31:
1694:
1701:
The number of levels in the memory hierarchy and the performance at each level has increased over time. The type of memory or storage components also change historically. For example, the memory hierarchy of an Intel
Haswell Mobile processor circa 2013 is:
1564:
Designing for high performance requires considering the restrictions of the memory hierarchy, i.e. the size and capabilities of each component. Each of the various components can be viewed as part of a hierarchy of memories
1909:, registers can be directly accessed. Taking optimal advantage of the memory hierarchy requires the cooperation of programmers, hardware, and compilers (as well as underlying support from the operating system):
2295:
1854:
and memory transfer between different levels of the hierarchy. As a result, the CPU spends much of its time idling, waiting for memory I/O to complete. This is sometimes called the
1858:, as a larger memory object is more likely to overflow a small/fast level and require use of a larger/slower level. The resulting load on memory use is known as
1934:
Many programmers assume one level of memory. This works fine until the application hits a performance wall. Then the memory hierarchy will be assessed during
1678:
Latency and bandwidth are two metrics associated with caches. Neither of them is uniform, but is specific to a particular component of the memory hierarchy.
2303:
1644:
This is a general memory hierarchy structuring. Many other structures are useful. For example, a paging algorithm may be considered as a level for
1609:
of the hierarchy. To limit waiting by higher levels, a lower level will respond by filling a buffer and then signaling for activating the transfer.
623:
618:
1512:
2172:
1053:
1553:
and controlling technologies. Memory hierarchy affects performance in computer architectural design, algorithm predictions, and lower level
2057:
214:
1675:
One of the main ways to increase system performance is minimising how far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
2030:
1001:
944:
264:
1992:
112:
1977:
1327:
987:
931:
2335:
2330:
2223:
1013:
682:
494:
2269:
1827:
For example, always-on spinning disks are online, while spinning disks that spin-down, such as massive array of idle disk (
1362:
1930:
are responsible for generating code that, when executed, will cause the hardware to use caches and registers efficiently.
1828:
713:
638:
608:
509:
670:
1874:). Terms for data being missing from a higher level and needing to be fetched from a lower level are, respectively:
1538:
1505:
1302:
1201:
1073:
703:
692:
1765:
499:
394:
1906:
1542:
1374:
1357:
846:
132:
1839:
1369:
1186:
909:
314:
149:
127:
107:
60:
1242:
459:
329:
269:
1820:
Nearline storage is not immediately available, but can be made online quickly without human intervention.
2126:
1987:
1952:
1847:
1649:
1558:
1546:
1526:
1498:
745:
663:
449:
259:
254:
234:
224:
90:
80:
45:
1894:
1631:
1554:
1550:
1441:
1309:
1088:
1048:
971:
584:
489:
379:
274:
137:
117:
100:
95:
2193:
1926:
1831:), are nearline. Removable media such as tape cartridges that can be automatically loaded, as in a
1823:
Offline storage is not immediately available, and requires some human intervention to bring online.
1347:
1038:
976:
961:
828:
780:
633:
444:
142:
2248:
2340:
1706:
1620:
1447:
1412:
1058:
484:
469:
414:
409:
399:
374:
299:
2022:
2016:
2061:
2026:
1957:
1898:
1879:
1875:
1783:
1775:
1124:
1119:
1043:
1008:
862:
840:
739:
698:
601:
591:
439:
164:
1684:...the location in the memory hierarchy dictates the time required for the prefetch to occur.
2118:
1935:
1902:
1793:
1789:
1653:
1534:
1459:
1453:
1379:
1342:
1332:
1297:
1109:
1063:
1031:
806:
801:
789:
474:
434:
194:
179:
65:
2153:
2139:
2045:
1972:
1947:
1803:
1757:
1753:
1718:
1352:
1179:
1166:
857:
852:
708:
575:
529:
389:
309:
239:
209:
184:
70:
41:
554:
30:
1810:
1709:– the fastest possible access (usually 1 CPU cycle). A few thousand bytes in size
1645:
1471:
1389:
1262:
1232:
889:
751:
687:
559:
544:
524:
519:
464:
429:
384:
334:
324:
319:
304:
199:
189:
122:
1748:
Level 4 (L4) Shared cache – 128 MiB in size. Best access speed is around 40 GB/s
2324:
1982:
1745:
Level 3 (L3) Shared cache – 6 MiB in size. Best access speed is around 100 GB/s
1477:
1104:
1099:
1068:
823:
733:
549:
539:
534:
514:
349:
339:
219:
204:
1832:
1771:
1424:
1418:
1384:
1252:
1207:
1191:
1083:
879:
874:
834:
796:
479:
454:
354:
289:
244:
229:
2227:
2111:
2084:
2273:
1731:
Level 1 (L1) Data cache – 128 KiB in size. Best access speed is around 700
17:
1967:
1843:
1483:
1435:
869:
564:
404:
344:
249:
2154:"Memory & Storage - Timeline of Computer History - Computer History Museum"
1887:
1883:
1078:
904:
658:
424:
419:
294:
159:
85:
1809:
The lower levels of the hierarchy – from disks downwards – are also known as
1962:
1897:
mainly assume two levels of memory, main memory and disk storage, though in
1851:
1712:
1624:
1465:
1430:
1267:
1196:
1094:
965:
956:
653:
596:
364:
284:
1835:, are nearline, while cartridges that must be manually loaded are offline.
