and its attendant responsibilities. It applied the term "
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work conditions, through poor pay, through difficult living conditions, through poor education, these are all external to him. Secondly, and this we regard as the most important, the black man in himself has developed a certain state of alienation, he rejects himself precisely because he attaches the meaning white to all that is good, in other words he equates good with white. This arises out of his living and it arises out of his development from childhood.
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system and the anti-apartheid movement, white people totally controlled the political arena, leaving black people marginalised. He believed white people were able to dominate the anti-apartheid movement because of their access to resources, education, and privilege. He nevertheless thought that white South
Africans were poorly suited to this role because they had not personally experienced the oppression that their black counterparts faced.
623:; there, the group's constitution and basic policy platform were adopted. The group's focus was on the need for contact between centres of black student activity, including through sport, cultural activities, and debating competitions. Though Biko played a substantial role in SASO's creation, he sought a low public profile during its early stages, believing that this would strengthen its second level of leadership, such as his ally
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would also help students to learn about the "daily struggles" of ordinary black people and to spread Black
Consciousness ideas among the population. Among the projects that SASO set its members to conduct in the holidays were repairs to schools, house-building, and instructions on financial management and agricultural techniques. Healthcare was also a priority, with SASO members focusing on primary and preventative care.
1165:. The Martinique-born Fanon, in particular, has been cited as a profound influence over Biko's ideas about liberation. Biko's biographer Xolela Mangcu cautioned that it would be wrong to reduce Biko's thought to an interpretation of Fanon, and that the impact of "the political and intellectual history of the Eastern Cape" had to be appreciated too. Additional influences on Black Consciousness were the United States-based
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960:. On 6 September, he was transferred from Walmer to room 619 of the security police headquarters in the Sanlam Building in central Port Elizabeth, where he was interrogated for 22 hours, handcuffed and in shackles, and chained to a grille. Exactly what happened has never been ascertained, but during the interrogation he was severely beaten by at least one of the ten security police officers. He suffered three
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state security services repeatedly sought to intimidate him; he received anonymous threatening phone calls, and gun shots were fired at his house. A group of young men calling themselves 'The Cubans' began guarding him from these attacks. The security services detained him four times, once for 101 days. With the ban preventing him from gaining employment, the strained economic situation impacted his marriage.
953:. Biko was arrested for having violated the order restricting him to King William's Town. Unsubstantiated claims have been made that the security services were aware of Biko's trip to Cape Town and that the road block had been erected to catch him. Jones was also arrested at the roadblock; he was subsequently held without trial for 533 days, during which time he was interrogated on numerous occasions.
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Drawing upon the writings and speeches of Frantz Fanon, Aimé Césaire, and
Malcolm X, advocates of Black Consciousness supported cultural and social activities that promoted a knowledge of black protest history. They actively promoted the establishment of independent, black-owned institutions, and favored radical reforms within school curricula that nurtured a positive black identity for young people.
1241:, stating that the latter's co-operation with the South African government " the cause" of black liberation. He believed that those fighting apartheid in South Africa should link with anti-colonial struggles elsewhere in the world and with activists in the global African diaspora combating racial prejudice and discrimination. He also hoped that foreign countries would boycott South Africa's economy.
1365:, with Biko "you had a remarkable sense of being in the presence of a great mind". Woods felt that Biko "could enable one to share his vision" with "an economy of words" because "he seemed to communicate ideas through extraverbal media – almost psychically." Biko exhibited what Woods referred to as "a new style of leadership", never proclaiming himself to be a leader and discouraging any
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753:(BPC), a vehicle for the promotion of Black Consciousness among the wider population. Biko voted in favour of the group's creation but expressed reservations about the lack of consultation with South Africa's Coloureds or Indians. A. Mayatula became the BPC's first president; Biko did not stand for any leadership positions. The group was formally launched in July 1972 in
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kill such a prominent dissident leader. Biko's
Anglican funeral service, held on 25 September 1977 at King William's Town's Victoria Stadium, took five hours and was attended by around 20,000 people. The vast majority were black, but a few hundred whites also attended, including Biko's friends, such as Russell and Woods, and prominent progressive figures like
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as a resurgent force in anti-apartheid politics. This brought about a shift in focus from the BCM's community organising to wider mass mobilisation, including attempts to follow Tambo's call to make South Africa "ungovernable", which involved increasing violence and clashes between rival anti-apartheid groups.
912:, who served as NUSAS President in 1969; Innes later commented that Biko was "invaluable in helping me to understand black oppression, not only socially and politically, but also psychologically and intellectually". Biko's friendship with these white liberals came under criticism from some members of the BCM.
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Woods held the view that Biko had filled the vacuum within the country's
African nationalist movement that arose in the late 1960s following the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and the banning of Sobukwe. Following Biko's death, the Black Consciousness Movement declined in influence as the ANC emerged
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One of the ways that Biko and the BCM sought to achieve psychological empowerment was through community development. Community projects were seen not only as a way to alleviate poverty in black communities but also as a means of transforming society psychologically, culturally, and economically. They
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Biko saw white racism in South Africa as the totality of the white power structure. He argued that under apartheid, white people not only participated in the oppression of black people but were also the main voices in opposition to that oppression. He thus argued that in dominating both the apartheid
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News of Biko's death spread quickly across the world, and became symbolic of the abuses of the apartheid system. His death attracted more global attention than he had ever attained during his lifetime. Protest meetings were held in several cities; many were shocked that the security authorities would
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My major problem at this moment is a strange kind of guilt. So many friends of mine have been arrested for activities in something that I was most instrumental in starting. A lot of them are blokes I spoke into the movement. And yet I am not with them. One does not think this way in political life of
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SASO decided after a debate to remain non-affiliated with NUSAS, but would nevertheless recognise the larger organisation as the national student body. One of SASO's founding resolutions was to send a representative to each NUSAS conference. In 1970 SASO withdrew its recognition of NUSAS, accusing it
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and
African racialist ideas. Biko admired what he described as the PAC's "terribly good organisation" and the courage of many of its members, but he remained unconvinced by its racially exclusionary approach, believing that members of all racial groups should unite against the government. In December
1447:. Angered by her husband's serial adultery, Mashalaba ultimately moved out of their home, and by the time of his death, she had begun divorce proceedings. Biko had also begun an extra-marital relationship with Mamphela Ramphele. In 1974, they had a daughter, Lerato, who died after two months. A son,
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Black, said Biko, is not a colour; Black is an experience. If you are oppressed, you are Black. In the South African context, this was truly revolutionary. Biko's subsidiary message was that the unity of the oppressed could not be achieved through clandestine armed struggle; it had to be achieved in
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Biko believed that while apartheid and white-minority rule continued, "sporadic outbursts" of violence against the white minority were inevitable. He wanted to avoid violence, stating that "if at all possible, we want the revolution to be peaceful and reconciliatory". He noted that views on violence
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initiated proceedings against the medical professionals who had been entrusted with Biko's care; eight years later two of the medics were found guilty of improper conduct. The failure of the government-employed doctors to diagnose or treat Biko's injuries has been frequently cited as an example of a
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Over the coming years the pair became close friends. Woods later related that, although he continued to have concerns about "the unavoidably racist aspects of Black Consciousness", it was "both a revelation and education" to socialise with blacks who had "psychologically emancipated attitudes". Biko
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and being a "negative influence" on black Africans. In one of his first published articles, Biko stated that although he was "not sneering at the liberals and their involvement" in the anti-apartheid movement, "one has to come to the painful conclusion that the liberal is in fact appeasing his own
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Like Black Power in the United States, South Africa's "Black Consciousness movement" was grounded in the belief that African-descendant peoples had to overcome the enormous psychological and cultural damage imposed on them by a succession of white racist domains, such as enslavement and colonialism.
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The charisma of Steve Biko was entirely his own. He had from an early age the unmistakable bearing and quality of a unique leader. I say unique because his style of leadership was his own – it was un-pushy, un-promotional, yet immediately acknowledged by his peers ... I was thirteen years
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described the police investigation of the incident as "perfunctory in the extreme". The security forces alleged that Biko had acted aggressively and had sustained his injuries in a scuffle, in which he had banged his head against the cell wall. The presiding magistrate accepted the security forces'
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in 1975. Biko disagreed with this action, correctly predicting that the government would use it to crack down on the BCM. The government arrested around 200 BCM activists, nine of whom were brought before the Supreme Court, accused of subversion by intent. The state claimed that Black Consciousness
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In Durban, Biko entered a relationship with a nurse, Nontsikelelo "Ntsiki" Mashalaba; they married at the King William's Town magistrates court in December 1970. Their first child, Nkosinathi, was born in 1971. Biko initially did well in his university studies, but his grades declined as he devoted
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Medical School. There, he joined what his biographer Xolela Mangcu called "a peculiarly sophisticated and cosmopolitan group of students" from across South Africa; many of them later held prominent roles in the post-apartheid era. The late 1960s was the heyday of radical student politics across the
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Although Biko's ideas have not received the same attention as Frantz Fanon's, in 2001 Ahluwalia and Zegeye wrote that the men shared "a highly similar pedigree in their interests in the philosophical psychology of consciousness, their desire for a decolonising of the mind, the liberation of Africa
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Biko and his comrades regarded multi-racial anti-apartheid groups as unwittingly replicating the structure of apartheid because they contained whites in dominant positions of control. For this reason, Biko and the others did not participate in these multi-racial organisations. Instead, they called
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In 1973, Biko had enrolled for a law degree by correspondence from the University of South Africa. He passed several exams, but had not completed the degree at his time of death. His performance on the course was poor; he was absent from several exams and failed his Practical Afrikaans module. The
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In conversation with Woods, Biko insisted that the BCM would not degenerate into anti-white hatred "because it isn't a negative, hating thing. It's a positive black self-confidence thing involving no hatred of anyone". He acknowledged that a "fringe element" may retain "anti-white bitterness"; he
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It becomes more necessary to see the truth as it is if you realise that the only vehicle for change are these people who have lost their personality. The first step therefore is to make the black man come to himself; to pump back life into his empty shell; to infuse him with pride and dignity, to
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Biko's approach to activism focused on psychological empowerment, and both he and the BCM saw their main purpose as combating the feeling of inferiority that most black South Africans experienced. Biko expressed dismay at how "the black man has become a shell, a shadow of man ... bearing the
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Black Consciousness directs itself to the black man and to his situation, and the black man is subjected to two forces in this country. He is first of all oppressed by an external world through institutionalised machinery and through laws that restrict him from doing certain things, through heavy
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on him. This prevented him from leaving the King William's Town magisterial district, prohibited him from speaking either in public or to more than one person at a time, barred his membership of political organisations, and forbade the media from quoting him. As a result, he returned to Ginsberg,
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I realized that for a long time I had been holding onto this whole dogma of nonracism almost like a religion ... But in the course of that debate I began to feel there was a lot lacking in the proponents of the nonracist idea ... they had this problem, you know, of superiority, and they
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in 1973, severely restricting his activities. He remained politically active, helping organise BCPs such as a healthcare centre and a crèche in the Ginsberg area. During his ban he received repeated anonymous threats, and was detained by state security services on several occasions. Following his
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Amid the dismantling of apartheid in the early 1990s, various political parties competed over Biko's legacy, with several saying they were the party that Biko would support if he were still alive. AZAPO in particular claimed exclusive ownership over Black Consciousness. In 1994, the ANC issued a
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Biko hoped that a future socialist South Africa could become a completely non-racial society, with people of all ethnic backgrounds living peacefully together in a "joint culture" that combined the best of all communities. He did not support guarantees of minority rights, believing that doing so
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While the BPC was primarily political, Black Consciousness activists also established the Black Community Programmes (BCPs) to focus on improving healthcare and education and fostering black economic self-reliance. The BCPs had strong ecumenical links, being part-funded by a program on Christian
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brought Biko's life and activism to a wider audience. The state censors initially permitted its release in South Africa, but after it began screening in the country's cinemas, copies were confiscated by police on the order of Police Commissioner General Hendrik de Wit, who claimed that it would
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The Nationalist government portrayed Biko as a hater of whites, but he had several close white friends, and both Woods and Wilson insisted that he was not a racist. Woods related that Biko "simply wasn't a hater of people", and that he did not even hate prominent National Party politicians like
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Biko developed SASO's ideology of "Black Consciousness" in conversation with other black student leaders. A SASO policy manifesto produced in July 1971 defined this ideology as "an attitude of mind, a way of life. The basic tenet of Black Consciousness is that the Blackman must reject all value
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Though internationally Steve Biko became a symbol of apartheid abuse in the years following his death, for the -minded (wherever they live) he has always been remembered for the life he led and the ethos he inspired among millions. And for his family and friends, he was much more: a husband, a
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Biko rejected the apartheid government's division of South Africa's population into "whites" and "non-whites," a distinction that was marked on signs and buildings throughout the country. Building on Fanon's work, Biko regarded "non-white" as a negative category, defining people in terms of an
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Biko and SASO were openly critical of NUSAS' protests against government policies. Biko argued that NUSAS merely sought to influence the white electorate; in his opinion, this electorate was not legitimate, and protests targeting a particular policy would be ineffective for the ultimate aim of
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group which the government had banned. Both Khaya and Steve were arrested and interrogated by the police; the former was convicted, then acquitted on appeal. No clear evidence of Steve's connection to Poqo was presented, but he was expelled from Lovedale. Commenting later on this situation, he
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rule in South Africa, Biko was frustrated that NUSAS and other anti-apartheid groups were dominated by white liberals, rather than by the blacks who were most affected by apartheid. He believed that well-intentioned white liberals failed to comprehend the black experience and often acted in a
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under the pseudonym "Frank Talk". His tenure as president was taken up largely by fundraising activities, and involved travelling around various campuses in South Africa to recruit students and deepen the movement's ideological base. Some of these students censured him for abandoning NUSAS'
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philosophy was likely to cause "racial confrontation" and therefore threatened public safety. Biko was called as a witness for the defence; he sought to refute the state's accusations by outlining the movement's aims and development. Ultimately, the accused were convicted and imprisoned on
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delegates but not the black Africans, who were told that they could sleep in a local church. Biko and other black African delegates walked out of the conference in anger. Biko later related that this event forced him to rethink his belief in the multi-racial approach to political activism:
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Biko was initially interested in studying law at university, but many of those around him discouraged this, believing that law was too closely intertwined with political activism. Instead they convinced him to choose medicine, a subject thought to have better career prospects. He secured a
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tended to take us for granted and wanted us to accept things that were second-class. They could not see why we could not consider staying in that church, and I began to feel that our understanding of our own situation in this country was not coincidental with that of these liberal whites.
