445:
differences can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, a current carrying conductor with damaged insulation can result in contact voltage in unexpected places. Contact voltage energized metal parts can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. A contact voltage condition can arise spontaneously from mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship issues.
550:. In 2009, the Jodie S. Lane Public Safety Foundation announced a publicly accessible website with maps showing thousands of reported stray voltage locations in New York City. In addition, the Foundation sponsors the "Jodie S. Lane Stray Voltage Detection, Mitigation & Prevention Conference", an annual meeting attended by power utilities and regulators from around the country to discuss stray voltage detection programs. The Foundation also initiated and advocates regular mobile scanning by utility companies for stray voltage hazards.
325:
caused by physical, thermal, or chemical stresses to insulation on power lines, especially but not limited to underground or underwater cables. Examples of this damage are swollen or cracked insulation from overheating, abrasions caused by digging or ground seizing, and corrosion damage from salt or oil exposure. Electrical leakage can occur also from moisture, salt, dust, and dirt buildup on open air insulators in overhead power distribution. If the leakage in these cases is severe enough, it can lead to a utility pole fire.
603:, with follow-up testing using a low-impedance voltmeter. Electrical tester pens are hand-held devices which detect a potential difference between the user's hand and the object being tested. They generally indicate on contact with an energized object, if the potential difference is above the sensitivity threshold of the device. Reliability of the test can be affected if the user is at an elevated potential him/herself, or if the user is not making firm contact with a bare hand on the reference terminal of the tester.
207:
49:
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many places throughout its length. Since current will follow every parallel path between source and load, some part of the traction current will also flow through the earth. This is normally referred to as leakage current or stray current. The amount of leaking current depends on the conductance of the return tracks compared to the soil; and on the quality of the insulation between the tracks and soil. Where the railway uses
659:
234:). The term is often used by electricians, and might be seen, for example, when measuring the voltage at a lighting fixture after removing the bulb. It is common to measure phantom voltages of 50–90 V in testing the wiring of ordinary 120 V circuits with a high-impedance instrument. The voltage produced may read almost to the full supply voltage, but the
115:
and/or secondary return current, and power system induced currents, as these currents flow through the impedance of the intended return pathway, its parallel conductive pathways, and conductive loops in close proximity to the power system. Stray voltage is not related to power system faults, and is generally not considered hazardous."
571:
pulled all employees off regular duty on the weekend of
January 30, 2009 to deal with ongoing stray voltage problems in the city. This came after as many as five children were shocked though none suffered serious injury. The stray voltage problem had claimed the lives of two dogs in the previous few
535:
In metropolitan areas, stray voltage issues became a concern in the 1990s. Many of these areas have large amounts of aging underground and aboveground electrical distribution equipment in crowded public spaces. Even a low rate of insulation failures or current leakage can result in hazardous exposure
361:
contact with metal objects grounded to the electric distribution system and the earth. Numerous studies document the causes, physiological effects, and prevention, of stray voltage in the farm environment. Today, stray voltage on farms is regulated by state governments and controlled by the design of
356:
four-wire ("wye") electrical power systems, when the load on the phases is not exactly equal, there is some current in the neutral conductor. Because both the primary and secondary of the distribution transformer are grounded, and the primary ground is grounded at more than one point, the earth forms
156:
In New York City, a woman, Jodie S. Lane, was electrocuted in
January 2004 by a five-foot by eight-foot metal road utility vault plate that was energized by an "improperly insulated wire." In the coverage of her death and the growing concern regarding the role of public utilities in electrical safety
360:
Stray voltage is a result of the design of a 4 wire distribution system and as such has existed as long as such systems have been used. Stray voltage became a problem for the dairy industry some time after electric milking machines were introduced, and large numbers of animals were simultaneously in
642:
gradients at a distance, they can detect energized objects without making direct contact, making these instruments useful for scanning or screening large areas for potential electrical hazards. A low electric field reading also provides a definitive indication that no objects are energized within a
439:
In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin has a higher
311:
under and parallel to transmission or distribution lines. In those cases, current is induced in the loop when a person makes contact with it and ground. Since this involves real current flow, it is potentially hazardous. This type of induced current occurs most often on long fences and distribution
176:
Since then, the term had at least two very different definitions, which confused utilities, regulators, and the public. The term "stray voltage" is commonly used for all unwanted electrical leakage, by both the general public and many electrical utility professionals. Other more esoteric phenomenon
52:
A fallen power conductor from a transmission line forces current through the earth back to the source, which is connected to the earth. The resistance of the earth to current produces a voltage difference between the point of contact and distant earth. If the rate of change of voltage with distance
591:
Stray voltage is generally discovered during routine electrical work, or as a result of a customer complaint or shock incident. A growing number of utilities in urban areas now conduct routine periodic and systematic active tests for stray voltage (or more specifically, contact voltage) for public
448:
Contact voltage energizes objects which are normally safe – metal fences, metal telephone booths, metal street signs, etc. Anywhere buried electric wiring exists, a failure can occur in that wiring and create conditions that allow electricity to flow into the immediate surroundings. Some circuitry
374:
Typically a rail transit systems will have at least one of the rails as a return conductor for the traction current. This arrangement is common, based on economic considerations, since it does not require the installation of an additional return conductor. This rail is in contact with the earth at
172:
to refer to any "voltage conditions on electric facilities that should not ordinarily exist. These conditions may be due to one or more factors, including, but not limited to, damaged cables, deteriorated, frayed or missing insulation, improper maintenance, or improper installation." In the same
139:
occurrences of unwanted excess electricity. For example, at the annual "Jodie S. Lane Stray
Voltage Detection, Mitigation & Prevention Conference", held at the Con Edison headquarters in New York City in April 2009, the presidents of most major utilities from throughout the United States and
121:
is defined as "A voltage resulting from abnormal power system conditions that may be present between two conductive surfaces that can be simultaneously contacted by members of the general public and/or their animals. Contact voltage is caused by power system fault current as it flows through the
114:
is defined as "A voltage resulting from the normal delivery and/or use of electricity (usually smaller than 10 volts) that may be present between two conductive surfaces that can be simultaneously contacted by members of the general public and/or their animals. Stray voltage is caused by primary
324:
Stray voltage may leak via damaged or degraded insulation. Failing insulation is essentially a high impedance fault which will allow current to flow through any available path to ground, a condition which can cause shocks or fires if left unmitigated. This leakage can occur when there is damage
444:
than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed become significant in a wet or surgical situation. Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are common as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV). Potential
626:
load bridging the voltmeter terminals. Since very little current can flow from a coupled surface through the small shunt or meter resistance, capacitively coupled voltages will collapse to zero, indicating a harmless "false alarm". By contrast, if an object being tested is in contact with a
643:
tested area. Electric field detectors respond to all field sources, and any positive indications must be verified with a low-impedance voltmeter to eliminate false positives. Electric field proximity sensing also has other industrial applications from manufacturing to building security.
411:
The stray currents from railways create or accelerate the electrolytic corrosion of metallic structures located in the proximity of the transit system. Metal pipes, cables and earthing grids laid in the ground near tracks may have a much shorter usable and safety functional life.
74:, of an electrical system. The neutral is theoretically at 0 V potential, as any grounded object, but current flows on the neutral back to the source, somewhat elevating the neutral voltage. NEV is the product of current flowing on the neutral and the finite, non-zero
148:
was used only once, possibly because "contact voltage" is generally the fault of the supply, network, or installation company. Few companies are willing to openly discuss their faults, let alone those that are seen as life-threatening. It would seem that
830:
Phantom voltage is also a term used in audio engineering in which a voltage is intentionally applied between the ground wire and both wires of a balanced audio line to provide power for a microphone or other device. The concept is usually referred to as
646:
Since stray voltage cannot be seen, smelled, or heard, there is no easy way for the public to know when a dangerous condition exists. Periodic testing is an important precaution, but it is possible that a dangerous condition can develop without warning.