1813:. The formal distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is:
2194:"Intel's Haswell Architecture Analyzed: Building a New PC and a New Intel"
1916:
are responsible for moving data between disk and memory through file I/O.
1797:
1779:
1732:
1394:
1337:
1272:
1227:
1212:
982:
951:
924:
899:
757:
643:
369:
279:
174:
169:
1672:
CMOx memory technology stretches the Flash space in the memory hierarchy
2173:"Dissecting Intel's top graphics in Apple's 15-inch MacBook Pro - CNET"
1681:
Predicting where in the memory hierarchy the data resides is difficult.
1292:
1282:
1277:
1237:
1139:
1134:
1114:
919:
894:
884:
675:
1725:
1287:
1247:
1129:
1018:
816:
359:
1692:
1222:
1159:
1154:
1149:
811:
768:
762:
648:
628:
613:
1693:
1217:
504:
154:
1764:
in size. Best access speed is around 10 GB/s. In the case of a
1761:
1739:
1257:
1144:
914:
1597:
is typically smaller and faster than the next highest member
1640:
Off-line bulk storage – Tertiary and Off-line storage.
1549:
are related, the levels may also be distinguished by their
1782:
in size. As of 2017, best access speed is from a consumer
1953:
Use of spatial and temporal locality: hierarchical memory
1922:
is responsible for moving data between memory and caches.
1800:
in size. As of 2013, best access speed is about 160 MB/s
1660:
Properties of the technologies in the memory hierarchy
1738:
Level 2 (L2) Instruction and data (shared) – 1
2270:"Ultrium - LTO Technology - Ultrium GenerationsLTO"
2218:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2060:. Unitity Semiconductor Corporation. Archived from
1842:are so fast that for most program workloads, the
1817:Online storage is immediately available for I/O.
1637:On-line mass storage – Secondary storage.
1850:of memory accesses and the efficiency of the
1742:in size. Best access speed is around 200 GB/s
1506:
8:
1697:Memory hierarchy of an AMD Bulldozer server.
1513:
1499:
37:
2300:IBM Developerworks, Inside System Storage
2112:"Memory Hierarchy in Cache-Based Systems"
1721:cache – 6,144 bytes (6 KiB) in size
2010:
2008:
1768:machine, access times may not be uniform
34:Diagram of the computer memory hierarchy
29:
2018:Computer Hardware/Software Architecture
2004:
779:
574:
40:
2135:
2124:
2249:"Samsung 960 Pro M.2 NVMe SSD Review"
2105:
2103:
2101:
1963:Cache hierarchy in a modern processor
1612:There are four major storage levels.
1054:Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus
7:
2251:. storagereview.com. 20 October 2016
1656:between online and offline storage.
1886:(cache to main memory), and (hard)
2296:"Correct use of the term Nearline"
2226:. Sisoftware.co.uk. Archived from
215:Data validation and reconciliation
25:
2015:Toy, Wing; Zee, Benjamin (1986).
1665:Adding complexity slows down the
1652:, and one can include a level of
265:Distributed file system for cloud
1993:Communication-avoiding algorithm
113:Areal density (computer storage)
1978:Hierarchical storage management
932:Programmable metallization cell
495:Persistence (computer science)
1:
1728:cache – 128 KiB in size
1363:Electronic quantum holography
714:Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)
510:Non-RAID drive architectures
27:Computer memory architecture
2117:. Santa Clara, California:
2357:
2110:van der Pas, Ruud (2002).
1537:into a hierarchy based on
1303:Holographic Versatile Disc
1202:Compact Disc Digital Audio
1074:Magnetic-tape data storage
693:Content-addressable memory
2272:. Lto.org. Archived from
2021:. Prentice Hall. p.