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Tall and slim in his youth, by his twenties Biko was over six feet tall, with the "bulky build of a heavyweight boxer carrying more weight than when in peak condition", according to Woods. His friends regarded him as "handsome, fearless, a brilliant thinker". Woods saw him as "unusually
1391:. He enjoyed parties, and according to his biographer Linda Wilson, he often drank substantial quantities of alcohol. Religion did not play a central role in his life. He was often critical of the established Christian churches, but remained a believer in God and found meaning in the
1434:, something that Woods described as "well earned". He displayed no racial prejudice, sleeping with both black and white women. At NUSAS, he and his friends competed to see who could have sex with the most female delegates. Responding to this behaviour, the NUSAS general secretary
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Biko was examined by a doctor, Ivor Lang, who stated that there was no evidence of injury on Biko. Later scholarship has suggested Biko's injuries must have been obvious. He was then examined by two other doctors who, after a test showed blood cells to have entered Biko's
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Biko married Ntsiki Mashalaba in December 1970. They had two children together: Nkosinathi, born in 1971, and Samora, born in 1975. Biko's wife chose the name Nkosinathi ("The Lord is with us"), and Biko named their second child after the Mozambican revolutionary leader
1426:, a BCM activist and doctor at the Zanempilo Clinic, including that women tended to be given responsibility for the cleaning and catering at functions. "There was no way you could think of Steve making a cup of tea or whatever for himself", another activist said.
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Biko's banning order in 1973 prevented him from working officially for the BCPs from which he had previously earned a small stipend, but he helped to set up a new BPC branch in Ginsberg, which held its first meeting in the church of a sympathetic white clergyman,
945:. Biko drove to the city with his friend Peter Jones on 17 August, but Alexander refused to meet with Biko, fearing that he was being monitored by the police. Biko and Jones drove back toward King William's Town, but on 18 August they were stopped at a police
667:" not only to Bantu-speaking Africans, but also to Indians and Coloureds. SASO adopted this term over "non-white" because its leadership felt that defining themselves in opposition to white people was not a positive self-description. Biko promoted the slogan "
44:
314:. It organised Black Community Programmes (BCPs) and focused on the psychological empowerment of black people. Biko believed that black people needed to rid themselves of any sense of racial inferiority, an idea he expressed by popularizing the slogan "
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Biko and many others in his activist circle had an antipathy toward luxury items because most South African blacks could not afford them. He owned few clothes and dressed in a low-key manner. He had a large record collection and particularly liked
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multi-racial approach; others disapproved of SASO's decision to allow Indian and Coloured students to be members. Biko stepped down from the presidency after a year, insisting that it was necessary for a new leadership to emerge and thus avoid any
459:. In 1963 he transferred to the Forbes Grant Secondary School in the township. Biko excelled at maths and English and topped the class in his exams. In 1964 the Ginsberg community offered him a bursary to join his brother Khaya as a student at
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remind him of his complicity in the crime of allowing himself to be mis-used and therefore letting evil reign supreme in the land of his birth. That is what we mean by an inward-looking process. This is the definition of Black Consciousness.
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on 6 September. Following this incident, Biko's captors forced him to remain standing and shackled to the wall. The police later said that Biko had attacked one of them with a chair, forcing them to subdue him and place him in handcuffs and
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but in which all land was owned by the state and in which state industries played a significant part in forestry, mining, and commerce. He believed that, if post-apartheid South Africa remained capitalist, some black people would join the
1005:". He was the twenty-first person to die in a South African prison in twelve months, and the forty-sixth political detainee to die during interrogation since the government introduced laws permitting imprisonment without trial in 1963.
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accused Biko of sexism, to which he responded: "Don't worry about my sexism. What about your white racist friends in NUSAS?" Sobukwe also admonished Biko for his womanising, believing that it set a bad example to other activists.
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donated money to the group to establish a Steve Biko Centre in Ginsberg, opened in 2012. The Foundation launched its annual Steve Biko Memorial Lecture in 2000, each given by a prominent black intellectual. The first speaker was
1042:, produced a T-shirt marking the event; the design was banned the following year. Martins also created a commemorative poster for the funeral, the first in a tradition of funeral posters that proved popular throughout the 1980s.
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increasing time to political activism. Six years after starting his degree, he found himself repeating his third year. In 1972, as a result of his poor academic performance, the University of Natal barred him from further study.
1030:. The event was later described as "the first mass political funeral in the country". Biko's coffin had been decorated with the motifs of a clenched black fist, the African continent, and the statement "One Azania, One Nation";
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The ideas of the Black Consciousness Movement were not developed solely by Biko, but through lengthy discussions with other black students who were rejecting white liberalism. Biko was influenced by his reading of authors like
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from growing up around him. Other activists did regard him as a leader and often deferred to him at meetings. When engaged in conversations, he displayed an interest in listening and often drew out the thoughts of others.
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1411:, instead hating their ideas. It was rare and uncharacteristic of him to display any rage, and was rare for him to tell people about his doubts and inner misgivings, reserving those for a small number of confidants.
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wrote that his death had "created a vivid symbol of black resistance" to apartheid that "continues to inspire new black activists" over a decade after the transition to majority rule. Johann de Wet, a professor of
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system was "the greatest single fraud ever invented by white politicians", stating that it was designed to divide the Bantu-speaking African population along tribal lines. He openly criticised the Zulu leader
1323:, he called for "a socialist solution that is an authentic expression of black communalism". This idea was derided by some of his Marxist contemporaries, but later found parallels in the ideas of the Mexican
1590:, edited by Millard Arnold. Woods fled to England that year, where he campaigned against apartheid and further publicised Biko's life and death, writing many newspaper articles about him, as well as a book,
853:
In December 1975, attempting to circumvent the restrictions of the banning order, the BPC declared Biko their honorary president. After Biko and other BCM leaders were banned, a new leadership arose, led by
344:, and African racial nationalists criticised his united front with Coloureds and Indians. Nonetheless, Biko became one of the earliest icons of the movement against apartheid, and is regarded as a political
413:, and English were all spoken. After resigning from the police force, Mzingaye worked as a clerk in the King William's Town Native Affairs Office, while studying for a law degree by correspondence from the
1711:. Over 10,000 people attended the monument's unveiling in September 1997. In the following months it was vandalised several times; in one instance it was daubed with the letters "AWB", an acronym of the
1480:
called him "the spark that lit a veld fire across South Africa", adding that the Nationalist government "had to kill him to prolong the life of apartheid". Opening an anthology of his work in 2008,
1116:
was established to investigate past human-rights abuses. The commission made plans to investigate Biko's death, but his family petitioned against this on the grounds that the commission could grant
886:
825:, a leading ANC figure. Biko's negotiations with the PAC were primarily through intermediaries who exchanged messages between him and Sobukwe; those with the Unity Movement were largely via
1344:
but inequality and poverty would remain. As he put it, if South Africa transitioned to proportional democracy without socialist economic reforms, then "it would not change the position of
1676:, the song helped to integrate anti-apartheid themes into Western popular culture. Biko's life was also commemorated through theatre. The inquest into his death was dramatised as a play,
440:("a person is a person by means of other people"). As a child he was nicknamed "Goofy" and "Xwaku-Xwaku", the latter a reference to his unkempt appearance. He was raised in his family's
369:. The third child of Mzingaye Mathew Biko and Alice 'Mamcete' Biko, he had an older sister, Bukelwa, an older brother, Khaya, and a younger sister, Nobandile. His parents had married in
7908:
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1096:
stated that he would not prosecute the officers. After the inquest, Biko's family brought a civil case against the state; at the advice of their lawyers, they agreed to a settlement of
720:
conscience, or at best is eager to demonstrate his identification with the black people only insofar as it does not sever all ties with his relatives on his side of the colour line."
455:
Biko spent two years at St. Andrews Primary School and four at Charles Morgan Higher Primary School, both in Ginsberg. Regarded as a particularly intelligent pupil, he was allowed to
7943:
7888:
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courthouse in November 1977, and lasted for three weeks. Both the running of the inquest and the quality of evidence submitted came in for extensive criticism. An observer from the
7878:
7584:
306:, Biko and his compatriots developed Black Consciousness as SASO's official ideology. The movement campaigned for an end to apartheid and the transition of South Africa toward
1109:
repressive state influencing medical practitioners' decisions, and Biko's death as evidence of the need for doctors to serve the needs of patients before those of the state.
267:
manner. He developed the view that to avoid white domination, black people had to organise independently, and to this end he became a leading figure in the creation of the
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7863:
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in King William's Town. According to his sister, it was this observation of his mother's difficult working conditions that resulted in Biko's earliest politicisation.
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1232:
Biko opposed any collaboration with the apartheid government, such as the agreements that the Coloured and Indian communities made with the regime. In his view, the
7868:
7843:
7838:
7833:
4355:
564:, and Biko was eager to involve himself in this environment. Soon after he arrived at the university, he was elected to the Students' Representative Council (SRC).
6317:
1376:
older than Steve, yet I always had the feeling I was talking to someone older and wiser, and like many others I often sought his advice on all manner of problems.
7913:
6206:
Hadfield, Leslie (2010). "Biko, Black Consciousness, and 'the System' eZinyoka: Oral History and Black Consciousness in Practice in a Rural Ciskei Village".
1256:, Biko saw the South African situation as a "microcosm" of the broader "black–white power struggle" which manifests as "the global confrontation between the
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as Biko. Many film critics and Black Consciousness proponents were concerned that the film foregrounded white characters like Woods over Biko himself, but
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from the University of the North after he made a speech criticising its administration. The Tiro incident convinced the government that SASO was a threat.
6746:
1395:. Woods described him as "not conventionally religious, although he had genuine religious feeling in broad terms". Mangcu noted that Biko was critical of
1249:
and believers in violent revolution – although the group had agreed to operate peacefully, and unlike the PAC and ANC, had no armed wing.
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1034:
was the name that many activists wanted South Africa to adopt post-apartheid. Biko was buried in the cemetery at Ginsberg. Two BCM-affiliated artists,
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7554:
989:, naked and manacled, and drove him 740 miles (1,190 km) to the hospital. There, Biko died alone in a cell on 12 September 1977. According to an
322:(BPC) to promote Black Consciousness ideas among the wider population. The government came to see Biko as a subversive threat and placed him under a
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568:
247:
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1451:, was born to Ramphele in 1978, after Biko's death. Biko was also in a relationship with Lorrain Tabane; they had a child named Motlatsi in 1977.
1684:
and broadcast on television. Anti-apartheid activists used Biko's name and memory in their protests; in 1979, a mountaineer climbed the spire of
813:(ANC) – in order to concentrate their anti-apartheid efforts. To this end, he reached out to leading members of the ANC, PAC, and
616:
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142:
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political culture, and Biko developed his political consciousness there. He became particularly interested in the replacement of South Africa's
7918:
7903:
7590:
6333:
Macqueen, Ian (2013). "Resonances of Youth and Tensions of Race: Liberal Student Politics, White Radicals and Black Consciousness, 1968–1973".
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1715:, a far-right Afrikaner paramilitary group. In 1997, the cemetery where Biko was buried was renamed the Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance. The
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inflame tensions and endanger public safety. The South African government banned many books about Biko, including those of Arnold and Woods.
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615:. There, the black African members decided to hold a December conference to discuss the formation of an independent black student group. The
287:. He was careful to keep his movement independent of white liberals, but opposed anti-white hatred and had white friends. The white-minority
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gifted ... His quick brain, superb articulation of ideas and sheer mental force were highly impressive." According to Biko's friend
993:, an "extensive brain injury" had caused "centralisation of the blood circulation to such an extent that there had been intravasal blood
7928:
7883:
6362:
Macqueen, Ian (2014). "Black Consciousness in Dialogue in South Africa: Steve Biko, Richard Turner and the 'Durban Moment', 1970–1974".
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stated: "I began to develop an attitude which was much more directed at authority than at anything else. I hated authority like hell."
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6196:
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441:
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Marable, Manning; Joseph, Peniel (2008). "Series Editors' Preface: Steve Biko and the International Context of Black Consciousness".
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in his 1979 exhibition. A triptych, it depicted the three police officers implicated in Biko's death. Kenya released a commemorative
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By 1973, the government regarded Black Consciousness as a threat. It sought to disrupt Biko's activities, and in March 1973 placed a
7893:
7579:
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6153:
Drewett, Michael (February 2007). "The Eyes of the World Are Watching Now: The Political Effectiveness of "Biko" by Peter Gabriel".
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The security services took Biko to the Walmer police station in Port Elizabeth, where he was held naked in a cell with his legs in
424:
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208:
6462:. Andile Mngxitama, Amanda Alexander, and Nigel C. Gibson (eds.). New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. vii–x.
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Biko's fame spread posthumously. He became the subject of numerous songs and works of art, while a 1978 biography by his friend
7659:
6506:. Andile Mngxitama, Amanda Alexander, and Nigel C. Gibson (eds.). New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–20.
1759:
1493:, described him as "one of South Africa's most gifted political strategists and communicators". In 2004 he was elected 13th in
1049:
Biko's coffin featured the motif of a clenched black fist. Many in the Black Consciousness Movement used this fist as a symbol.
488:
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5994:
7898:
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published an online archive containing documents and photographs owned by the Steve Biko Foundation. On 18 December 2016,
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Biko endorsed the unification of South Africa's black liberationist groups – among them the BCM, PAC, and
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1565:. Several figures associated with the ANC denigrated Biko during the 1980s. For instance, members of the ANC-affiliated
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government were initially supportive, seeing SASO's creation as a victory for apartheid's ethos of racial separatism.
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arrest in August 1977, Biko was beaten to death by state security officers. Over 20,000 people attended his funeral.
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Buildings, institutes and public spaces around the world have been named after Biko, such as the Steve Bikoplein in
7923:
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7858:
7483:
1327:. Noting that there was significant inequality in the distribution of wealth in South Africa, Biko believed that a
814:
414:
340:. During Biko's life, the government alleged that he hated whites, various anti-apartheid activists accused him of
1744:
1430:
was viewed as irrelevant "bra-burning". Surrounded by women who cared about him, Biko developed a reputation as a
1088:
The verdict was treated with scepticism by much of the international media and the US Government led by President
223:
during the late 1960s and 1970s. His ideas were articulated in a series of articles published under the pseudonym
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1704:
1672:" in tribute to him, which was a hit single in 1980, and was banned in South Africa soon after. Along with other
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Biko is viewed as the "father" of the Black Consciousness Movement and the anti-apartheid movement's first icon.
810:
393:. This was a settlement of around 800 families, with every four families sharing a water supply and toilet. Both
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Biko became a close friend of white liberal activist Donald Woods, who wrote a book about Biko after his death.
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671:", explaining that this meant "Man, you are okay as you are. Begin to look upon yourself as a human being."
