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421:, typically erupt with explosive force because the magma is too viscous to allow easy escape of volcanic gases. As a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain and intermingle in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the vent and the opening of the crater, the magma degasses explosively. The magma and gases blast out with high speed and full force.
436:, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows are swift, avalanche-like, ground-sweeping, incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, fine ash, fragmented lava, and superheated gases that can travel at speeds over 160 km/h (100 mph). Around 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during the 1902 eruption of
747:. The Mount Tambora eruption is recognized as the most powerful eruption in recorded history. Its eruption cloud lowered global temperatures by as much as 3.5 °C (6.3 °F). In the year following the eruption, most of the Northern Hemisphere experienced sharply cooler temperatures during the summer. In parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, 1816 was known as the "
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335:. Some of these triggers operate only under limited conditions. For example, sector collapse (where part of the flank of a volcano collapses in a massive landslide) can trigger eruption only of a very shallow magma chamber. Magma differentiation and thermal expansion also are ineffective as triggers for eruptions from deep magma chambers.
604:
has an unusually low silica content, making it quite fluid. Fluid lavas are typically associated with the formation of broad shield volcanoes such as those of Hawaii, but
Nyiragongo has very steep slopes down which lava can flow at up to 100 km/h (60 mph). Lava flows could melt down ice and
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flew into the ash cloud, causing it to sustain temporary engine failure and structural damage. During the past two decades, more than 60 airplanes, mostly commercial airliners, have been damaged by in-flight encounters with volcanic ash. Some of these encounters have resulted in the loss of power in
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As per the above examples, while the Unzen eruptions have caused deaths and considerable local damage in the historic past, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo was global. Slightly cooler-than-usual temperatures were recorded worldwide, with brilliant sunsets and intense sunrises
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term for volcanic mudflows) are mixtures of volcanic debris and water. Lahars usually come from two sources: rainfall, or the melting of snow and ice by hot volcanic elements, such as lava. Depending on the proportion and temperature of water to volcanic material, lahars can range from thick, gooey
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Injection of fresh magma into the magma chamber, which mixes and heats the cooler magma already present. This could force volatiles out of solution and lower the density of the cooler magma, both of which increase pressure. There is considerable evidence for magma mixing just before many eruptions,
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ranging from the size of books to small cars, that are explosively ejected from stratovolcanoes during their climactic eruptive phases. These "bombs" can travel over 20 km (12 mi) away from the volcano, and present a risk to buildings and living beings while shooting at very high speeds
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at its summit. Beginning in June, the repeated collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as 200 km/h (120 mph). Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan; an eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people—the
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Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite stratified structure, built up from sequential outpourings of erupted materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes. Two examples of stratovolcanoes
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flows that have the consistency of wet concrete to fast-flowing, soupy floods. As lahars flood down the steep sides of stratovolcanoes, they have the strength and speed to flatten or drown everything in their paths. Hot ash clouds, lava flows and pyroclastic surges ejected during
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and ground. The cooling in some regions is thought to have been as much as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F). An eruption the size of Mount
Pinatubo tends to affect the weather for a few years; the material injected into the stratosphere gradually drops into the
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above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths. The water freed from the rock lowers the
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including magnesium-rich olivine crystals in freshly erupted silicic lava that show no reaction rim. This is possible only if the lava erupted immediately after mixing since olivine rapidly reacts with silicic magma to form a rim of pyroxene.
504:. Although the death toll has been estimated at between 13,000 and 26,000 people, the exact number is still unclear. Vesuvius is recognized as one of the most dangerous of the world's volcanoes, due to its capacity for
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Magma differentiation, in which the lightest, most silica-rich magma and volatiles such as water, halogens, and sulfur dioxide accumulate in the uppermost part of the magma chamber. This can dramatically increase
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in southeastern Mexico caused the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history. Villages within 8 km (5 mi) of the volcano were destroyed by pyroclastic flows, killing more than 2,000 people.
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that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On 15 June, Mount
Pinatubo spewed an ash cloud 40 km (25 mi) into the air and produced huge pyroclastic surges and
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lava moves slowly enough for everyone to flee away from the path of flow. The lava flows are more of a threat to property. However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava.