500:Persistent data structure
395:Digital rights management
1630:Main – the system
1375:DNA digital data storage
1358:Holographic data storage
847:Solid-state hybrid drive
133:Network-attached storage
2158:www.computerhistory.org
1890:(main memory to disk).
1541:. Since response time,
1370:5D optical data storage
1187:3D optical data storage
910:Universal Flash Storage
315:Replication (computing)
260:Distributed file system
150:Single-instance storage
128:Direct-attached storage
108:Continuous availability
2294:Pearson, Tony (2010).
2134:Cite journal requires
1882:: register to cache),
1698:
1243:Nintendo optical discs
460:Storage virtualization
330:Information repository
270:Distributed data store
35:
2336:Computer data storage
2331:Computer architecture
1988:Memory access pattern
1905:in languages such as
1895:programming languages
1848:locality of reference
1696:
1650:computer architecture
1634:and controller cards.
1590:in which each member
1559:locality of reference
1557:constructs involving
1527:computer architecture
746:Mellon optical memory
734:Williams–Kilburn tube
450:Locality of reference
255:Clustered file system
81:Memory access pattern
46:computer data storage
33:
1927:Optimizing compilers
1442:Magnetic-core memory
1089:Digital Data Storage
1049:Quadruplex videotape
490:In-memory processing
380:Information transfer
275:Distributed database
138:Storage area network
118:Block (data storage)
1707:Processor registers
1621:Processor registers
1039:Phonograph cylinder
977:Electrochemical RAM
829:Solid-state storage
445:Memory segmentation
143:Block-level storage
2171:Crothers, Brooke.
2121:: 26. 817-0742-10.
2058:"Memory Hierarchy"
1786:is about 2000 MB/s
1699:
1448:Plated-wire memory
1413:Paper data storage
1059:Magnetic recording
485:In-memory database
470:Memory-mapped file
415:Volume boot record
410:Master boot record
400:Volume (computing)
375:Data communication
300:Data deduplication
36:
2224:"SiSoftware Zone"
1903:inline assemblers
1899:assembly language
1880:register pressure
1876:register spilling
1864:register pressure
1784:solid state drive
1776:Secondary storage
1648:when designing a
1523:
1522:
1120:8 mm video format
1044:Phonograph record
863:Flash Core Module
841:Solid-state drive
740:Delay-line memory
699:Computational RAM
602:Scratchpad memory
440:Disk partitioning
165:Unstructured data
91:Secondary storage
18:Storage hierarchy
16:(Redirected from
2348:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2311:
2302:. Archived from
2291:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2281:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2220:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2137:
2132:
2130:
2122:
2119:Sun Microsystems
2116:
2107:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2064:on 5 August 2009
2054:
2048:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2012:
1958:Buffer vs. cache
1936:code refactoring
1796:) – Up to
1794:Tertiary storage
1790:Nearline storage
1719:Micro operations
1667:memory hierarchy
1654:nearline storage
1608:
1596:
1589:
1535:computer storage
1531:memory hierarchy
1515:
1508:
1501:
1460:Thin-film memory
1454:Core rope memory
1380:Universal memory
1343:Millipede memory
1333:Racetrack memory
1298:Ultra HD Blu-ray
1110:Linear Tape-Open
1064:Magnetic storage
1032:Analog recording
475:Software entropy
435:Disk aggregation
195:Data degradation
180:Data compression
76:Memory hierarchy
66:Memory coherence
38:
21:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2345:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2309:
2307:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2279:
2277:
2268:
2267:
2263:
2254:
2252:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2233:
2231:
2222:
2221:
2208:
2199:
2197:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2178:
2176:
2175:. News.cnet.com
2170:
2169:
2165:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2133:
2123:
2114:
2109:
2108:
2099:
2089:
2087:
2083:Pádraig Brady.