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The apartheid system of racial segregation pervaded all areas of life; Biko was committed to its overthrow.
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579:; after the students arrived, they found that dormitory accommodation had been arranged for the white and
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390:
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382:
235:
111:
6851:
Goodwin, June; Schiff, Ben (13 November 1995). "Who Killed Steve Biko?: Exhuming Truth in South Africa".
1515:
in 2015, Isaac Kamola wrote that Biko's critique of white liberalism was relevant to situations like the
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as desirable, but regarded it as a lesser priority than access to food, employment, and social security.
786:, the International University Exchange Fund, and Scandinavian churches. In 1972, the BCP hired Biko and
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1026:. Foreign diplomats from thirteen nations were present, as was an Anglican delegation headed by Bishop
683:
1719:
also held an exhibition of artwork marking the 20th anniversary of his death by examining his legacy.
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7808:
7621:
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6573:"The Beat that Beat Apartheid: The Role of Music in the Resistance against Apartheid in South Africa"
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1586:. The defence that Biko provided for arrested SASO activists was used as the basis for the 1978 book
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480:
468:
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259:
243:
212:
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Denis, Philippe (2010). "Seminary Networks and Black Consciousness in South Africa in the 1970s".
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522:. He later said that most of the "politicos" in his family were sympathetic to the PAC, which had
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to those responsible, thereby preventing the family's right to justice and redress. In 1996, the
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Black Consciousness in South Africa: The Dialectics of Ideological Resistance to White Supremacy
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Following apartheid's collapse, Woods raised funds to commission a bronze statue of Biko from
1656:
Biko's death also inspired several songs, including from artists outside South Africa such as
1605:
1423:
1320:
1092:. On 2 February 1978, based on the evidence given at the inquest, the attorney general of the
930:
790:, allowing Biko to continue his political and community work. In September 1972, Biko visited
572:
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348:
and the "Father of Black Consciousness". His political legacy remains a matter of contention.
345:
216:
182:
6047:
Bucher, Jesse (2012). "The Possibility of Care: Medical Ethics and the Death of Steve Biko".
1580:
A year after Biko's death, his "Frank Talk" writings were published as an edited collection,
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7354:
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7148:
7017:
6608:
6400:
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6254:
Kamola, Isaac (2015). "Steve Biko and a Critique of Global Governance as White Liberalism".
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In August 1971, Biko attended a conference on "The Development of the African Community" in
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After the abolition of apartheid and the establishment of a majority government in 1994, a
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757:. By 1973, it had 41 branches and 4000 members, sharing much of its membership with SASO.
651:
515:
464:
417:. Alice was employed first in domestic work for local white households, then as a cook at
7183:
6185:
Debating African Philosophy: Perspectives on Decolonial Ethics and Comparative Philosophy
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Ahluwalia, Pal; Zegeye, Abebe (2001). "Frantz Fanon and Steve Biko: Towards Liberation".
5769:
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6018:
Brown, Julian (2010). "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972".
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1080:'s statements were "sometimes redundant, sometimes inconsistent, frequently ambiguous";
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ruled against the family, allowing the investigation to proceed. Five police officers (
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Christian faith. In 1950, when Biko was four, his father fell ill, was hospitalised in
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1766:, a Steve Biko Institute was established to promote educational attainment among poor
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471:. Within three months of Steve's arrival, Khaya was accused of having connections to
449:
323:
1707:
on the Eastern cape, opposite a statue commemorating British soldiers killed in the
1331:
was necessary to ensure social justice. In his view, this required a move towards a
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7339:
7128:
7012:
6420:
Mandela, Nelson (2014). "A Tribute to Stephen Bantu Biko". In Xolela Mangcu (ed.).
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Extensive brain injuries sustained from beatings by South African security officers
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White Man's Justice: South African Political Trials in the Black Consciousness Era
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1577:(CIA). These demonstrations resulted in clashes with Biko supporters from AZAPO.
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would continue to recognise divisions along racial lines. Instead he supported a
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with an administration that represented the country's black majority. Among the
492:
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17:
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and in the politics of nationalism and socialism for the 'wretched of the earth
845:
361:
Bantu Stephen Biko was born on 18 December 1946, at his grandmother's house in
219:, he was at the forefront of a grassroots anti-apartheid campaign known as the
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6166:
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1509:". Some academics argue that Biko's thought remains relevant; for example, in
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Silove, Derrick (1990). "Doctors and the State: Lessons from the Biko Case".
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and denominationalism and that he was "at best an unconventional Christian".
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independently visited his grave. In March 2017, the South African President
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in January 1971. He also expanded on his ideas in a column written for the
373:, where his father worked as a police officer. Mzingaye was transferred to
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6502:
Mngxitama, Andile; Alexander, Amanda; Gibson, Nigel (2008). "Biko Lives".
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in San Francisco to unfurl a banner with the names of Biko and imprisoned
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father, a son, a brother, a confidant, a self-described freedom fighter.
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had elapsed and there was insufficient evidence to secure a prosecution.
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The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968–1977
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2599:
2597:
1680:, first performed in London in 1978; a 1984 performance was directed by
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6912:
Bounds of Possibility: The Legacy of Steve Biko and Black Consciousness
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living initially in his mother's house and later in his own residence.
674:
Biko presented a paper on "White Racism and Black Consciousness" at an
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ceremony, symbolically marking his transition from boyhood to manhood.
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Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League
4875:
4873:
821:, and plans were being made to smuggle him out of the country to meet
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7052:
6285:"Peter Gabriel on 30 years of Womad – and mixing music with politics"
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differed widely within the BCM – which contained both
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1002:
749:. There, a resolution was presented calling for the formation of the
341:
6124:
de Wet, Johann (2013). "Steve Biko as Existentialist Communicator".
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Speaking publicly about Biko's death, the country's police minister
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in his politics. The sexism was evident in many ways, according to
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and the rich white nations of the world". He was suspicious of the
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to be held, to which the government agreed. It began in Pretoria's
428:
Biko was briefly educated at the Lovedale boarding school in Alice.
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were appropriate for Africa, he developed a more positive view of
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account of events and refused to prosecute any of those involved.
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Steve Biko on a stained glass window in the Saint Anna Church in
619:(SASO) was officially launched at a July 1969 conference at the
472:
452:, and died, making the family dependent on his mother's income.
207:(18 December 1946 – 12 September 1977) was a South African
6954:
1045:
981:, agreed that he should be transported to a prison hospital in
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Pityana, B.; Ramphele, M.; Mpumlwana, M.; Wilson, L. (1991).
1064:
Both domestic and international pressure called for a public
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course. Casualties are expected and should be bargained for.
607:, many of its members attended a July 1968 conference of the
514:
leaders who became Biko's heroes at this time were Algeria's
908:
also remained friends with another prominent white liberal,
736:
Black Consciousness activities and Biko's banning: 1971–1977
594:
Founding the South African Students' Organisation: 1968–1972
6191:. George Hull (ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 97–117.
1633:
Biko was commemorated in several artworks after his death.
1573:, an allegation that Biko was a spy for the United States'
794:, where he met the PAC founder and anti-apartheid activist
6677:"No prosecution for death of anti-apartheid activist Biko"
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4614:
2686:
2684:
1754:. In 2008, the Pretoria Academic Hospital was renamed the
487:
From 1964 to 1965, Biko studied at St. Francis College, a
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Black Power in South Africa: The Evolution of an Ideology
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866:. Myeza and Cooper organised a BCM demonstration to mark
627:. Nonetheless, he was elected as SASO's first president;
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Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa
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Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa
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List of people subject to banning orders under apartheid
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marked what would have been Biko's 70th birthday with a
1703:. It was erected outside the front door of city hall in
985:. On 11 September, police loaded him into the back of a
711:(BCM) was on criticising anti-racist white liberals and
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5276:
5274:
5272:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5018:
5016:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4429:
4427:
4425:
3606:
3604:
3591:
3589:
3587:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3556:
2792:
2790:
2616:
2614:
2245:
2243:
1169:, and forms of Christianity like the activist-oriented
925:
In 1977, Biko broke his banning order by travelling to
6182:
Epstein, Brian (2018). "Biko on Black vs. Non-White".
4400:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4381:
4379:
4377:
1914:
1912:
1722:
Also in September 1997, Biko's family established the
5836:"Steve Biko South Africa archive published by Google"
1268:
rivalries of the United States and the Soviet Union.
1104:
78,000) in July 1979. Shortly after the inquest, the
7585:
Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes
6391:
Mamdani, Mahmood (2012). "A Tribute to Steve Biko".
6237:
Biko's Ghost: The Iconography of Black Consciousness
1299:
the open, through a peaceful but militant struggle.
7683:
7652:
7614:
7497:
7476:
7467:
7282:
7121:
7112:
7061:
6995:
6988:
6548:"Biko's grave a political battleground for parties"
6424:. London and New York: I. B. Tauris. pp. 7–9.
1637:, a South African artist based in France, produced
1057:initially implied that it had been the result of a
817:. His communications with the ANC were largely via
188:
178:
155:
136:
126:
118:
106:
98:
79:
50:
34:
6775:(revised ed.). New York City: HarperCollins.
6771:Biko, Stephen Bantu (1984). Arnold Millard (ed.).
6739:"Google celebrates Biko with commemorative doodle"
6715:
6078:Maids and Madams: Domestic Workers Under Apartheid
1289:after conversations with Woods. He saw individual
275:", a term that Biko used in reference not just to
6504:Biko Lives! Contesting the Legacies of Steve Biko
6460:Biko Lives! Contesting the Legacies of Steve Biko
6310:"Nelson Mandela: The Triumph of the Protest Song"
27:South African anti-apartheid activist (1946–1977)
6796:I Write What I Like: A Selection of His Writings
5995:"SA editor's escape from apartheid, 30 years on"
1569:assembled outside Biko's Ginsberg home shouting
7909:South African people who died in prison custody
5373:
5259:
4879:
4836:
4816:
4800:
4687:
4663:
4445:
2658:
1536:
1373:
1296:
1219:
1185:
760:
642:
586:
436:; Biko interpreted this in terms of the saying
6817:. Albany: State University of New York Press.
6580:Wiener Zeitschrift fĂĽr kritische Afrikastudien
6239:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
5978:. London: International Defence and Aid Fund.
4312:
4310:
1553:Followers of Biko's ideas re-organised as the
894:During his ban, Biko asked for a meeting with
7944:African politicians assassinated in the 1970s
7889:Prisoners who died in South African detention
6966:
6859:(16). New York: The Nation Company: 565–568.
5316:
2588:
1074:Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law
703:Attitude to liberalism and personal relations
567:The university's SRC was affiliated with the
271:(SASO) in 1968. Membership was open only to "
242:. In 1966, he began studying medicine at the
8:
6523:"Zuma Commemorates Biko on Human Rights Day"
5342:"The 10 Greatest South Africans of all time"
849:Steve Biko's house in Ginsberg, Eastern Cape
432:Biko's given name "Bantu" means "people" in
318:". In 1972, he was involved in founding the
7879:People murdered by law enforcement officers
1641:in 1978, and another South African artist,
1557:(AZAPO), which subsequently split into the
7473:
7118:
6992:
6973:
6959:
6951:
5903:
1762:has a Steve Biko Centre for Bioethics. In
937:branch of the BCM, which was dominated by
872:independence from Portuguese colonial rule
42:
31:
7555:Organisation of African Trade Union Unity
6722:. New York and London: Paddington Press.
6634:New Dictionary of South African Biography
4915:
4318:"South Africa Will Pay Biko Kin $ 78,000"
3914:
3694:
3392:
3263:
3235:
1594:(1978). This was made into the 1987 film
7864:Deaths in police custody in South Africa
7515:All-African People's Revolutionary Party
6546:Ngcukana, Lubabalo (13 September 2015).
5915:
5611:
5473:
5107:
4632:
4620:
4552:
4356:"No prosecution of Biko's interrogators"
4301:
4205:
4201:
3650:
3634:
3364:
3344:
3207:
3191:
3176:
3132:
3117:
2960:
2860:
2836:
2730:
2576:
2520:
1106:South African Medical and Dental Council
569:National Union of South African Students
248:National Union of South African Students
7829:20th-century South African male writers
7274:I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson
6699:. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press.
6655:Somerville, Keith (12 September 2002).
5822:
5599:
5584:
5304:
5292:
5280:
4864:
4493:
4481:
1824:
929:, hoping to meet Unity Movement leader
603:Following the 1968 NUSAS conference in
7869:Extrajudicial killings in South Africa
7844:Assassinated South African politicians
7839:South African anti-apartheid activists
7834:20th-century South African politicians
5927:
5810:
5798:
5756:
5744:
5720:
5704:
5512:
5485:
5461:
5449:
5437:
5421:
5409:
5397:
5385:
5328:
5247:
5243:
5231:
5219:
5202:
5186:
5174:
5162:
5150:
5123:
5079:
5050:
5034:
4903:
4840:
4820:
4804:
4759:Mngxitama, Alexander & Gibson 2008
4739:
4699:
4644:
4605:
4588:
4576:
4540:
4510:
4457:
4284:
4252:
4157:
4089:
4077:
4050:
4030:
4014:
3978:
3970:
3954:
3942:
3918:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3878:
3863:
3846:
3834:
3810:
3798:
3782:
3778:
3762:
3758:
3742:
3730:
3706:
3702:
3682:
3678:
3666:
3662:
3535:
3499:
3487:
3455:
3439:
3427:
3412:
3400:
3396:
3380:
3360:
3332:
3320:
3308:
3296:
3279:
3251:
3239:
3223:
3211:
3160:
3148:
3100:
3088:
3073:
3057:
3045:
3029:
3002:
2975:
2781:
2765:
2750:
2734:
2690:
2675:
2635:
2606:Mngxitama, Alexander & Gibson 2008
2564:
2536:
2524:
2516:
2500:
2472:
2460:
2456:
2428:
2392:
2380:
2364:
2352:
2340:
2328:
2316:
2312:
2292:
2273:
2261:
2249:
2234:
2222:
2218:
2198:
2186:
2182:
2162:
2158:
2142:
2138:
2126:
2114:
2110:
2094:
2082:
2062:
2058:
2042:
2026:
2014:
1990:
1974:
1970:
1958:
1942:
1930:
1918:
1903:
1891:
1887:
1871:
1851:
1835:
1794:laid a wreath at Biko's grave to mark
776:Christian Institute of Southern Africa
593:
7914:South African prisoners and detainees
6749:from the original on 19 December 2016
6443:. London and New York: I. B. Tauris.