614:
may measure elevated voltages from non-energized objects from the coupling and in effect provide a misleading reading. For that reason, high-impedance voltage measurements of normally non-energized objects must be verified.
609:
is the mechanism used by electrical tester pen devices. Because the capacitance between an object and a current source is typically small, only very small currents can flow from the energized source to the coupled object.
527:– was "negligent with respect to the delivery of electrical service." The jury awarded $ 4.09 million for economic damages and another $ 409,000 for "inconvenience, annoyance and loss of use and enjoyment" of property.
99:(IEEE) convened Working Group 1695 in an attempt to lay down definitions and guidelines for mitigating the various phenomena referred to as "stray voltage". The working group attempted to distinguish between the terms
365:
in areas where livestock eat, drink or give milk. Commercially available neutral isolators also prevent elevated potentials on the utility system neutral from raising the voltage of farm neutral or ground wires.
582:
The United States Social
Security Administration, Administrative Law Judge, Edward Bergtholdt, in an August 17, 2000 decision awarded Michael Gunner permanent disability from exposure to stray voltage.
344:
systems used in some rural locations. This gradient is low at points far away from the earth return connections, but increases near the ground rods where the metallic circuit enters the earth.
41:
flow in the power system. Contact voltage is a better defined term when large voltage appear as a result of a fault. Contact voltage on the enclosure of electrical equipment can appear from a
357:
a parallel return path for the neutral current, allowing part of the neutral current to continuously flow through the earth. This arrangement is partially responsible for stray voltage.
453:(GFCI), designed to isolate such a fault. However, in the absence of protective devices, a fault will go undetected until it either causes a failure or an energy discharge incident.
952:
Donald, J, Hertz, CM, Winsett, I: “Results of initial field installations of magnetic saturation blockers for minimization of stray voltage on dairy farms” ASAE paper 156-170, 1984.
1128:
62:
The terminology, stray voltage may be used in any case of undesirable elevated electrical potential. More precise terminology gives an indication of the source of the voltage.
96:
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safety reasons. Some incipient electrical faults may also be discovered during routine work or inspection programs which are not specifically focused on stray voltage.
432:
to prevent a shock hazard if energized conductors accidentally contact the case. Where this bonding is not provided or has failed, a severe hazard of electric shock or
869:
Jaffa, KC: "Magnetic Field
Induction From Overhead Transmission and Distribution Power Lines on Parallel Fences", "IEEE Trans. on Power App. and Sys., 100(4):1624-36
82:. NEV differs from accidentally-energized objects because it is an unavoidable result of normal system operation, not an accident or a fault in materials or design.
1043:
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even though they met the state standard. The
Hoffmans had presented, the court said, a viable alternative theory that stray voltage had caused them economic harm.
523:. The Haldersons claimed stray voltage from high voltage power lines hurt their 1,000 cow herd and lowered milk production. The jury found that Xcel subsidiary –
1404:
889:
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The very small capacitance between overhead lines and a fluorescent lamp tube (in the foreground of the photo) provides enough current to cause the lamp to glow.
226:. Since voltages detected by high-impedance instruments disappear or become greatly reduced when a low impedance is substituted, the effect is sometimes called
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impedance of available fault current pathways. Contact voltage is not related to normal system operation and can exist at levels that may be hazardous."
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transmission systems must take care so that current flowing in the earth does not cause objectionable corrosion to buried objects such as pipelines.
269:
Alternating current is different from direct current in that the current can flow through what would ordinarily seem to be a physical barrier. In a
509:
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is now the common term for all unwanted voltage leakage because it categorises the fault as part of normal operation and so limits liability.
177:
that also result in elevated voltages on normally non-energized surfaces, are also referred to as “stray voltage.” Examples are voltage from
472:, reported on stray voltages on dairy farms in 2003. Investigation of stray voltage claims must also consider other animal health concerns.