2082:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2065:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2046:Write-combining
2044:
2040:
2033:
2014:
2013:
2006:
2001:
1973:Computer memory
1948:Cache hierarchy
1944:
1872:memory pressure
1804:Offline storage
1758:Primary storage
1691:
1662:
1607:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1580:
1573:
1566:
1519:
1490:
1489:
1408:
1400:
1399:
1353:Patterned media
1323:
1315:
1314:
1182:
1172:
1171:
1167:Hard disk drive
1034:
1024:
1023:
1004:
993:
992:
947:
937:
936:
858:IBM FlashSystem
853:USB flash drive
792:
775:
774:
729:
721:
720:
709:Dual-ported RAM
587:
570:
569:
530:Cloud computing
390:Copy protection
310:Data redundancy
240:Shared resource
210:Data validation
185:Data corruption
160:Structured data
71:Cache coherence
56:
42:Computer memory
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2354:
2352:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2316:
2286:
2261:
2240:
2206:
2185:
2163:
2145:
2136:|journal=
2097:
2075:
2049:
2038:
2031:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1943:
1940:
1932:
1931:
1923:
1917:
1868:cache pressure
1862:(respectively
1825:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1811:tiered storage
1807:
1806:
1801:
1787:
1769:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1736:
1729:
1722:
1710:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1661:
1658:
1646:virtual memory
1642:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1628:
1602:
1593:
1584:
1578:
1571:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1510:
1503:
1495:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1472:Twistor memory
1469:
1463:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1428:
1422:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1392:
1390:Quantum memory
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1324:
1322:In development
1321:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1233:Super Video CD
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1199:
1194:
1183:
1178:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1035:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1005:
999:
998:
995:
994:
991:
990:
985:
980:
974:
969:
959:
954:
948:
943:
942:
939:
938:
935:
934:
929:
928:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:
892:
890:MultiMediaCard
887:
882:
877:
867:
866:
865:
860:
855:
850:
844:
838:
826:
821:
820:
819:
814:
804:
799:
793:
788:
787:
784:
783:
777:
776:
773:
772:
766:
760:
755:
752:Selectron tube
749:
743:
737:
730:
727:
726:
723:
722:
719:
718:
717:
716:
706:
701:
696:
690:
685:
680:
679:
678:
668:
667:
666:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
616:
606:
605:
604:
599:
592:Hardware cache
588:
583:
582:
579:
578:
572:
571:
568:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
545:Edge computing
542:
537:
532:
527:
525:Grid computing
522:
520:Bank switching
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
465:Virtual memory
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
430:Disk mirroring
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
385:Temporary file
382:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
335:Knowledge base
332:
327:
325:Storage record
322:
320:Memory refresh
317:
312:
307:
305:Data structure
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
200:Data integrity
197:
192:
190:Data cleansing
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
146:
145:
140:
130:
125:
123:Object storage
120:
115:
110:
105:
104:
103:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
57:
54:
53:
50:
49:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2353:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2306:on 2018-11-27
2305:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2287:
2276:on 2011-07-27
2275:
2271:
2265:
2262:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2230:on 2014-09-13
2229:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2207:
2195:
2189:
2186:
2174:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2146:
2141:
2128:
2120:
2113:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2086:
2079:
2076:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2034:
2032:0-13-163502-6
2028:
2024:
2020:
2019:
2011:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1983:Cloud storage
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1870:, and (main)
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
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1724:Level 1 (L1)
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1717:Level 0 (L0)
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1478:Bubble memory
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1128:
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1123:
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1118:
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1111:
1108:
1106:
1105:Cassette tape
1103:
1101:
1100:Videocassette
1098:
1096:
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1082:
1080:
1077:
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1069:Magnetic tape
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824:ROM cartridge
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563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
550:Dew computing
548:
546:
543:
541:
540:Fog computing
538:
536:
535:Cloud storage
533:
531:
528:
526:
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521:
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515:Memory paging
513:
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350:File deletion
348:
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340:Computer file
338:
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220:Data recovery
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205:Data security
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101:floating-gate
99:
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43:
39:
32:
19:
2308:. Retrieved
2304:the original
2299:
2289:
2278:. Retrieved
2274:the original
2264:
2253:. Retrieved
2243:
2232:. Retrieved
2228:the original
2198:. Retrieved
2188:
2177:. Retrieved
2166:
2157:
2148:
2127:cite journal
2090:16 September
2088:. Retrieved
2085:"Multi-Core"
2078:
2068:16 September
2066:. Retrieved
2062:the original
2052:
2041:
2017:
1933:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1892:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1838:Most modern
1837:
1833:tape library
1826:
1808:
1772:Disk storage
1700:
1666:
1643:
1616:
1611:
1603:
1599:
1582:
1575:
1568:
1563:
1530:
1524:
1425:Punched tape
1419:Punched card
1385:Time crystal
1253:Hyper CD-ROM
1192:Optical disc
1084:Tape library
1019:FeFET memory
1000:Early-stage
880:CompactFlash
875:Memory Stick
835:Flash memory
797:Diode matrix
781:Non-volatile
565:Kryder's law
555:Amdahl's law
480:Software rot
455:Logical disk
355:File copying
290:Data storage
245:File sharing
230:Data cluster
75:
2196:. AnandTech
1968:Memory wall
1914:Programmers
1754:Main memory
1726:Instruction
1555:programming
1551:performance
1484:Floppy disk
1436:Drum memory
870:Memory card
837:is used in:
771:(2002–2010)
736:(1946–1947)
560:Moore's law
405:Boot sector
345:Object file
250:File system
61:Memory cell
2325:Categories
2310:2015-08-16
2280:2014-07-31
2255:2017-04-13
2234:2014-07-31
2200:2014-07-31
2179:2014-07-31
1999:References
1888:page fault
1884:cache miss
1856:space cost
1844:bottleneck
1778:) –
1760:) –
1543:complexity
1533:separates
1407:Historical
1079:Tape drive
905:SmartMedia
728:Historical
425:Disk image
420:Disk array
295:Data store
96:MOS memory
86:Memory map
2341:Hierarchy
1780:Terabytes
1466:Disk pack
1431:Plugboard
1268:DVD-Video
1197:LaserDisc
1095:Videotape
966:3D XPoint
957:Memristor
597:CPU cache
365:Core dump
285:Data bank
235:Directory
1942:See also
1920:Hardware
1878:(due to
1860:pressure
1798:exabytes
1689:Examples
1619:–
1617:Internal
1547:capacity
1395:UltraRAM
1273:DVD card
1228:Video CD
1213:CD Video
983:Nano-RAM
952:Memistor
925:XQD card
900:SIM card
758:Dekatron
644:XDR DRAM
639:EDO DRAM
576:Volatile
370:Hex dump
280:Database
175:Metadata
170:Big data
1893:Modern
1852:caching
1846:is the
1581:, ...,
1480:(~1970)
1474:(~1968)
1456:(1960s)
1293:Blu-ray
1283:MiniDVD
1278:DVD-RAM
1238:Mini CD
1180:Optical
1140:U-matic
1135:MicroMV
1115:Betamax
979:(ECRAM)
920:MicroP2
895:SD card
885:PC Card
676:1T-SRAM
634:QDRSRAM
225:Storage
55:General
2029:
1545:, and
1529:, the
1486:(1971)
1468:(1962)
1462:(1962)
1450:(1957)
1444:(1949)
1438:(1932)
1427:(1725)
1421:(1725)
1415:(1725)
1288:HD DVD
1248:CD-ROM
1204:(CDDA)
1130:MiniDV
849:(SSHD)
831:(SSS)
817:EEPROM
765:(2009)
754:(1952)
748:(1951)
742:(1947)
360:Backup
2115:(PDF)
1713:Cache
1625:cache
1348:ECRAM
1328:CBRAM
1263:DVD+R
1223:CD-RW
1160:D-VHS
1155:VHS-C
1150:S-VHS
1091:(DDS)
1014:ReRAM
1009:FeRAM
1002:NVRAM
988:CBRAM
945:NVRAM
843:(SSD)
812:EPROM
769:Z-RAM
763:T-RAM
695:(CAM)
683:ReRAM
649:RDRAM
629:LPDDR
624:SGRAM
619:SDRAM
614:eDRAM
48:types
2140:help
2092:2009
2070:2009
2027:ISBN
1901:and
1840:CPUs
1829:MAID
1766:NUMA
1623:and
1338:NRAM
1310:WORM
1218:CD-R
972:MRAM
807:PROM
802:MROM
704:VRAM
688:QRAM
671:SRAM
659:GDDR
609:DRAM
505:RAID
155:Data
44:and
1762:GiB
1740:MiB
1632:RAM
1561:.
1525:In
1258:DVD
1145:VHS
962:PCM
915:SxS
790:ROM
664:HBM
654:DDR
585:RAM
2327::
2298:.
2209:^
2156:.
2131::
2129:}}
2125:{{
2100:^
2025:.
2023:30
2007:^
1938:.
1866:,
1735:/s
1733:GB
1606:+1
1574:,
1208:CD
1125:DV
2313:.
2283:.
2258:.
2237:.
2203:.
2182:.
2160:.
2142:)
2138:(
2094:.
2072:.
2035:.
1907:C
1792:(
1774:(
1756:(
1669:.
1627:.
1604:i
1600:m
1594:i
1592:m
1588:)
1585:n
1583:m
1579:2
1576:m
1572:1
1569:m
1567:(
1514:e
1507:t
1500:v
968:)
964:(
20:)
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