6005:from the original on 20 December 2016
5780:from the original on 15 February 2017
5198:
5135:
5119:
5103:
5091:
5067:
5022:
5007:
4995:
4983:
4956:
4939:
4927:
4891:
4852:
4832:
4788:
4773:
4735:
4723:
4711:
4675:
4564:
4469:
4280:
4264:
4233:
4221:
4189:
4173:
4153:
4046:
4026:
4002:
3930:
3822:
3794:
3774:
3754:
3718:
3698:
3646:
3622:
3610:
3595:
3578:
3566:
3547:
3523:
3511:
3483:
3471:
3451:
3356:
3267:
3203:
3172:
3144:
3069:
3041:
3014:
2948:
2936:
2924:
2912:
2900:
2888:
2876:
2848:
2832:
2820:
2808:
2796:
2777:
2746:
2714:
2702:
2620:
2560:
2548:
2512:
2496:
2484:
2452:
2440:
2416:
2404:
2308:
2210:
2074:
2038:
1831:
933:and deal with growing dissent in the
635:elected secretary. Durban became its
555:scholarship, and in 1966 entered the
7:
7550:International African Service Bureau
6675:Whitaker, Raymond (8 October 2003).
6364:Journal of Asian and African Studies
6320:from the original on 9 February 2017
6049:Journal of Asian and African Studies
5891:
5879:
5864:
5732:
5708:
5692:
5650:
5638:
5623:
5572:
5560:
5548:
5536:
5524:
5500:
5425:
5263:
5038:
4971:
4525:
4433:
4416:
4404:
4385:
4342:
4268:
4237:
4209:
4177:
4161:
4141:
4129:
4117:
4105:
4093:
4062:
4034:
3990:
3974:
3958:
3459:
3368:
2864:
2718:
2376:
2304:
2288:
2214:
2178:
2166:
2154:
2106:
2078:
2054:
2002:
1986:
1954:
1875:
1867:
1855:
1839:
617:South African Students' Organisation
269:South African Students' Organisation
143:South African Students' Organisation
7591:Rassemblement DĂ©mocratique Africain
6876:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6558:from the original on 8 January 2016
6308:Lynskey, Dorian (6 December 2013).
1177:Black Consciousness and empowerment
1114:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
334:formed the basis for the 1987 film
7520:All-African Trade Union Federation
6533:from the original on 21 March 2017
6489:from the original on 21 March 2016
6479:"Black Brazilians learn from Biko"
6477:Martins, Alejandra (25 May 2005).
6295:from the original on 19 April 2017
5674:from the original on 13 March 2017
5664:"Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance"
1414:Biko never addressed questions of
898:, the white liberal editor of the
862:, who were considered part of the
735:
110:Steve Biko Garden of Remembrance,
25:
7580:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
6895:. Athens: Ohio University Press.
6737:Zulu, Sifiso (18 December 2016).
6521:Ngcobo, Ziyanda (21 March 2017).
5993:Blandy, Fran (31 December 2007).
5352:from the original on 29 July 2017
964:that resulted in a massive brain
782:. Additional funds came from the
780:South African Council of Churches
542:Early student activism: 1966–1968
250:(NUSAS). Strongly opposed to the
140:
7949:Politicians assassinated in 1977
7781:
7769:
7759:
7758:
7749:
7748:
6335:South African Historical Journal
6283:Lynskey, Dorian (26 July 2012).
6208:South African Historical Journal
6097:South African Historical Journal
6020:South African Historical Journal
5846:from the original on 28 May 2017
5774:The Steve Biko Academic Hospital
4324:. Associated Press. 28 July 1979
1664:. The English singer-songwriter
389:, where he and Alice settled in
7706:All-African Peoples' Conference
1760:University of the Witwatersrand
1281:system. Initially arguing that
631:was elected vice president and
168:
5759:, pp. 317, 318, 320, 322.
1319:. Described as a proponent of
1215:Foreign and domestic relations
1:
7919:South African revolutionaries
7904:South African pan-Africanists
7731:United States of Latin Africa
7560:Organisation of African Unity
7489:African Leadership University
6657:"Row clouds Biko anniversary"
6630:"Biko, Bantu Stephen (Steve)"
6080:. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
1629:cemetery, King William's Town
1555:Azanian People's Organisation
1356:Personal life and personality
609:University Christian Movement
7854:Black Consciousness Movement
7545:First Pan-African Conference
6613:10.1016/0277-9536(90)90344-R
6347:10.1080/02582473.2013.770062
6268:10.1080/14725843.2014.961281
6138:10.1080/02500167.2013.835524
6032:10.1080/02582473.2010.519940
1713:Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
1521:Millennium Development Goals
709:Black Consciousness Movement
221:Black Consciousness Movement
7934:Victims of police brutality
6914:. Cape Town: David Philip.
6773:The Testimony of Steve Biko
6601:Social Science and Medicine
5374:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
5260:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
4880:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
4837:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
4817:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
4801:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
4688:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
4664:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
4446:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
2659:Ahluwalia & Zegeye 2001
1645:, included a work entitled
1588:The Testimony of Steve Biko
1575:Central Intelligence Agency
1348:oppression of the blacks".
1272:On a post-apartheid society
774:action, established by the
560:world, as reflected in the
211:activist. Ideologically an
7965:
7929:University of Natal alumni
7884:Police brutality in Africa
7484:African Leadership Academy
6836:. Los Angeles: Greenberg.
5189:, pp. 62–63, 114–115.
4362:. Reuters. 2 February 1978
1735:; later speakers included
1009:Response and investigation
784:Anglo-American Corporation
740:
415:University of South Africa
7776:Pan-Africanism portal
7744:
7540:Economic Freedom Fighters
7530:Convention People's Party
7505:African Unification Front
6937:The Steve Biko Foundation
6832:Gerhart, Gail M. (1999).
6632:. In E. J. Verwey (ed.).
6235:Hill, Shannen L. (2015).
6220:10.1080/02582471003778342
6167:10.1080/03007760500504929
6155:Popular Music and Society
6109:10.1080/02582471003778417
5974:Bernstein, Hilda (1978).
5959:10.1080/13504630120087262
5317:Marable & Joseph 2008
2589:Marable & Joseph 2008
1788:Economic Freedom Fighters
1772:Google Cultural Institute
1563:Black People's Convention
1559:Socialist Party of Azania
811:African National Congress
751:Black People's Convention
741:Black People's Convention
320:Black People's Convention
302:and the African-American
148:Black People's Convention
41:
7894:South African Christians
7696:African-American leftism
7445:Henry Sylvester Williams
7209:Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo
6872:Lobban, Michael (1996).
6376:10.1177/0021909613493609
6061:10.1177/0021909612452710
3490:, pp. 189–190, 213.
1525:Invisible Children, Inc.
475:, the armed wing of the
438:"Umntu ngumntu ngabantu"
234:family, Biko grew up in
7824:20th-century Christians
7754:Pan-Africanism category
7726:United States of Africa
7721:Union of African States
7711:East African Federation
7660:Ethnic groups of Africa
7565:Pan African Association
7154:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
7100:United States of Africa
6813:Fatton, Robert (1986).
6636:. HSRC Press. pp.
6571:Schumann, Anne (2008).
6439:Mangcu, Xolela (2014).
4160:, pp. 24–25, 262;
1653:featuring Biko's face.
1567:United Democratic Front
715:itself, accusing it of
707:The early focus of the
680:University of Cape Town
621:University of the North
477:Pan Africanist Congress
277:Bantu-speaking Africans
131:Anti-apartheid activist
7535:East African Community
7174:Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof
7023:Anti-Western sentiment
6891:Magaziner, D. (2010).
6714:Woods, Donald (1978).
6695:Wilson, Lindy (2012).
6681:The New Zealand Herald
6076:Cock, Jacklyn (1989).
1630:
1541:
1473:
1378:
1301:
1224:
1190:
1134:statute of limitations
1050:
891:
850:
765:
647:
591:
551:
527:1964, he travelled to
520:Jaramogi Oginga Odinga
446:St. Matthew's Hospital
429:
246:, where he joined the
7899:South African writers
7440:Frances Cress Welsing
6798:. London: Heinemann.
6405:10.1353/trn.2012.0045
5424:, pp. 266, 296;
5348:. 27 September 2004.
4322:Youngstown Vindicator
1724:Steve Biko Foundation
1624:
1491:communication studies
1467:
1155:LĂ©opold SĂ©dar Senghor
1048:
889:
848:
726:Abram Onkgopotse Tiro
549:
427:
357:Early life: 1946–1966
7819:1977 in South Africa
7622:Black Star of Africa
7575:Pan-African Congress
7525:Conseil de l'Entente
7305:Edward Wilmot Blyden
7229:Abdias do Nascimento
7194:Toussaint Louverture
6790:Biko, Steve (1987).
6628:Smit, B. F. (1995).
5707:, pp. 312–313;
4472:, pp. 164, 166.
4419:, pp. 191, 211.
4156:, pp. 166–167;
3893:, pp. 418–419;
3701:, pp. 70, 159;
3486:, pp. 69, 116;
3458:, pp. 193–194;
3383:, pp. 204, 212.
3163:, pp. 205, 215.
2863:, pp. 366–367;
2563:, pp. 36, 120;
2539:, pp. 169, 170.
2499:, pp. 118–119;
1674:anti-apartheid music
1639:Homage to Steve Biko
1602:Richard Attenborough
1571:U-Steve Biko, I-CIA!
1499:Great South Africans
1279:one person, one vote
1239:Mangosuthu Buthelezi
1167:Black Power movement
1122:Constitutional Court
695:forming around him.
499:. The college had a
401:people lived in the
304:Black Power movement
7675:Conflicts in Africa
7665:Languages of Africa
7639:Pan-African colours
7360:Yosef Ben-Jochannan
7003:African nationalism
5999:Mail & Guardian
5976:No. 46 – Steve Biko
5894:, pp. 202–203.
5842:. 10 October 2012.
5747:, pp. 316–317.
5723:, pp. 312–313.
5695:, pp. 247–248.
5527:, pp. 158–159.
5464:, pp. 177–178.
5412:, pp. 288–289.
5234:, pp. 206–207.
4882:, pp. 461–462.
4807:, pp. 280–281.
4555:, pp. 515–516.
4224:, pp. 173–174.
4212:, pp. 54, 117.
3905:, pp. 261–262.
3837:, pp. 260–261.
3685:, pp. 251–254.
3502:, pp. 213–214.
3415:, pp. 191–192.
3335:, pp. 247–148.
3214:, pp. 218–221.
3076:, pp. 186–187.
2951:, pp. 724–727.
2903:, pp. 719–720.
2737:, pp. 178–181.
2503:, pp. 157–159.
2487:, pp. 153–154.
2463:, pp. 123–125.
2276:, pp. 111–112.
2237:, pp. 109–110.
2221:, pp. 24, 27;
2161:, pp. 23, 27;
2145:, pp. 104–105.
2117:, pp. 100–101.
1756:Steve Biko Hospital
1717:District Six Museum
1690:Black Panther Party
1583:I Write What I Like
1367:cult of personality
1311:Biko was neither a
1287:multi-party systems
693:cult of personality
676:academic conference
557:University of Natal
491:boarding school in
481:African nationalist
469:Alice, Eastern Cape
387:King William's Town
244:University of Natal
213:African nationalist
112:King William's Town
99:Cause of death
7691:African philosophy
7670:Religion in Africa
7395:Zephania Mothopeng
7345:Amy Ashwood Garvey
7320:John Henrik Clarke
7310:Stokely Carmichael
7295:Molefi Kete Asante
7249:John Nyathi Pokela
7234:Gamal Abdel Nasser
6256:African Identities
4360:The Calgary Herald
4132:, pp. 25, 60.
4033:, pp. 28–30;
3625:, pp. 57, 58.
3581:, pp. 45, 48.
3175:, pp. 56–57;
2459:, pp. 30–31;
2315:, pp. 28–29;
1945:, pp. 20, 22.
1631:
1512:African Identities
1474:
1409:Andries Treurnicht
1397:organised religion
1337:private enterprise
1051:
1036:Dikobé Ben Martins
892:
860:Sathasivian Cooper
851:
669:black is beautiful
552:
430:
316:black is beautiful
308:universal suffrage
294:Influenced by the
256:racial segregation
202:Bantu Stephen Biko
55:Bantu Stephen Biko
7924:Steve Biko affair
7874:People from Qonce
7859:Deaths by beating
7796:
7795:
7788:Africa portal
7628:Le Marron Inconnu
7610:
7609:
7463:
7462:
7259:Ahmed Sékou Touré
7108:
7107:
7028:Black nationalism
7008:African socialism
6805:978-0-435-90598-9
6706:978-0-8214-4441-2
6647:978-0-7969-1648-8
6513:978-0-230-60519-0
6469:978-0-230-60519-0
6450:978-1-78076-785-7
6431:978-1-78076-785-7
6087:978-0-7043-4165-4
5985:978-0-904759-21-1
5947:Social Identities
5614:, pp. 17–39.
5138:, pp. 61–62.
5053:, pp. 15–16.
4986:, pp. 60–61.
4345:, pp. 82–83.
3514:, pp. 77–78.
3462:, pp. 36–37.
2851:, pp. 48–49.
2693:, pp. 43–44.
2085:, pp. 97–98.
1745:Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o
1647:The Interrogators
1606:Denzel Washington
1472:, the Netherlands
1424:Mamphela Ramphele
1329:socialist society
1321:African socialism
931:Neville Alexander
684:Abe Bailey Centre
573:Rhodes University
391:Ginsberg township
312:socialist economy
236:Ginsberg township
230:Raised in a poor
217:African socialist
199:
198:
183:Mamphela Ramphele
83:12 September 1977
73:South Africa
16:(Redirected from
7956:
7786:
7785:
7784:
7774:
7773:
7762:
7761:
7752:
7751:
7644:Pan-African flag
7474:
7420:Randall Robinson
7355:Leonard Jeffries
7335:W. E. B. Du Bois
7330:Cheikh Anta Diop
7325:Martin R. Delany
7149:David Comissiong
7119:
7018:Anti-imperialism
6993:
6975:
6968:
6961:
6952:
6925:
6906:
6887:
6868:
6847:
6828:
6809:
6786:
6758:
6756:
6754:
6733:
6721:
6710:
6691:
6689:
6687:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6651:
6624:
6595:
6593:
6591:
6577:
6567:
6565:
6563:
6542:
6540:
6538:
6517:
6498:
6496:
6494:
6473:
6454:
6435:
6416:
6387:
6358:
6329:
6327:
6325:
6304:
6302:
6300:
6279:
6250:
6231:
6202:
6190:
6178:
6149:
6120:
6091:
6072:
6043:
6014:
6012:
6010:
5989:
5970:
5931:
5925:
5919:
5913:
5907:
5901:
5895:
5889:
5883:
5877:
5868:
5862:
5856:
5855:
5853:
5851:
5832:
5826:
5820:
5814:
5808:
5802:
5796:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5766:
5760:
5754:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5712:
5702:
5696:
5690:
5684:
5683:
5681:
5679:
5660:
5654:
5648:
5642:
5636:
5627:
5621:
5615:
5609:
5603:
5597:
5588:
5582:
5576:
5570:
5564:
5558:
5552:
5546:
5540:
5534:
5528:
5522:
5516:
5510:
5504:
5498:
5489:
5483:
5477:
5471:
5465:
5459:
5453:
5447:
5441:
5435:
5429:
5419:
5413:
5407:
5401:
5395:
5389:
5383:
5377:
5371:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5357:
5338:
5332:
5326:
5320:
5314:
5308:
5302:
5296:
5290:
5284:
5278:
5267:
5257:
5251:
5241:
5235:
5229:
5223:
5217:
5206:
5196:
5190:
5184:
5178:
5172:
5166:
5160:
5154:
5148:
5139:
5133:
5127:
5117:
5111:
5101:
5095:
5089:
5083:
5077:
5071:
5065:
5054:
5048:
5042:
5041:, p. xxiii.