469:
878:
Patel, S, Lambert, FC: "Induced Stray
Voltages from Transmission Lines", IEEE PES T&D Conf & Expo 2006, 21–24 May 2006, 254-9
631:, or coupled by a very large capacitance (possible but unlikely in this context), the voltage will drop only slightly as dictated by
504:, had sued WEPCO after several years of declining production. WEPCO had measured on the farm currents because of stray voltage <1
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has had frequent incidents of stray voltage, including the electrocution death of Jodie S. Lane in 2004, while walking her dog in
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between two objects that ideally should not have any voltage difference between them. Small voltages often exist between two
70:) specifically refers to a difference in potential between a locally grounded object and the grounded return conductor, or
1199:
943:
Norrell, RJ et al.: “Behavioral studies of dairy cattle sensitivity to electrical currents”, Trans. ASAE, 26(5) 1506-1511.
524:
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during maintenance. That is since induced voltages and currents on a conductor may cause electrocution or serious injury.
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1054:
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Electric field detectors detect the electric field strength relative to the user's body or mounting platform. By sensing
575:
In March 2013, Californian Simona Wilson won a $ 4 million lawsuit against her power company after stray voltage from an
561:) has also had problems with hazardous stray voltages, which have killed several dogs during the 1990s. As a result, the
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405:
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400:, using moist soil as the electrolyte. Stray direct currents in soil may counteract the anti-corrosion effect of a
353:
821:
Burke, J: "The
Confusion Surrounding ‘Stray Voltage’", IEEE Rural Electric Power Conference, 6–8 May 2007, C1-C5.
308:
304:
42:
1397:
First conference about "Stray currents in our environment" - November 29, 2007, Ester
Technopole Limoges, France
734:
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Surbrook, TC, et al.: “Designing facilities to prevent stray voltage”, Proc. 2nd Nat. Dairy
Housing Conf., 1983
341:
338:
481:
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wire because of the person's body being capacitively coupled to the ground upon which the person stands.
206:
1174:
913:
Surbrook, Truman C.; Reese, Norman D.; Kehrle, Angela M. (1986). "Stray Voltage: Sources and Solutions".
812:
NYS Public Service Commission, Case 04-M-0159, “Order Instituting Safety Standards” (issued Jan 5, 2005)
596:
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428:, or unintended electrical heating resulting in fires. Normally, metal electrical equipment cases are
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635:. In this latter case, real power is being delivered, indicating a potentially hazardous situation.
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for neutral-to-earth voltage (NEV), but conceded that the notoriety of the Lane incident had caused
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near her house repeatedly shocked her and members of her family whenever they were in the shower.
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In 2017, a jury sided with farmers Paul and Lyn Halderson for a $ 4.5 million settlement against
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1285:"T.O. Hydro Pulls Out Every Worker To Fix Stray Voltage After Five Children Shocked On Streets"
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The term "stray voltage" is used for the gradient (rate of change with respect to distance) of
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1004:
239:
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512:, but the court ruled on procedural grounds that the utility could be found negligent under
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and to reduce hazardous voltages caused by insulation failure and other electrical faults.
38:
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424:. Larger stray voltages may have a range of effects, from barely perceptible to dangerous
243:
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Even a person is standing on an insulated surface may get a shock only by touching the
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in the urban environment, both the media and the New York State regulatory agency used
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government started a program to detect, report on, and repair stray voltage hazards.
543:
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1306:"Owner Stunned After Dog Electrocuted By Faulty Hydro Wiring During Walk - CityNews"
1368:, Wisconsin Farm Electric Council (2/1997), well written, for farmer-consumers, at
930:
380:
258:
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work on or near high-voltage lines, safety rules require connecting a conductor to
53:
is large, a dangerous potential may exist between the feet of a person in the area.