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of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting, rises (due to its lighter density relative to the surrounding mantle rock), and pools temporarily at the base of the
632:(hundreds of kilometers/miles per hour) through the air. Most bombs do not themselves explode on impact, but rather carry enough force to have destructive effects as if they exploded.
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are a threat to health when inhaled and ash is also a threat to property with enough accumulation. Dense clouds of hot volcanic ash can be expelled due to the collapse of an
563:, or laterally due to the partial collapse of a volcanic edifice or lava dome during explosive eruptions. These clouds can generate devastating pyroclastic flows or surges.
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In addition to potentially affecting the climate, volcanic clouds from explosive eruptions pose a serious hazard to aviation. For example, during the 1982 eruption of
409:, explosive eruptions at subduction zone (convergent-boundary) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as
751:", which caused a considerable agricultural crisis and a brief but bitter famine, which generated a series of distresses across much of the affected continents.
1110:
Wech, Aaron G.; Thelen, Weston A.; Thomas, Amanda M. (15 May 2020). "Deep long-period earthquakes generated by second boiling beneath Mauna Kea volcano".
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flows. Rarely, generally fluid lava could also generate massive lava fountains, while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a
108:. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and solidifies before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often
472:, had been dormant for six centuries before the 1991 eruption, which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th century. Also in 1991, Japan's
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all engines, necessitating emergency landings. As of 1999, no crashes have happened because of jet aircraft flying into volcanic ash.
476:, located on the island of Kyushu about 40 km (25 mi) east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new
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Schmidt, A.; Rüpke, L. H.; Morgan, J. P.; Hort, M. (2001). "How Large a
Feedback Effect Does Slab Dewatering Have on Itself ?".
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mass in this cloud—about 22 million tons—combined with water (both of volcanic and atmospheric origin) formed droplets of
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melted snow and ice atop the 5,321 m (17,457 ft) high Andean volcano. The ensuing lahar flooded the city of
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that causes a gas phase (carbon dioxide or water) to separate from the liquid magma and raise magma chamber pressures.
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The processes that trigger the final eruption remain a question for further research. Possible mechanisms include:
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Lava flows from stratovolcanoes are generally not a significant threat to humans or animals because the highly
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A similar but extraordinarily more powerful phenomenon occurred in the cataclysmic April 1815 eruption of
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253:). The magma forming stratovolcanoes rises when water trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous
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crystallize out of the magma, this concentrates volatiles in the remaining liquid, which can lead to
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magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have traveled as far as 15 km (9 mi).
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Cañón-Tapia, Edgardo (February 2014). "Volcanic eruption triggers: A hierarchical classification".
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has not been conclusively demonstrated. One possible exception is the existence of some isolated
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39:, a 4,392 m (14,411 ft) stratovolcano, the highest point in the US state of Washington
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Volcano: Geology and Eruptions of a Highly Differentiated Oceanic Stratovolcano
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in the
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853:. Active Volcanoes of the World. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
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These internal triggers may be modified by external triggers such as
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Mars : an introduction to its interior, surface and atmosphere
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Cross-section of subduction zone and associated stratovolcanoes
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160:; both eruptions claimed thousands of lives. In modern times,
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Type of conical volcano composed of layers of lava and tephra
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extruding lava flows during its eruption on 29 December 2009
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coupled with the high population density of the surrounding
732:, where it is washed away by rain and cloud precipitation.
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885:. 1 April 2009. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009
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Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Troll, Valentin R., eds. (2013).
875:"Garibaldi volcanic belt: Garibaldi Lake volcanic field"
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The existence of stratovolcanoes on other bodies of the
723:, blocking a portion of the sunlight from reaching the
282:. When the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a
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have erupted catastrophically, but with fewer deaths.
715:), and other gases dispersed around the world. The SO
104:, although some have collapsed summit craters called
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area (totaling about 3.6 million inhabitants).
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Exposed internal structure of alternating layers of
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968:Stewart, Emily M.; Head, James W. (1 August 2001).
488:completely smothered the nearby ancient cities of
481:worst volcanic disaster in the nation's history.
257:rock of the upper oceanic crust is released into
613:which can result in highly explosive eruptions.
691:; this eruption lofted particles high into the
667:and nearby settlements, killing 25,000 people.