5032:
5026:
5020:
5011:
5005:
4999:
4993:
4987:
4981:
4975:
4969:
4960:
4954:
4943:
4937:
4931:
4925:
4919:
4913:
4907:
4901:
4895:
4889:
4883:
4877:
4868:
4862:
4856:
4850:
4844:
4830:
4824:
4814:
4808:
4798:
4792:
4786:
4777:
4771:
4762:
4756:
4743:
4733:
4727:
4721:
4715:
4709:
4703:
4697:
4691:
4685:
4679:
4673:
4667:
4661:
4648:
4642:
4636:
4630:
4624:
4618:
4609:
4603:
4592:
4586:
4580:
4574:
4568:
4562:
4556:
4550:
4544:
4538:
4529:
4528:, p. xviii.
4523:
4514:
4508:
4497:
4491:
4485:
4479:
4473:
4467:
4461:
4455:
4449:
4443:
4437:
4431:
4420:
4414:
4408:
4402:
4389:
4383:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4352:
4346:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4314:
4305:
4299:
4288:
4278:
4272:
4262:
4256:
4250:
4241:
4231:
4225:
4219:
4213:
4199:
4193:
4187:
4181:
4171:
4165:
4151:
4145:
4139:
4133:
4127:
4121:
4115:
4109:
4103:
4097:
4087:
4081:
4075:
4066:
4060:
4054:
4044:
4038:
4024:
4018:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3968:
3962:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3928:
3922:
3912:
3906:
3888:
3882:
3876:
3867:
3861:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3826:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3802:
3792:
3786:
3772:
3766:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3692:
3686:
3676:
3670:
3660:
3654:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3608:
3599:
3593:
3582:
3576:
3570:
3564:
3551:
3545:
3539:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3515:
3509:
3503:
3497:
3491:
3481:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3431:
3425:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3390:
3384:
3378:
3372:
3354:
3348:
3342:
3336:
3330:
3324:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3294:
3283:
3277:
3271:
3261:
3255:
3249:
3243:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3215:
3201:
3195:
3189:
3180:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3142:
3136:
3130:
3121:
3115:
3104:
3098:
3092:
3086:
3077:
3067:
3061:
3055:
3049:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3018:
3012:
3006:
3000:
2979:
2973:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2934:
2928:
2922:
2916:
2910:
2904:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2858:
2852:
2846:
2840:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2794:
2785:
2775:
2769:
2763:
2754:
2744:
2738:
2728:
2722:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2679:
2673:
2662:
2656:
2639:
2633:
2624:
2618:
2609:
2603:
2592:
2591:, pp. ix–x.
2586:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2558:
2552:
2546:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2510:
2504:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2470:
2464:
2450:
2444:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2302:
2296:
2286:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2238:
2232:
2226:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2176:
2170:
2152:
2146:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2118:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2086:
2072:
2066:
2052:
2046:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1984:
1978:
1968:
1962:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1916:
1907:
1901:
1895:
1885:
1879:
1865:
1859:
1849:
1843:
1829:
1796:Human Rights Day
1678:The Biko Inquest
1625:Biko's grave in
1545:
1508:
1382:
1307:
1283:one-party states
1254:anti-imperialist
1228:
1194:
1130:Gideon Nieuwoudt
1076:stated that the
921:Arrest and death
819:Griffiths Mxenge
769:
755:Pietermaritzburg
658:
562:protests of 1968
512:anti-colonialist
463:, a prestigious
172:
170:
161:Ntsiki Mashalaba
119:Other names
86:
71:, Eastern Cape,
65:18 December 1946
64:
62:
46:
32:
21:
18:Steve Bantu Biko
7964:
7963:
7959:
7958:
7957:
7955:
7954:
7953:
7799:
7798:
7797:
7792:
7782:
7780:
7768:
7764:Africa category
7740:
7679:
7648:
7606:
7493:
7459:
7455:Omali Yeshitela
7435:Issa Laye Thiaw
7365:Maulana Karenga
7350:John G. Jackson
7278:
7199:Patrice Lumumba
7164:Muammar Gaddafi
7104:
7069:African century
7057:
6984:
6979:
6933:
6928:
6922:
6909:
6903:
6890:
6884:
6871:
6850:
6844:
6831:
6825:
6812:
6806:
6789:
6783:
6770:
6766:
6764:Further reading
6761:
6752:
6750:
6743:Eyewitness News
6736:
6730:
6713:
6707:
6694:
6685:
6683:
6674:
6665:
6663:
6654:
6648:
6627:
6598:
6589:
6587:
6575:
6570:
6561:
6559:
6545:
6536:
6534:
6527:Eyewitness News
6520:
6514:
6501:
6492:
6490:
6476:
6470:
6457:
6451:
6438:
6432:
6419:
6390:
6361:
6332:
6323:
6321:
6307:
6298:
6296:
6282:
6253:
6247:
6234:
6205:
6199:
6188:
6181:
6152:
6123:
6094:
6088:
6075:
6046:
6017:
6008:
6006:
5992:
5986:
5973:
5944:
5940:
5935:
5934:
5926:
5922:
5914:
5910:
5904:Somerville 2002
5902:
5898:
5890:
5886:
5878:
5871:
5863:
5859:
5849:
5847:
5834:
5833:
5829:
5821:
5817:
5809:
5805:
5797:
5793:
5783:
5781:
5768:
5767:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5743:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5719:
5715:
5703:
5699:
5691:
5687:
5677:
5675:
5662:
5661:
5657:
5649:
5645:
5637:
5630:
5622:
5618:
5610:
5606:
5598:
5591:
5583:
5579:
5571:
5567:
5559:
5555:
5547:
5543:
5535:
5531:
5523:
5519:
5511:
5507:
5499:
5492:
5484:
5480:
5472:
5468:
5460:
5456:
5448:
5444:
5436:
5432:
5420:
5416:
5408:
5404:
5396:
5392:
5384:
5380:
5372:
5365:
5355:
5353:
5340:
5339:
5335:
5327:
5323:
5315:
5311:
5303:
5299:
5291:
5287:
5279:
5270:
5266:, p. xiii.
5262:, p. 460;
5258:
5254:
5246:, p. 116;
5242:
5238:
5230:
5226:
5218:
5209:
5197:
5193:
5185:
5181:
5173:
5169:
5161:
5157:
5149:
5142:
5134:
5130:
5118:
5114:
5102:
5098:
5090:
5086:
5078:
5074:
5066:
5057:
5049:
5045:
5033:
5029:
5021:
5014:
5006:
5002:
4994:
4990:
4982:
4978:
4974:, p. xxii.
4970:
4963:
4955:
4946:
4938:
4934:
4926:
4922:
4914:
4910:
4902:
4898:
4890:
4886:
4878:
4871:
4863:
4859:
4851:
4847:
4839:, p. 462;
4835:, p. 102;
4831:
4827:
4819:, p. 462;
4815:
4811:
4803:, p. 462;
4799:
4795:
4787:
4780:
4772:
4765:
4757:
4746:
4738:, p. 104;
4734:
4730:
4722:
4718:
4710:
4706:
4698:
4694:
4686:
4682:
4674:
4670:
4662:
4651:
4643:
4639:
4631:
4627:
4619:
4612:
4604:
4595:
4587:
4583:
4575:
4571:
4563:
4559:
4551:
4547:
4539:
4532:
4524:
4517:
4509:
4500:
4492:
4488:
4480:
4476:
4468:
4464:
4456:
4452:
4444:
4440:
4432:
4423:
4415:
4411:
4403:
4392:
4384:
4375:
4365:
4363:
4354:
4353:
4349:
4341:
4337:
4327:
4325:
4316:
4315:
4308:
4300:
4291:
4283:, p. 180;
4279:
4275:
4267:, p. 177;
4263:
4259:
4251:
4244:
4236:, p. 176;
4232:
4228:
4220:
4216:
4208:, p. 522;
4200:
4196:
4188:
4184:
4176:, p. 167;
4172:
4168:
4152:
4148:
4140:
4136:
4128:
4124:
4116:
4112:
4104:
4100:
4088:
4084:
4076:
4069:
4061:
4057:
4049:, p. 169;
4045:
4041:
4029:, p. 169;
4025:
4021:
4013:
4009:
4001:
3997:
3989:
3985:
3973:, p. 263;
3969:
3965:
3957:, p. 417;
3953:
3949:
3941:
3937:
3929:
3925:
3913:
3909:
3901:, p. 569;
3897:, p. 139;
3889:
3885:
3877:
3870:
3862:
3853:
3845:
3841:
3833:
3829:
3821:
3817:
3809:
3805:
3793:
3789:
3781:, p. 569;
3777:, p. 159;
3773:
3769:
3761:, p. 418;
3757:, p. 177;
3753:
3749:
3741:
3737:
3729:
3725:
3717:
3713:
3705:, p. 131;
3693:
3689:
3681:, p. 130;
3677:
3673:
3665:, p. 129;
3661:
3657:
3645:
3641:
3633:
3629:
3621:
3617:
3609:
3602:
3594:
3585:
3577:
3573:
3565:
3554:
3546:
3542:
3534:
3530:
3522:
3518:
3510:
3506:
3498:
3494:
3482:
3478:
3470:
3466:
3454:, p. 114;
3450:
3446:
3438:
3434:
3426:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3399:, p. 122;
3391:
3387:
3379:
3375:
3363:, p. 190;
3355:
3351:
3343:
3339:
3331:
3327:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3295:
3286:
3278:
3274:
3262:
3258:
3250:
3246:
3234:
3230:
3222:
3218:
3202:
3198:
3190:
3183:
3171:
3167:
3159:
3155:
3147:, p. 152;
3143:
3139:
3131:
3124:
3116:
3107:
3099:
3095:
3087:
3080:
3068:
3064:
3056:
3052:
3040:
3036:
3028:
3021:
3013:
3009:
3001:
2982:
2974:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2947:
2943:
2935:
2931:
2923:
2919:
2911:
2907:
2899:
2895:
2887:
2883:
2875:
2871:
2859:
2855:
2847:
2843:
2831:
2827:
2819:
2815:
2807:
2803:
2795:
2788:
2780:, p. 120;
2776:
2772:
2764:
2757:
2749:, p. 147;
2745:
2741:
2733:, p. 368;
2729:
2725:
2717:, p. 126;
2713:
2709:
2701:
2697:
2689:
2682:
2674:
2665:
2657:
2642:
2634:
2627:
2619:
2612:
2604:
2595:
2587:
2583:
2575:
2571:
2559:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2523:, p. 367;
2515:, p. 119;
2511:
2507:
2495:
2491:
2483:
2479:
2471:
2467:
2455:, p. 117;
2451:
2447:
2439:
2435:
2427:
2423:
2415:
2411:
2403:
2399:
2391:
2387:
2375:
2371:
2363:
2359:
2351:
2347:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2323:
2303:
2299:
2287:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2256:
2248:
2241:
2233:
2229:
2209:
2205:
2197:
2193:
2177:
2173:
2165:, p. 106;
2153:
2149:
2137:
2133:
2125:
2121:
2105:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2073:
2069:
2053:
2049:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1985:
1981:
1969:
1965:
1953:
1949:
1941:
1937:
1929:
1925:
1917:
1910:
1902:
1898:
1886:
1882:
1866:
1862:
1850:
1846:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1804:
1770:. In 2012, the
1768:Afro-Brazilians
1764:Salvador, Bahia
1747:, and Mandela.
1733:Njabulo Ndebele
1728:Ford Foundation
1709:Second Boer War
1686:Grace Cathedral
1643:Peter Stopforth
1619:
1547:
1544:Shannen L. Hill
1543:
1506:
1482:Manning Marable
1462:
1457:
1436:Sheila Lapinsky
1384:
1380:
1358:
1309:
1305:Mahmood Mamdani
1303:
1274:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1196:
1192:
1179:
1142:
1011:
923:
918:
835:
771:
767:
743:
738:
705:
688:SASO Newsletter
660:
652:Manning Marable
649:
633:Wuila Mashalaba
601:
599:Developing SASO
596:
544:
516:Ahmed Ben Bella
465:boarding school
359:
354:
174:
171: 1970)
166:
162:
94:
88:
84:
75:
66:
60:
58:
57:
56:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7962:
7960:
7952:
7951:
7946:
7941:
7936:
7931:
7926:
7921:
7916:
7911:
7906:
7901:
7896:
7891:
7886:
7881:
7876:
7871:
7866:
7861:
7856:
7851:
7846:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7811:
7801:
7800:
7794:
7793:
7791:
7790:
7778:
7766:
7756:
7745:
7742:
7741:
7739:
7738:
7736:Year of Africa
7733:
7728:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7708:
7703:
7701:Africanization
7698:
7693:
7687:
7685:
7681:
7680:
7678:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7656:
7654:
7650:
7649:
7647:
7646:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7624:
7618:
7616:
7612:
7611:
7608:
7607:
7605:
7604:
7599:
7594:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7572:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7517:
7512:
7507:
7501:
7499:
7495:
7494:
7492:
7491:
7486:
7480:
7478:
7471:
7465:
7464:
7461:
7460:
7458:
7457:
7452:
7450:Amos N. Wilson
7447:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7412:
7410:Runoko Rashidi
7407:
7402:
7400:George Padmore
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7286:
7284:
7280:
7279:
7277:
7276:
7271:
7269:Robert Sobukwe
7266:
7264:Haile Selassie
7261:
7256:
7254:Thomas Sankara
7251:
7246:
7244:Julius Nyerere
7241:
7236:
7231:
7226:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7201:
7196:
7191:
7186:
7181:
7179:Kenneth Kaunda
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7159:Anténor Firmin
7156:
7151:
7146:
7144:AmĂlcar Cabral
7141:
7139:Nnamdi Azikiwe
7136:
7131:
7125:
7123:
7116:
7110:
7109:
7106:
7105:
7103:
7102:
7097:
7090:
7083:
7076:
7071:
7065:
7063:
7059:
7058:
7056:
7055:
7050:
7048:Uhuru Movement
7045:
7040:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7020:
7015:
7010:
7005:
6999:
6997:
6990:
6986:
6985:
6982:Pan-Africanism
6980:
6978:
6977:
6970:
6963:
6955:
6949:
6948:
6939:
6932:
6931:External links
6929:
6927:
6926:
6921:978-0864862105
6920:
6907:
6902:978-0821419175
6901:
6888:
6883:978-0198258094
6882:
6869:
6848:
6843:978-0520039339
6842:
6829:
6824:978-0887061295
6823:
6810:
6804:
6787:
6782:978-0586050057
6781:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6759:
6734:
6728:
6711:
6705:
6692:
6672:
6661:news.bbc.co.uk
6652:
6646:
6625:
6607:(4): 417–429.