1181:. Jodie S. Lane Public Safety Foundation. Archived from the original on 2011-02-08
1104:"Wisconsin dairy farm wins $ 4.5 million judgment against Xcel over stray voltage"
632:
1215:"City, NStar on hunt for power leaks; Electrocution of three dogs spurred effort"
396:
Dissimilar buried metals such as copper and steel can function as the poles of a
246:
systems is typically quite low and incapable of supplying significant amounts of
520:
505:
235:
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Stray voltage can have harmful effects on animal health and productivity. Some
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of the neutral conductor between a given point and its source, often a distant
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document, the commission accepted NEV to be a naturally occurring condition.
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1391:
Pacific Gas and Electric Power Quality Bulletin No. 2, "Stray Voltage"
379:, this stray current can cause damage to other buried metallic objects by
693:
468:
Dr. Douglas J. Reinemann, Professor of Biological Systems Engineering at
420:
Small stray voltages may never be noticed and may be detected only by a
135:
continues to be used by both utility workers and the general public for
1080:"Wisconsin Supreme Court Upholds $ 1.2 Million Stray Voltage Judgment"
595:
Equipment used to detect stray voltage varies, but common devices are
1264:"Toronto Hydro Suspends Operations To Focus On Stray Voltage Problem"
280:
In power transmission systems, one side of the circuit, known as the
383:
and accelerate corrosion of metal objects in contact with the soil.
1371:
1365:
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University of Wisconsin Milking Research and Instruction Laboratory
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Woman Shocked in Shower by Stray Voltage Wins $ 4 Million Lawsuit
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in the electrical power system, such as a failure of insulation.
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Public Service Commission of Wisconsin Stray Voltage documents
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farmers have claimed damage to yields or stock caused by it.
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for all occurrences of unwanted excess electricity. The term
1022:
Electrical injuries: engineering, medical, and legal aspects
449:
systems have protective devices such as circuit breakers or
193:, and problems stemming from open (disconnected) neutrals.
488:
of $ 1.2 million against the Wisconsin electrical utility
973:"Overview of stray current control in DC railway systems"
1344:
University of Wisconsin–Madison Report on Stray Voltage
1154:"Is it a shock? Doubts grow about Con Ed stray voltage"
733:
Stray and Contact Voltage Working Group. Archived from
618:
Verification of a voltage reading is performed using a
436:
is presented when circuit conductors contact the case.
888:
Jamali, Babak; Piercy, Ray; Dick, Peter (2010-05-04).
277:
blocks direct current but passes alternating current.
1129:"Con Ed Finds 1,214 Stray Voltage Sites in One Year"
165:
to be a term that is well recognized by the public.
218:sources such as neon signs or conductors carrying
1024:, Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, 2004,
1020:Robert E. Nabours, Raymond M. Fish, Paul F. Hill
97:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
1085:. Boardman Municipal Law Newsletter. August 2003
16:Electrical potential between unexpected places
794:"Con Ed Cites Record in Electrocution Report"
222:may have measurable voltage levels caused by
8:
337:in the surface of the soil, associated with
307:can occur when long conductors form an open
131:In spite of the above definitions, the term
37:objects in separate locations by the normal
1380:Wisconsin Public Service Stray Voltage site
612:High-impedance digital or analog voltmeters
999:Thomas J. Divers, Simon Francis Peek (ed),
915:IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications
348:Neutral return currents through the ground
768:Stray and Contact Voltage Working Group.
500:. The Hoffman family, dairy farmers near
1402:Stray voltage description and mitigation
1366:Self-Help Guide: Stray Voltage Detection
1362:, including their award-winning coverage
1042:Reinemann, Douglas J. (March 28, 2003).
1122:
1120:
715:
320:Degraded insulation on power conductors
1191:
1044:"What Do We Know About Stray Voltage?"
971:Niasati, M.; Gholami, A (March 2008).
510:Public Service Commission of Wisconsin
1349:'Electrified Cover Safeguard' website
1331:, 21 Mar 2013. Retrieved 22 Mar 2013.
329:Leakage from single-wire earth return
265:Capacitive leakage through insulation
7:
1152:Alex Schmidt (February 8–14, 2006).