468:just 90 km (56 mi) west-northwest of
300:of the magma. When anhydrous minerals such as
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947:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
84:built up by many layers (strata) of hardened
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1223:Kious, W. Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I.
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786: – The formation of mountain ranges
534:'s ashfall deposits in a parking lot on
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315:Progressive melting of the surrounding
128:), with lesser amounts of less viscous
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136:famous for catastrophic eruptions are
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274:. The magma then rises through the
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671:Effects on climate and atmosphere
225:(continental arc volcanism, e.g.
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1217: This article incorporates
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922:. Berlin: Springer. p. 71.
814: This article incorporates
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486:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
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1231:United States Geological Survey
1085:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.011
974:Journal of Geophysical Research
918:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
879:Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes
827:United States Geological Survey
213:Stratovolcanoes are common at
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627:Volcanic bombs are extrusive
333:interactions with groundwater
822:Principal Types of Volcanoes
506:powerful explosive eruptions
347:Mount Etna on the island of
237:) or another oceanic plate (
883:Geological Survey of Canada
682:eruption as seen from space
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1226:Plate tectonics and people
1026:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
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298:Fractional crystallization
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903:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
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552:British Airways Flight 9
280:intermediate composition
1587:Eruptions by death toll
1132:10.1126/science.aba4798
943:Barlow, Nadine (2008).
761:List of stratovolcanoes
496:with thick deposits of
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1077:2014ESRv..129..100C
1038:2001AGUFM.T41C0871S
1014:, pp. 113–126.
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510:Metropolitan Naples
351:, in southern Italy
144:, which erupted in
98:explosive eruptions
1701:Volcanic landforms
1582:Lists of volcanoes
1369:Subglacial volcano
1344:Pyroclastic shield
790:Pyroclastic shield
778:Mountain formation
687:attributed to the
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399:'s stratovolcanoes
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1374:Submarine volcano
1118:(6492): 775–779.
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860:978-3-642-25892-3
440:on the island of
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1367:
1365:
1364:Stratovolcano
1362:
1360:
1359:Somma volcano
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1349:Rootless cone
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1314:
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1283:
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1277:
1273:
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1199:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1189:
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1177:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1163:, p. 54.
1162:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1103:
1100:, p. 52.
1099:
1094:
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1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1032:: T41C–0871.
1031:
1027:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1006:
1002:
996:
991:
987:
983:
980:(E8): 17505.
979:
975:
971:
964:
961:
956:
954:9780521852265
950:
946:
939:
936:
931:
929:9783540436508
925:
921:
914:
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906:
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884:
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876:
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867:
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746:
742:
738:
737:Mount Tambora
733:
731:
726:
722:
721:sulfuric acid
710:
702:
698:
694:
690:
681:
677:
670:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
653:1985 eruption
649:
643:
635:
633:
630:
629:igneous rocks
624:
623:Volcanic bomb
616:
614:
612:
611:volcanic plug
608:
603:
599:
595:
587:
583:
582:Mayon Volcano
579:
574:
566:
564:
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558:
553:
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537:
533:
528:
523:
515:
513:
511:
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499:
495:
491:
487:
482:
479:
475:
474:Unzen Volcano
471:
467:
466:Central Luzon
463:
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439:
435:
431:
427:
422:
420:
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299:
296:
292:
291:
290:
287:
285:
284:magma chamber
281:
277:
273:
269:
268:melting point
264:
263:asthenosphere
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
227:Cascade Range
224:
220:
219:oceanic crust
216:
207:
202:
194:
192:
190:
186:
182:
177:
175:
171:
167:
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159:
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147:
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139:
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127:
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119:
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107:
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99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
80:
76:
72:
71:stratovolcano
65:
61:
58:
54:
50:
45:
38:
37:Mount Rainier
34:
30:
19:
1672:
1660:
1648:
1636:
1597:Volcanic arc
1541:Trachybasalt
1379:Supervolcano
1363:
1311:Fissure vent
1225:
1156:
1115:
1111:
1105:
1093:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1046:
1029:
1025:
1019:
977:
973:
963:
944:
938:
919:
913:
887:. Retrieved
878:
869:
849:
842:
830:. Retrieved
821:
805:
734:
693:stratosphere
689:particulates
685:
645:
626:
591:
541:
522:Volcanic ash
483:
455:
423:
404:
322:
317:country rock
305:
288:
261:rock of the
212:
201:Igneous rock
181:Solar System
178:
134:
74:
70:
68:
29:
1674:WikiProject
1617:polygenetic
1612:monogenetic
1491:Nephelinite
1446:Blairmorite
1421:Agglomerate
1329:Mud volcano
1301:Cryovolcano
1291:Cinder cone
1071:: 100–119.