6596:
6568:
6543:
6518:
6512:
6499:
6474:
6468:
6455:
6449:
6436:
6430:
6417:
6388:
6370:(5): 511–525.
6359:
6341:(3): 365–382.
6330:
6305:
6280:
6251:
6246:978-0816676361
6245:
6232:
6203:
6198:978-1138344952
6197:
6179:
6150:
6132:(3): 293–304.
6121:
6103:(1): 162–182.
6092:
6086:
6073:
6055:(5): 567–579.
6044:
6026:(4): 716–734.
6015:
5990:
5984:
5971:
5953:(3): 455–469.
5941:
5939:
5936:
5933:
5932:
5920:
5908:
5896:
5884:
5882:, p. 201.
5869:
5857:
5827:
5815:
5813:, p. 301.
5803:
5801:, p. 276.
5791:
5761:
5749:
5737:
5735:, p. 275.
5725:
5713:
5711:, p. 244.
5697:
5685:
5655:
5653:, p. 246.
5643:
5641:, p. 244.
5628:
5626:, p. 242.
5616:
5604:
5589:
5577:
5565:
5563:, p. 162.
5553:
5541:
5539:, p. 151.
5529:
5517:
5515:, p. 417.
5505:
5503:, p. 160.
5490:
5478:
5476:, p. 520.
5466:
5454:
5452:, p. 295.
5442:
5440:, p. 289.
5430:
5428:, p. 193.
5414:
5402:
5400:, p. 287.
5390:
5378:
5376:, p. 455.
5363:
5333:
5331:, p. 293.
5321:
5309:
5297:
5285:
5268:
5252:
5250:, p. 205.
5236:
5224:
5222:, p. 133.
5207:
5201:, p. 69;
5191:
5179:
5177:, p. 134.
5167:
5165:, p. 113.
5155:
5153:, p. 114.
5140:
5128:
5122:, p. 61;
5112:
5110:, p. 514.
5106:, p. 61;
5096:
5084:
5082:, p. 300.
5072:
5055:
5043:
5037:, p. 15;
5027:
5012:
5000:
4988:
4976:
4961:
4944:
4932:
4920:
4916:Bernstein 1978
4908:
4896:
4894:, p. 102.
4884:
4869:
4857:
4855:, p. 108.
4845:
4843:, p. 282.
4825:
4823:, p. 282.
4809:
4793:
4791:, p. 107.
4778:
4776:, p. 100.
4763:
4744:
4742:, p. 198.
4728:
4716:
4714:, p. 104.
4704:
4702:, p. 250.
4692:
4690:, p. 463.
4680:
4668:
4666:, p. 462.
4649:
4647:, p. 279.
4637:
4625:
4610:
4593:
4581:
4569:
4567:, p. 124.
4557:
4545:
4530:
4515:
4498:
4496:, p. 108.
4486:
4484:, p. 100.
4474:
4462:
4450:
4448:, p. 459.
4438:
4436:, p. 215.
4421:
4409:
4390:
4373:
4347:
4335:
4306:
4289:
4287:, p. 264.
4273:
4257:
4255:, p. 419.
4242:
4226:
4214:
4204:, p. 95;
4194:
4192:, p. 173.
4182:
4166:
4146:
4134:
4122:
4110:
4098:
4092:, p. 31;
4082:
4067:
4055:
4039:
4019:
4017:, p. 263.
4007:
4005:, p. 166.
3995:
3983:
3981:, p. 147.
3977:, p. 47;
3963:
3947:
3935:
3933:, p. 182.
3923:
3921:, p. 262.
3915:Bernstein 1978
3907:
3883:
3881:, p. 567.
3868:
3866:, p. 569.
3851:
3849:, p. 260.
3839:
3827:
3825:, p. 263.
3815:
3813:, p. 261.
3803:
3801:, p. 569.
3797:, p. vi;
3787:
3785:, p. 259.
3767:
3765:, p. 260.
3747:
3745:, p. 132.
3735:
3733:, p. 256.
3723:
3721:, p. 159.
3711:
3709:, p. 256.
3697:, p. 10;
3695:Bernstein 1978
3687:
3671:
3669:, p. 243.
3655:
3653:, p. 375.
3649:, p. 88;
3639:
3637:, p. 376.
3627:
3615:
3600:
3583:
3571:
3552:
3540:
3538:, p. 228.
3528:
3516:
3504:
3492:
3476:
3474:, p. 158.
3464:
3444:
3442:, p. 193.
3432:
3430:, p. 192.
3417:
3405:
3403:, p. 190.
3393:Bernstein 1978
3385:
3373:
3371:, p. 151.
3367:, p. 84;
3359:, p. 49;
3349:
3337:
3325:
3323:, p. 246.
3313:
3311:, p. 245.
3301:
3299:, p. 244.
3284:
3282:, p. 234.
3272:
3264:Bernstein 1978
3256:
3254:, p. 222.
3244:
3242:, p. 224.
3236:Bernstein 1978
3228:
3226:, p. 227.
3216:
3210:, p. 79;
3206:, p. 57;
3196:
3181:
3165:
3153:
3151:, p. 119.
3137:
3122:
3105:
3103:, p. 211.
3093:
3091:, p. 188.
3078:
3072:, p. 97;
3062:
3060:, p. 185.
3050:
3048:, p. 189.
3044:, p. 49;
3034:
3032:, p. 189.
3019:
3007:
3005:, p. 205.
2980:
2978:, p. 204.
2965:
2963:, p. 367.
2953:
2941:
2939:, p. 722.
2929:
2927:, p. 723.
2917:
2915:, p. 721.
2905:
2893:
2881:
2869:
2853:
2841:
2839:, p. 375.
2835:, p. 31;
2825:
2823:, p. 119.
2813:
2811:, p. 147.
2801:
2799:, p. 120.
2786:
2784:, p. 176.
2770:
2768:, p. 170.
2755:
2753:, p. 177.
2739:
2723:
2707:
2705:, p. 121.
2695:
2680:
2678:, p. 278.
2663:
2661:, p. 460.
2640:
2638:, p. 272.
2625:
2623:, p. 166.
2610:
2593:
2581:
2579:, p. 512.
2569:
2567:, p. 169.
2553:
2541:
2529:
2527:, p. 169.
2519:, p. 36;
2505:
2489:
2477:
2465:
2445:
2443:, p. 117.
2433:
2431:, p. 126.
2421:
2409:
2397:
2395:, p. 117.
2385:
2383:, p. 117.
2379:, p. 18;
2369:
2357:
2355:, p. 150.
2345:
2343:, p. 116.
2333:
2331:, p. 115.
2321:
2319:, p. 113.
2311:, p. 49;
2307:, p. 18;
2297:
2291:, p. 18;
2278:
2266:
2254:
2239:
2227:
2225:, p. 108.
2217:, p. 18;
2213:, p. 49;
2203:
2191:
2189:, p. 107.
2185:, p. 23;
2181:, p. 18;
2171:
2169:, p. xxi.
2157:, p. 18;
2147:
2141:, p. 23;
2131:
2129:, p. 102.
2119:
2113:, p. 22;
2109:, p. 18;
2099:
2087:
2081:, p. 18;
2077:, p. 49;
2067:
2061:, p. 19;
2057:, p. 18;
2047:
2041:, p. 96;
2031:
2019:
2007:
1995:
1989:, p. 18;
1979:
1973:, p. 19;
1963:
1957:, p. 18;
1947:
1935:
1933:, p. 235.
1923:
1908:
1896:
1890:, p. 19;
1880:
1878:, p. xxi.
1874:, p. 18;
1870:, p. 18;
1860:
1858:, p. xxi.
1854:, p. 18;
1844:
1842:, p. xxi.
1838:, p. 18;
1834:, p. 49;
1823:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1701:Naomi Jacobson
1694:Geronimo Pratt
1618:
1615:
1535:
1517:United Nations
1478:Nelson Mandela
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1372:
1357:
1354:
1295:
1273:
1270:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1184:
1178:
1175:
1171:black theology
1141:
1138:
1010:
1007:
999:kidney failure
922:
919:
917:
914:
901:Daily Dispatch
834:
831:
815:Unity Movement
796:Robert Sobukwe
759:
742:
739:
737:
734:
704:
701:
641:
639:headquarters.
625:Barney Pityana
600:
597:
595:
592:
543:
540:
524:anti-communist
505:white minority
385:, and finally
379:Port Elizabeth
358:
355:
353:
350:
289:National Party
260:white-minority
209:anti-apartheid
197:
196:
190:
186:
185:
180:
176:
175:
164:
160:
159:
157:
153:
152:
151:
150:
145:
138:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
120:
116:
115:
114:, Eastern Cape
108:
104:
103:
100:
96:
95:
93:, South Africa
89:
87:(aged 30)
81:
77:
76:
67:
54:
52:
48:
47:
39:
38:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7961:
7950:
7947:
7945:
7942:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7912:
7910:
7907:
7905:
7902:
7900:
7897:
7895:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7885:
7882:
7880:
7877:
7875:
7872:
7870:
7867:
7865:
7862:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7822:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7812:
7810:
7807:
7806:
7804:
7789:
7779:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7765:
7757:
7755:
7747:
7746:
7743:
7737:
7734:
7732:
7729:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7709:
7707:
7704:
7702:
7699:
7697:
7694:
7692:
7689:
7688:
7686:
7682:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7661:
7658:
7657:
7655:
7651:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7634:Lion of Judah
7632:
7630:
7629:
7625:
7623:
7620:
7619:
7617:
7613:
7603:
7600:
7598:
7595:
7593:
7592:
7588:
7586:
7583:
7581:
7578:
7576:
7573:
7571:
7568:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7510:African Union
7508:
7506:
7503:
7502:
7500:
7496:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7481:
7479:
7475:
7472:
7470:
7469:Organizations
7466:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7430:Burning Spear
7428:
7426:
7425:Walter Rodney
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7405:Motsoko Pheko
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7385:Archie Mafeje
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7370:Alice Kinloch
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7311:
7308:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7287:
7285:
7281:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7239:Kwame Nkrumah
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7224:Robert Mugabe
7222:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7207:
7205:
7204:Samora Machel
7202:
7200:
7197:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7189:Jomo Kenyatta
7187:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7169:Marcus Garvey
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7126:
7124:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7111:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7095:
7091:
7089:
7088:
7084:
7082:
7081:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7067:
7066:
7064:
7060:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
7000:
6998:
6994:
6991:
6987:
6983:
6976:
6971:
6969:
6964:
6962:
6957:
6956:
6953:
6947:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6934:
6930:
6923:
6917:
6913:
6908:
6904:
6898:
6894:
6889:
6885:
6879:
6875:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6849:
6845:
6839:
6835:
6830:
6826:
6820:
6816:
6811:
6807:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6792:Aelred Stubbs
6788:
6784:
6778:
6774:
6769:
6768:
6763:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6735:
6731:
6729:0-8050-1899-9
6725:
6720:
6719:
6712:
6708:
6702:
6698:
6693:
6682:
6678:
6673:
6662:
6658:
6653:
6649:
6643:
6639:
6635:
6631:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6597:
6585:
6581:
6574:
6569:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6544:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6519:
6515:
6509:
6505:
6500:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6475:
6471:
6465:
6461:
6456:
6452:
6446:
6442:
6437:
6433:
6427:
6423:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6331:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6306:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6252:
6248:
6242:
6238:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6204:
6200:
6194:
6187:
6186:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6131:
6127:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6093:
6089:
6083:
6079:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6016:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5991:
5987:
5981:
5977:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5943:
5942:
5937:
5929:
5924:
5921:
5917:
5916:Ngcukana 2015
5912:
5909:
5905:
5900:
5897:
5893:
5888:
5885:
5881:
5876:
5874:
5870:
5866:
5861:
5858:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5831:
5828:
5824:
5819:
5816:
5812:
5807:
5804:
5800:
5795:
5792:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5765:
5762:
5758:
5753:
5750:
5746:
5741:
5738:
5734:
5729:
5726:
5722:
5717:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5689:
5686:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5659:
5656:
5652:
5647:
5644:
5640:
5635:
5633:
5629:
5625:
5620:
5617:
5613:
5612:Schumann 2008
5608:
5605:
5601:
5596:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5581:
5578:
5575:, p. 92.
5574:
5569:
5566:
5562:
5557:
5554:
5551:, p. 87.
5550:
5545:
5542:
5538:
5533:
5530:
5526:
5521:
5518:
5514:
5509:
5506:
5502:
5497:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5482:
5479:
5475:
5474:Macqueen 2014
5470:
5467:
5463:
5458:
5455:
5451:
5446:
5443:
5439:
5434:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5418:
5415:
5411:
5406:
5403:
5399:
5394:
5391:
5388:, p. 63.
5387:
5382:
5379:
5375:
5370:
5368:
5364:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5337:
5334:
5330:
5325:
5322:
5318:
5313:
5310:
5306:
5301:
5298:
5294:
5289:
5286:
5282:
5277:
5275:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5256:
5253:
5249:
5245:
5240:
5237:
5233:
5228:
5225:
5221:
5216:
5214:
5212:
5208:
5205:, p. 15.
5204:
5200:
5195:
5192:
5188:
5183:
5180:
5176:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5159:
5156:
5152:
5147:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5132:
5129:
5126:, p. 17.
5125:
5121:
5116:
5113:
5109:
5108:Macqueen 2014
5105:
5100:
5097:
5094:, p. 61.