508:, the "level of concern" set by the
531:Public concerns about stray voltage
1003:, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008,
759:"Draft Contact Voltage Definition"
214:Ungrounded metal objects close to
181:, current induced by power lines,
14:
1001:Rebhun's diseases of dairy cattle
451:Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
1213:Howe, Peter J. (July 28, 2005).
1175:"Stray Voltage in New York City"
724:"Draft Stray Voltage Definition"
657:
498:Wisconsin Electric Power Company
775:from the original on 2011-06-10
622:voltmeter, which usually has a
587:Stray/contact voltage detection
470:University of Wisconsin–Madison
476:Legal proceedings in Wisconsin
1:
525:Northern States Power Company
312:lines built under high-power
1372:Midwest Rural Energy Council
895:. Kinectrics. Archived from
1127:Chan, Sewell (2006-03-04).
1106:. Star Tribune. August 2017
406:high voltage direct current
284:, is grounded to dissipate
91:Official definition (draft)
1440:
890:"Stray Voltage Mitigation"
392:Electrolysis and corrosion
18:
1198:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
305:electromagnetic induction
923:10.1109/TIA.1986.4504705
601:electric field detectors
342:electricity distribution
339:single-wire earth return
168:The regulator then used
140:Canada continued to use
64:Neutral to earth voltage
19:Not to be confused with
1354:'Stray voltage' website
536:to the general public.
482:Wisconsin Supreme Court
1308:. CityNews. 2009-01-13
1287:. CityNews. 2009-01-30
1266:. CityNews. 2009-01-31
597:electrical tester pens
211:
54:
1424:Electrical parameters
577:electrical substation
387:Stray Voltage Effects
370:Railway stray current
255:overhead transmission
242:between the wires of
209:
80:electrical substation
51:
29:is the occurrence of
1374:Stray Voltage portal
679:Earth potential rise
363:equipotential planes
335:electrical potential
220:alternating currents
191:earth potential rise
31:electrical potential
1239:"Electrical Safety"
1179:StrayVoltageNYC.org
674:Disturbance voltage
607:Capacitive coupling
540:Consolidated Edison
402:cathodic protection
224:capacitive coupling
179:capacitive coupling
1407:2011-07-06 at the
1133:The New York Times
848:"Phantom Voltages"
699:Neutral and ground
689:Electrical bonding
404:system. Design of
314:transmission lines
286:static electricity
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127:Working definition
55:
802:. March 13, 2004.
240:mutual inductance
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1359:LaCrosse Tribune
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743:
741:
737:
726:
722:
721:
717:
713:
708:
684:Earthing system
663:
656:
653:
589:
533:
478:
459:
426:electric shocks
418:
394:
389:
372:
350:
331:
322:
301:
267:
244:building wiring
228:phantom voltage
204:
199:
146:contact voltage
129:
119:Contact voltage
105:contact voltage
93:
88:
60:
24:
21:Phantom voltage
17:
12:
11:
5:
1437:
1435:
1427:
1426:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1399:
1394:
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1338:External links
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1334:
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1255:
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1166:
1156:. The Villager
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963:
954:
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917:(2): 210–215.
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902:on 2011-07-06.