772:Cinder cone
730:troposphere
725:troposphere
586:Philippines
494:Herculaneum
438:Mount Pelée
424:Since 1600
389:Mount Unzen
329:earthquakes
272:lithosphere
247:Philippines
174:Philippines
1690:Categories
1516:Rhyodacite
1466:Ignimbrite
1441:Benmoreite
832:19 January
797:References
743:island in
598:Nyiragongo
544:Galunggung
502:lava flows
446:El Chichón
442:Martinique
415:Mount Etna
387:(top) and
381:Mount Fuji
294:pressures.
239:island arc
199:See also:
168:, US, and
60:Broken Top
1501:Phonolite
1486:Leucitite
1471:Komatiite
1319:Lava dome
1315:Lava cone
1272:Volcanoes
1148:218648557
920:Volcanism
745:Indonesia
478:lava dome
142:Indonesia
92:. Unlike
1638:Category
1546:Trachyte
1521:Rhyolite
1496:Obsidian
1426:Andesite
1140:32409477
899:cite web
766:See also
697:aerosols
661:Colombia
648:Javanese
557:Ashfalls
302:feldspar
235:Campania
195:Creation
150:Vesuvius
138:Krakatoa
126:andesite
118:rhyolite
106:calderas
1650:Commons
1577:Hotspot
1476:Lapilli
1461:Felsite
1286:Caldera
1120:Bibcode
1112:Science
1073:Bibcode
1034:Bibcode
982:Bibcode
889:27 June
784:Orogeny
741:Sumbawa
680:Paluweh
594:viscous
490:Pompeii
450:Chiapas
339:Hazards
185:massifs
172:in the
116:(as in
82:volcano
79:conical
77:, is a
55:in the
1662:Portal
1526:Tephra
1511:Pumice
1481:Latite
1456:Dacite
1451:Cinder
1431:Basalt
1384:Tossol
1146:
1138:
951:
926:
857:
695:. The
665:Armero
470:Manila
434:lahars
393:Kyushu
385:Honshu
349:Sicily
259:mantle
255:basalt
148:, and
122:dacite
114:silica
110:felsic
90:tephra
64:Oregon
57:eroded
1279:Types
1221:from
1144:S2CID
818:from
642:Lahar
636:Lahar
607:lahar
602:magma
462:lahar
397:Japan
331:, or
276:crust
243:Japan
231:Andes
154:Italy
130:mafic
124:, or
1551:Tuff
1324:Maar
1136:PMID
1030:2001
949:ISBN
924:ISBN
905:link
891:2010
855:ISBN
834:2009
755:List
573:Lava
567:Lava
548:Java
500:and
492:and
484:The
456:Two
432:and
417:and
146:1883
100:and
88:and
86:lava
51:and
49:lava
1128:doi
1116:368
1081:doi
1069:129
990:doi
978:106
739:on
711:(CO
707:),
703:(SO
659:in
655:of
584:in
546:in
516:Ash
405:In
391:on
383:on
164:in
152:in
140:in
1692::
1229:.
1183:^
1168:^
1142:.
1134:.
1126:.
1114:.
1079:.
1067:.
1028:.
1004:^
988:.
976:.
972:.
901:}}
897:{{
881:.
877:.
825:.
550:,
426:CE
413:,
327:,
249:,
245:,
233:,
229:,
191:.
158:79
120:,
69:A
1264:e
1257:t
1250:v
1233:.
1178:.
1150:.
1130::
1122::
1087:.
1083::
1075::
1040:.
1036::
998:.
992::
984::
957:.
932:.
907:)
893:.
863:.
836:.
717:2
713:2
705:2
319:.
20:)
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