5093:
5088:
5085:
5081:
5076:
5073:
5070:, p. 69.
5069:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5031:
5028:
5025:, p. 64.
5024:
5019:
5017:
5013:
5010:, p. 68.
5009:
5004:
5001:
4998:, p. 57.
4997:
4992:
4989:
4985:
4980:
4977:
4973:
4968:
4966:
4962:
4959:, p. 30.
4958:
4953:
4951:
4949:
4945:
4942:, p. 60.
4941:
4936:
4933:
4930:, p. 66.
4929:
4924:
4921:
4917:
4912:
4909:
4906:, p. 22.
4905:
4900:
4897:
4893:
4888:
4885:
4881:
4876:
4874:
4870:
4867:, p. 78.
4866:
4861:
4858:
4854:
4849:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4829:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4813:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4797:
4794:
4790:
4785:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4770:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4755:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4732:
4729:
4726:, p. 71.
4725:
4720:
4717:
4713:
4708:
4705:
4701:
4696:
4693:
4689:
4684:
4681:
4678:, p. 98.
4677:
4672:
4669:
4665:
4660:
4658:
4656:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4641:
4638:
4635:, p. 82.
4634:
4633:Hadfield 2010
4629:
4626:
4623:, p. 81.
4622:
4621:Hadfield 2010
4617:
4615:
4611:
4608:, p. 14.
4607:
4602:
4600:
4598:
4594:
4591:, p. 65.
4590:
4585:
4582:
4579:, p. 64.
4578:
4573:
4570:
4566:
4561:
4558:
4554:
4553:Macqueen 2014
4549:
4546:
4543:, p. 16.
4542:
4537:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4522:
4520:
4516:
4513:, p. 66.
4512:
4507:
4505:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4490:
4487:
4483:
4478:
4475:
4471:
4466:
4463:
4460:, p. 14.
4459:
4454:
4451:
4447:
4442:
4439:
4435:
4430:
4428:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4413:
4410:
4407:, p. 84.
4406:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4391:
4388:, p. 85.
4387:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4374:
4361:
4357:
4351:
4348:
4344:
4339:
4336:
4323:
4319:
4313:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4302:Whitaker 2003
4298:
4296:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4277:
4274:
4271:, p. 70.
4270:
4266:
4261:
4258:
4254:
4249:
4247:
4243:
4240:, p. 69.
4239:
4235:
4230:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4206:Macqueen 2013
4203:
4202:Hadfield 2010
4198:
4195:
4191:
4186:
4183:
4180:, p. 52.
4179:
4175:
4170:
4167:
4164:, p. 50.
4163:
4159:
4155:
4150:
4147:
4144:, p. 10.
4143:
4138:
4135:
4131:
4126:
4123:
4120:, p. 25.
4119:
4114:
4111:
4108:, p. 63.
4107:
4102:
4099:
4096:, p. 63.
4095:
4091:
4086:
4083:
4080:, p. 30.
4079:
4074:
4072:
4068:
4065:, p. 62.
4064:
4059:
4056:
4053:, p. 30.
4052:
4048:
4043:
4040:
4037:, p. 62.
4036:
4032:
4028:
4023:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4008:
4004:
3999:
3996:
3993:, p. 47.
3992:
3987:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3967:
3964:
3961:, p. 52.
3960:
3956:
3951:
3948:
3945:, p. 11.
3944:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3924:
3920:
3917:, p. 5;
3916:
3911:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3884:
3880:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3860:
3858:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3807:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3751:
3748:
3744:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3727:
3724:
3720:
3715:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3691:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3675:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3656:
3652:
3651:Macqueen 2013
3648:
3643:
3640:
3636:
3635:Macqueen 2013
3631:
3628:
3624:
3619:
3616:
3613:, p. 56.
3612:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3598:, p. 54.
3597:
3592:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3572:
3569:, p. 55.
3568:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3553:
3550:, p. 76.
3549:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3529:
3526:, p. 78.
3525:
3520:
3517:
3513:
3508:
3505:
3501:
3496:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3436:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3395:, p. 9;
3394:
3389:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3365:Hadfield 2010
3362:
3358:
3353:
3350:
3347:, p. 94.
3346:
3345:Hadfield 2010
3341:
3338:
3334:
3329:
3326:
3322:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3273:
3270:, p. 69.
3269:
3266:, p. 9;
3265:
3260:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3245:
3241:
3238:, p. 9;
3237:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3208:Hadfield 2010
3205:
3200:
3197:
3194:, p. 80.
3193:
3192:Hadfield 2010
3188:
3186:
3182:
3179:, p. 84.
3178:
3177:Hadfield 2010
3174:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3138:
3135:, p. 84.
3134:
3133:Hadfield 2010
3129:
3127:
3123:
3120:, p. 83.
3119:
3118:Hadfield 2010
3114:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3094:
3090:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3038:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3017:, p. 49.
3016:
3011:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2961:Macqueen 2013
2957:
2954:
2950:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2894:
2891:, p. 51.
2890:
2885:
2882:
2879:, p. 36.
2878:
2873:
2870:
2867:, p. 35.
2866:
2862:
2861:Macqueen 2013
2857:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2842:
2838:
2837:Macqueen 2013
2834:
2829:
2826:
2822:
2817:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2771:
2767:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2731:Macqueen 2013
2727:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2708:
2704:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2577:Macqueen 2014
2573:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2554:
2551:, p. 33.
2550:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2521:Macqueen 2013
2518:
2514:
2509:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2478:
2475:, p. 31.
2474:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2422:
2419:, p. 32.
2418:
2413:
2410:
2407:, p. 31.
2406:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2373:
2370:
2367:, p. 30.
2366:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2298:
2295:, p. 28.
2294:
2290:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2267:
2264:, p. 27.
2263:
2258:
2255:
2252:, p. 25.
2251:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2204:
2201:, p. 23.
2200:
2195:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2100:
2097:, p. 98.
2096:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2068:
2065:, p. 88.
2064:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2048:
2045:, p. 19.
2044:
2040:
2035:
2032:
2029:, p. 32.
2028:
2023:
2020:
2017:, p. 18.
2016:
2011:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1996:
1993:, p. 20.
1992:
1988:
1983:
1980:
1977:, p. 88.
1976:
1972:
1967:
1964:
1961:, p. 88.
1960:
1956:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1924:
1921:, p. 20.
1920:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1906:, p. 19.
1905:
1900:
1897:
1894:, p. 89.
1893:
1889:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1781:
1780:Google Doodle
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1741:Chinua Achebe
1738:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1682:Albert Finney
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1666:Peter Gabriel
1663:
1662:Peter Hammill
1659:
1654:
1652:
1651:postage stamp
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1635:Gerard Sekoto
1628:
1623:
1617:Commemoration
1616:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1513:
1502:
1501:public poll.
1500:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1486:Peniel Joseph
1483:
1479:
1471:
1466:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1445:Samora Machel
1440:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1405:B. J. Vorster
1400:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1383:
1377:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1335:that allowed
1334:
1333:mixed economy
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1248:
1242:
1240:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1214:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1126:Harold Snyman
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1070:Old Synagogue
1067:
1062:
1060:
1059:hunger strike
1056:
1047:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
974:
972:
967:
963:
962:brain lesions
959:
954:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
920:
915:
913:
911:
905:
903:
902:
897:
888:
884:
880:
878:
877:Robben Island
873:
869:
865:
864:Durban Moment
861:
857:
847:
843:
840:
839:banning order
833:Banning order
832:
830:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
807:
805:
804:David Russell
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
770:
764:
758:
756:
752:
748:
733:
729:
727:
721:
718:
714:
710:
702:
700:
696:
694:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
670:
666:
659:
657:
656:Peniel Joseph
653:
646:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
598:
590:
585:
582:
578:
574:
570:
565:
563:
558:
548:
541:
539:
537:
534:
530:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
485:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
453:
451:
450:Keiskammahoek
447:
443:
439:
435:
426:
422:
420:
419:Grey Hospital
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
356:
351:
349:
347:
343:
339:
338:
333:
328:
325:
324:banning order
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
265:paternalistic
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
228:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
203:
195:
192:5, including
191:
187:
184:
181:
177:
158:
154:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
137:Organisations
135:
132:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
107:Resting place
105:
101:
97:
92:
82:
78:
74:
70:
53:
49:
45:
40:
33:
30:
19:
7939:Xhosa people
7626:
7589:
7415:Paul Robeson
7340:Frantz Fanon
7315:Aimé Césaire
7299:
7184:Modibo KeĂŻta
7129:Dennis Akumu
7092:
7085:
7078:
7013:Afrocentrism
6911:
6892:
6873:
6856:
6852:
6833:
6814:
6795:
6772:
6751:. Retrieved
6742:
6717:
6696:
6684:. Retrieved
6680:
6666:13 September
6664:. Retrieved
6660:
6633:
6604:
6600:
6588:. Retrieved
6583:
6579:
6560:. Retrieved
6551:
6535:. Retrieved
6526:
6503:
6491:. Retrieved
6482:
6459:
6441:Biko: A Life
6440:
6422:Biko: A Life
6421:
6396:
6392:
6367:
6363:
6338:
6334:
6322:. Retrieved
6314:The Guardian
6313:
6297:. Retrieved
6289:The Guardian
6288:
6262:(1): 62–76.
6259:
6255:
6236:
6214:(1): 78–99.
6211:
6207:
6184:
6161:(1): 39–51.
6158:
6154:
6129:
6126:Communicatio
6125:
6100:
6096:
6077:
6052:
6048:
6023:
6019:
6007:. Retrieved
5998:
5975:
5950:
5946:
5923:
5911:
5899:
5887:
5860:
5848:. Retrieved
5839:
5830:
5823:Martins 2005
5818:
5806:
5794:
5782:. Retrieved
5773:
5770:"Background"
5764:
5752:
5740:
5728:
5716:
5700:
5688:
5676:. Retrieved
5667:
5658:
5646:
5619:
5607:
5600:Drewett 2007
5585:Lynskey 2012
5580:
5568:
5556:
5544:
5532:
5520:
5508:
5481:
5469:
5457:
5445:
5433:
5417:
5405:
5393:
5381:
5354:. Retrieved
5346:BizCommunity
5345:
5336:
5324:
5319:, p. x.
5312:
5307:, p. 8.
5305:Mandela 2014
5300:
5295:, p. 7.
5293:Mandela 2014
5288:
5281:Lynskey 2013
5255:
5239:
5227:
5194:
5182:
5170:
5158:
5131:
5115:
5099:
5087:
5075:
5046:
5030:
5003:
4991:
4979:
4935:
4923:
4918:, p. 6.
4911:
4899:
4887:
4865:Mamdani 2012
4860:
4848:
4828:
4812:
4796:
4761:, p. 3.
4731:
4719:
4707:
4695:
4683:
4671:
4640:
4628:
4584:
4572:
4560:
4548:
4494:Epstein 2018
4489:
4482:Epstein 2018
4477:
4465:
4453:
4441:
4412:
4364:. Retrieved
4359:
4350:
4338:
4326:. Retrieved
4321:
4276:
4260:
4229:
4217:
4197:
4185:
4169:
4149:
4137:
4125:
4113:
4101:
4085:
4058:
4042:
4022:
4010:
3998:
3986:
3966:
3950:
3938:
3926:
3910:
3886:
3842:
3830:
3818:
3806:
3790:
3770:
3750:
3738:
3726:
3714:
3690:
3674:
3658:
3642:
3630:
3618:
3574:
3543:
3531:
3519:
3507:
3495:
3479:
3467:
3447:
3435:
3408:
3388:
3376:
3352:
3340:
3328:
3316:
3304:
3275:
3259:
3247:
3231:
3219:
3199:
3168:
3156:
3140:
3096:
3065:
3053:
3037:
3010:
2956:
2944:
2932:
2920:
2908:
2896:
2884:
2872:
2856:
2844:
2828:
2816:
2804:
2773:
2742:
2726:
2721:, p. 1.
2710:
2698:
2608:, p. 2.
2584:
2572:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2508:
2492:
2480:
2468:
2448:
2436:
2424:
2412:
2400:
2388:
2372:
2360:
2348:
2336:
2324:
2300:
2269:
2257:
2230:
2206:
2194:
2174:
2150:
2134:
2122:
2102:
2090:
2070:
2050:
2034:
2022:
2010:
2005:, p. 3.