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799:New York Times
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640:electric field
629:current source
624:shunt resistor
588:
585:
563:City of Boston
555:NSTAR Electric
532:
529:
477:
474:
458:
455:
417:
414:
393:
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377:direct current
371:
368:
349:
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271:series circuit
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216:electric field
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116:
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1030:1-930056-71-0
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1009:1-4160-3137-5
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836:
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834:phantom power
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800:
795:
789:
786:
771:
767:
760:
754:
751:
740:on 2011-06-10
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732:
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719:
716:
710:
705:
704:Shaft voltage
702:
700:
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695:
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672:
671:
666:
665:Energy portal
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621:
620:low-impedance
616:
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586:
584:
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573:
570:
569:Toronto Hydro
566:
564:
560:
559:Boston Edison
556:
551:
549:
545:
544:New York City
541:
537:
530:
528:
526:
522:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
480:In 2003, the
475:
473:
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456:
454:
452:
446:
443:
437:
435:
434:electrocution
431:
427:
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398:galvanic cell
391:
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328:
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310:
309:grounded loop
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283:
278:
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264:
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232:ghost voltage
229:
225:
221:
217:
208:
201:
196:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
174:
171:
170:stray voltage
166:
164:
163:stray voltage
160:
159:stray voltage
154:
152:
151:stray voltage
147:
143:
142:stray voltage
138:
134:
133:stray voltage
126:
120:
117:
113:
112:Stray voltage
110:
109:
108:
106:
102:
101:stray voltage
98:
95:In 2005, the
90:
85:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
57:
50:
46:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
27:Stray voltage
22:
1357:
1321:
1310:. Retrieved
1300:
1289:. Retrieved
1279:
1268:. Retrieved
1258:
1247:. Retrieved
1242:
1233:
1222:. Retrieved
1219:Boston Globe
1218:
1208:
1183:. Retrieved
1178:
1169:
1158:. Retrieved
1147:
1136:. Retrieved
1132:
1108:. Retrieved
1098:
1087:. Retrieved
1074:
1062:. Retrieved
1055:the original
1050:
1037:
1021:
1016:
1000:
995:
983:. Retrieved
976:
966:
957:
948:
939:
914:
908:
897:the original
883:
874:
865:
854:. Retrieved
842:
832:
826:
817:
808:
797:
788:
777:. Retrieved
753:
742:. Retrieved
735:the original
718:
645:
637:
619:
617:
605:
594:
590:
581:
574:
567:
552:
538:
534:
518:
497:
493:
479:
467:
460:
457:Farm animals
447:
438:
419:
410:
395:
381:electrolysis
373:
359:
351:
332:
323:
302:
292:
290:
279:
268:
259:earth ground
253:However, in
252:
231:
227:
213:
175:
169:
167:
162:
158:
155:
150:
145:
141:
136:
132:
130:
118:
111:
107:as follows:
104:
100:
94:
67:
63:
61:
26:
25:
1387:(technical)
1032:pp. 559-566
1011:pp. 389-390
981:. IEEE: 1–6
553:In Boston,
521:Xcel Energy
354:three phase
236:capacitance
86:Definitions
58:Terminology
1329:Yahoo News
1312:2010-08-07
1291:2010-08-07
1270:2010-08-07
1249:2011-06-02
1224:2011-06-02
1185:2011-06-02
1160:2010-08-07
1138:2010-05-24
1110:2017-08-15
1089:2007-05-30
856:2008-01-08
779:2010-08-06
744:2010-08-06
711:References
557:(formerly
514:common law
502:New London
442:resistance
303:Classical
1393:(10/2004)
1356:from the
633:Ohm's law
548:Manhattan
486:judgement
484:upheld a
422:voltmeter
275:capacitor
187:lightning
76:impedance
1418:Category
1405:Archived
1194:cite web
770:Archived
694:Gas leak
651:See also
572:months.
35:grounded
1064:May 18,
985:22 July
931:7330503
494:Hoffman
416:Persons
282:neutral
248:current
72:neutral
39:current
1028:
1007:
929:
197:Causes
1083:(PDF)
1058:(PDF)
1047:(PDF)
927:S2CID
900:(PDF)
893:(PDF)
851:(PDF)
773:(PDF)
762:(PDF)
738:(PDF)
727:(PDF)
490:WEPCO
463:dairy
43:fault
1200:link
1066:2010
1026:ISBN
1005:ISBN
987:2021
978:IEEE
766:IEEE
731:IEEE
273:, a
230:(or
103:and
919:doi
599:or
542:in
496:v.
492:in
352:In
293:hot
238:or
183:EMF
137:all
68:NEV
1420::
1241:.
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1196:}}
1192:{{
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1131:.
1119:^
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925:.
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1252:.
1227:.
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1163:.
1141:.
1113:.
1092:.
1068:.
989:.
933:.
921::
859:.
837:.
782:.
747:.
66:(
23:.
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