1998:
1982:
1966:
1950:
1938:
1926:
1899:
1883:
1863:
1847:
1827:
1784:
1749:
1721:
1698:
1677:
1655:
1646:
1638:
1632:
1609:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1570:
1552:
1548:
1542:
1537:
1528:
1510:
1503:
1475:
1441:
1413:
1401:
1385:
1381:Donald Woods
1379:
1374:
1363:Trudi Thomas
1359:
1350:
1345:
1310:
1302:
1297:
1275:
1262:Soviet Union
1251:
1243:
1231:
1225:
1220:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1186:
1180:
1163:Paulo Freire
1147:Frantz Fanon
1143:
1111:
1094:Eastern Cape
1090:Jimmy Carter
1087:
1082:David Napley
1063:
1055:Jimmy Kruger
1052:
1040:Robin Holmes
1028:Desmond Tutu
1024:Zach de Beer
1020:Alex Boraine
1016:Helen Suzman
1012:
979:spinal fluid
975:
955:
943:Johnny Issel
935:Western Cape
924:
910:Duncan Innes
906:
899:
896:Donald Woods
893:
881:
852:
836:
823:Oliver Tambo
808:
800:
788:Bokwe Mafuna
772:
768:— Steve Biko
766:
761:
744:
730:
722:
706:
697:
687:
673:
661:
648:
643:
636:
629:Pat Matshaka
605:Johannesburg
602:
587:
566:
553:
536:circumcision
518:and Kenya's
486:
454:
437:
431:
367:Eastern Cape
360:
335:
332:Donald Woods
329:
300:Frantz Fanon
298:philosopher
293:
279:but also to
240:Eastern Cape
229:
224:
201:
200:
85:(1977-09-12)
29:
7849:Biko family
7814:1977 deaths
7809:1946 births
7477:Educational
7290:Marimba Ani
7214:Thabo Mbeki
7122:Politicians
7074:Black power
5928:Ngcobo 2017
5811:de Wet 2013
5799:Bucher 2012
5784:18 December
5757:Mangcu 2014
5745:Mangcu 2014
5721:Mangcu 2014
5705:Mangcu 2014
5513:Silove 1990
5486:Blandy 2007
5462:Mangcu 2014
5450:Mangcu 2014
5438:Mangcu 2014
5422:Mangcu 2014
5410:Mangcu 2014
5398:Mangcu 2014
5386:Kamola 2015
5329:de Wet 2013
5248:Mangcu 2014
5244:Wilson 2012
5232:Mangcu 2014
5220:Mangcu 2014
5203:Wilson 2012
5187:Wilson 2012
5175:Mangcu 2014
5163:Wilson 2012
5151:Wilson 2012
5124:Wilson 2012
5080:Mangcu 2014
5051:Wilson 2012
5035:Wilson 2012
4904:Wilson 2012
4841:Mangcu 2014
4821:Mangcu 2014
4805:Mangcu 2014
4740:Mangcu 2014
4700:Mangcu 2014
4645:Mangcu 2014
4606:Wilson 2012
4589:Kamola 2015
4577:Kamola 2015
4541:Wilson 2012
4511:Kamola 2015
4458:Mangcu 2014
4285:Mangcu 2014
4253:Silove 1990
4158:Mangcu 2014
4090:Mangcu 2014
4078:Mangcu 2014
4051:Mangcu 2014
4031:Mangcu 2014
4015:Mangcu 2014
3979:Wilson 2012
3971:Mangcu 2014
3955:Silove 1990
3943:Wilson 2012
3919:Mangcu 2014
3903:Mangcu 2014
3899:Bucher 2012
3895:Wilson 2012
3891:Silove 1990
3879:Bucher 2012
3864:Bucher 2012
3847:Mangcu 2014
3835:Mangcu 2014
3811:Mangcu 2014
3799:Bucher 2012
3783:Mangcu 2014
3779:Bucher 2012
3763:Mangcu 2014
3759:Silove 1990
3743:Wilson 2012
3731:Mangcu 2014
3707:Mangcu 2014
3703:Wilson 2012
3683:Mangcu 2014
3679:Wilson 2012
3667:Mangcu 2014
3663:Wilson 2012
3536:Mangcu 2014
3500:Mangcu 2014
3488:Mangcu 2014
3456:Mangcu 2014
3440:Mangcu 2014
3428:Mangcu 2014
3413:Mangcu 2014
3401:Mangcu 2014
3397:Wilson 2012
3381:Mangcu 2014
3361:Mangcu 2014
3333:Mangcu 2014
3321:Mangcu 2014
3309:Mangcu 2014
3297:Mangcu 2014
3280:Mangcu 2014
3252:Mangcu 2014
3240:Mangcu 2014
3224:Mangcu 2014
3212:Mangcu 2014
3161:Mangcu 2014
3149:Mangcu 2014
3101:Mangcu 2014
3089:Mangcu 2014
3074:Mangcu 2014
3058:Mangcu 2014
3046:Mangcu 2014
3030:Mangcu 2014
3003:Mangcu 2014
2976:Mangcu 2014
2782:Mangcu 2014
2766:Mangcu 2014
2751:Mangcu 2014
2735:Mangcu 2014
2691:Mangcu 2014
2676:Mangcu 2014
2636:Mangcu 2014
2565:Mangcu 2014
2537:Mangcu 2014
2525:Mangcu 2014
2517:Wilson 2012
2501:Mangcu 2014
2473:Wilson 2012
2461:Mangcu 2014
2457:Wilson 2012
2429:Mangcu 2014
2393:Mangcu 2014
2381:Mangcu 2014
2365:Wilson 2012
2353:Mangcu 2014
2341:Mangcu 2014
2329:Mangcu 2014
2317:Mangcu 2014
2313:Wilson 2012
2293:Wilson 2012
2274:Mangcu 2014
2262:Wilson 2012
2250:Wilson 2012
2235:Mangcu 2014
2223:Mangcu 2014
2219:Wilson 2012
2199:Wilson 2012
2187:Mangcu 2014
2183:Wilson 2012
2163:Mangcu 2014
2159:Wilson 2012
2143:Mangcu 2014
2139:Wilson 2012
2127:Mangcu 2014
2115:Mangcu 2014
2111:Wilson 2012
2095:Mangcu 2014
2083:Mangcu 2014
2063:Mangcu 2014
2059:Wilson 2012
2043:Wilson 2012
2027:Mangcu 2014
2015:Wilson 2012
1991:Wilson 2012
1975:Mangcu 2014
1971:Wilson 2012
1959:Mangcu 2014
1943:Wilson 2012
1931:Mangcu 2014
1919:Wilson 2012
1904:Wilson 2012
1892:Mangcu 2014
1888:Wilson 2012
1872:Wilson 2012
1852:Wilson 2012
1836:Wilson 2012
1705:East London
1610:Cry Freedom
1604:, starring
1597:Cry Freedom
1342:bourgeoisie
1258:Third World
995:coagulation
966:haemorrhage
951:Grahamstown
916:Death: 1977
856:Muntu Myeza
717:paternalism
613:Stutterheim
577:Grahamstown
493:Mariannhill
457:skip a year
337:Cry Freedom
7803:Categories
7390:Ali Mazrui
7300:Steve Biko
7114:Proponents
6942:Steve Biko
6853:The Nation
6697:Steve Biko
6686:13 October
6590:24 October
6586:(8): 17–39
6552:City Press
6324:26 October
5199:Woods 1978
5136:Woods 1978
5120:Woods 1978
5104:Woods 1978
5092:Woods 1978
5068:Woods 1978
5023:Woods 1978
5008:Woods 1978
4996:Woods 1978
4984:Woods 1978
4957:Woods 1978
4940:Woods 1978
4928:Woods 1978
4892:Woods 1978
4853:Woods 1978
4833:Woods 1978
4789:Woods 1978
4774:Woods 1978
4736:Woods 1978
4724:Woods 1978
4712:Woods 1978
4676:Woods 1978
4565:Woods 1978
4470:Denis 2010
4366:13 October
4328:13 October
4281:Woods 1978
4265:Woods 1978
4234:Woods 1978
4222:Woods 1978
4190:Woods 1978
4174:Woods 1978
4154:Woods 1978
4047:Woods 1978
4027:Woods 1978
4003:Woods 1978
3931:Woods 1978
3823:Woods 1978
3795:Woods 1978
3775:Woods 1978
3755:Woods 1978
3719:Woods 1978
3699:Woods 1978
3647:Woods 1978
3623:Woods 1978
3611:Woods 1978
3596:Woods 1978
3579:Woods 1978
3567:Woods 1978
3548:Woods 1978
3524:Woods 1978
3512:Woods 1978
3484:Woods 1978
3472:Woods 1978
3452:Woods 1978
3357:Woods 1978
3268:Woods 1978
3204:Woods 1978
3173:Woods 1978
3145:Woods 1978
3070:Woods 1978
3042:Woods 1978
3015:Woods 1978
2949:Brown 2010
2937:Brown 2010
2925:Brown 2010
2913:Brown 2010
2901:Brown 2010
2889:Woods 1978
2877:Woods 1978
2849:Woods 1978
2833:Woods 1978
2821:Woods 1978
2809:Woods 1978
2797:Woods 1978
2778:Woods 1978
2747:Woods 1978
2715:Woods 1978
2703:Woods 1978
2621:Denis 2010
2561:Woods 1978
2549:Woods 1978
2513:Woods 1978
2497:Woods 1978
2485:Woods 1978
2453:Woods 1978
2441:Woods 1978
2417:Woods 1978
2405:Woods 1978
2309:Woods 1978
2211:Woods 1978
2075:Woods 1978
2039:Woods 1978
1832:Woods 1978
1814:References
1792:Jacob Zuma
1668:released "
1658:Tom Paxton
1533:campaign.
1325:Zapatistas
1317:capitalist
1252:A staunch
1227:Steve Biko
1193:Steve Biko
1159:James Cone
987:Land Rover
868:Mozambique
827:Fikile Bam
713:liberalism
508:government
479:(PAC), an
375:Queenstown
371:Whittlesea
296:Martinican
254:system of
225:Frank Talk
127:Occupation
122:Frank Talk
61:1946-12-18
36:Steve Biko
7498:Political
7380:Malcolm X
7375:Fela Kuti
7219:Tom Mboya
7080:NĂ©gritude
7043:Sankarism
7038:Nkrumaism
7033:Garveyism
6865:0027-8378
6413:154736810
6399:: 76–79.
6384:146298315
6355:145138768
6276:143526446
6228:143822840
6175:143464359
6146:218574270
6117:144308914
6069:143996881
6040:144826918
5967:143223447
5892:Hill 2015
5880:Hill 2015
5865:Zulu 2016
5733:Hill 2015
5709:Hill 2015
5693:Hill 2015
5668:SA Venues
5651:Hill 2015
5639:Hill 2015
5624:Hill 2015
5573:Hill 2015
5561:Hill 2015
5549:Hill 2015
5537:Hill 2015
5525:Hill 2015
5501:Hill 2015
5426:Hill 2015
5264:Hill 2015
5039:Hill 2015
4972:Hill 2015
4526:Hill 2015
4434:Hill 2015
4417:Hill 2015
4405:Hill 2015
4386:Hill 2015
4343:Hill 2015
4269:Hill 2015
4238:Hill 2015
4210:Hill 2015
4178:Hill 2015
4162:Hill 2015
4142:Hill 2015
4130:Hill 2015
4118:Hill 2015
4106:Hill 2015
4094:Hill 2015
4063:Hill 2015
4035:Hill 2015
3991:Hill 2015
3975:Hill 2015
3959:Hill 2015
3460:Hill 2015
3369:Hill 2015
2865:Hill 2015
2719:Hill 2015
2377:Smit 1995
2305:Smit 1995
2289:Smit 1995
2215:Smit 1995
2179:Smit 1995
2167:Hill 2015
2155:Smit 1995
2107:Smit 1995
2079:Smit 1995
2055:Smit 1995
2003:Cock 1989
1987:Smit 1995
1955:Smit 1995
1876:Hill 2015
1868:Smit 1995
1856:Hill 2015
1840:Hill 2015
1819:Footnotes
1752:Amsterdam
1737:Zakes Mda
1530:KONY 2012
1460:Influence
1432:womaniser
1313:communist
1247:pacifists
1234:Bantustan
1151:Malcolm X
1078:affidavit
971:leg irons
947:roadblock
927:Cape Town
792:Kimberley
529:Zwelitsha
411:Afrikaans
363:Tarkastad
352:Biography
281:Coloureds
252:apartheid
69:Tarkastad
7653:Dynamics
7134:Idi Amin
7062:Concepts
6996:Variants
6989:Ideology
6747:Archived
6556:Archived
6531:Archived
6487:Archived
6483:BBC News
6318:Archived
6299:22 April
6293:Archived
6003:Archived
5850:11 March
5844:Archived
5840:BBC News
5778:Archived
5672:Archived
5356:31 March
5350:Archived
1802:See also
1627:Ginsberg
1561:and the
1428:Feminism
1346:economic
1266:Cold War
1140:Ideology
1100:65,000 (
997:, acute
983:Pretoria
958:shackles
939:Marxists
778:and the
747:Edendale
637:de facto
533:ulwaluko
531:for the
489:Catholic
461:Lovedale
442:Anglican
434:IsiXhosa
405:, where
403:township
399:Coloured
395:Africans
383:Fort Cox
189:Children
91:Pretoria
7716:Kwanzaa
7684:Related
7615:Symbols
7602:ZANU–PF
6794:(ed.).
6753:4 March
6621:2180081
6562:4 March
6537:4 March
6493:19 June
6009:19 June
5938:Sources
5678:11 July
1696:on it.
1692:leader
1470:Heerlen
1449:Hlumelo
1393:Gospels
1291:liberty
1118:amnesty
1066:inquest
991:autopsy
678:in the
501:liberal
285:Indians
238:in the
194:Hlumelo
179:Partner
173:
165:
7283:Others
7094:Ujamaa
7087:Ubuntu
7053:Zikism
6918:
6899:
6880:
6863:
6840:
6821:
6802:
6779:
6726:
6703:
6644:
6619:
6510:
6466:
6447:
6428:
6411:
6382:
6353:
6274:
6243:
6226:
6195:
6173:
6144:
6115:
6084:
6067:
6038:
5982:
5965:
1776:Google
1758:. The
1726:. The
1495:SABC 3
1455:Legacy
1420:sexism
1416:gender
1161:, and
1032:Azania
1022:, and
1003:uremia
1001:, and
581:Indian
346:martyr
342:sexism
310:and a
273:blacks
156:Spouse
6638:18–21
6576:(PDF)
6409:S2CID
6380:S2CID
6351:S2CID
6272:S2CID
6224:S2CID
6189:(PDF)
6171:S2CID
6142:S2CID
6113:S2CID
6065:S2CID
6036:S2CID
5963:S2CID
1389:gumba
949:near
941:like
665:black
497:Natal
407:Xhosa
232:Xhosa
167:(
163:
6946:IMDb
6916:ISBN
6897:ISBN
6878:ISBN
6861:ISSN
6838:ISBN
6819:ISBN
6800:ISBN
6777:ISBN
6755:2017
6724:ISBN
6718:Biko
6701:ISBN
6688:2012
6668:2020
6642:ISBN
6617:PMID
6592:2016
6564:2017
6539:2017
6508:ISBN
6495:2011
6464:ISBN
6445:ISBN
6426:ISBN
6326:2016
6301:2017
6241:ISBN
6193:ISBN
6082:ISBN
6011:2011
5980:ISBN
5852:2017
5786:2016
5680:2017
5358:2017
4368:2012
4330:2012
1670:Biko
1660:and
1592:Biko
1523:and
1484:and
1418:and
1407:and
1315:nor
1102:US$
1038:and
858:and
654:and
473:Poqo
397:and
283:and
258:and
215:and
205:OMSG
80:Died
51:Born
6944:at
6857:261
6609:doi
6401:doi
6372:doi
6343:doi
6264:doi
6216:doi
6163:doi
6134:doi
6105:doi
6057:doi
6028:doi
5955:doi
1600:by
1527:'s
1497:'s
870:'s
682:'s
611:at
575:in
467:in
7805::
6855:.
6745:.
6741:.
6679:.
6659:.
6640:.
6615:.
6605:30
6603:.
6584:14
6582:.
6578:.
6554:.
6550:.
6529:.
6525:.
6485:.
6481:.
6407:.
6397:80
6395:.
6378:.
6368:49
6366:.
6349:.
6339:65
6337:.
6316:.
6312:.
6291:.
6287:.
6270:.
6260:13
6258:.
6222:.
6212:62
6210:.
6169:.
6159:30
6157:.
6140:.
6130:39
6128:.
6111:.
6101:62
6099:.
6063:.
6053:47
6051:.
6034:.
6024:62
6022:.
6001:.
5997:.
5961:.
5949:.
5872:^
5838:.
5776:.
5772:.
5670:.
5666:.
5631:^
5592:^
5493:^
5366:^
5344:.
5271:^
5210:^
5143:^
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