895:, creating strain between the layers. Due to the quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE), the electron and hole wave functions are misaligned within the quantum well, resulting in a reduced overlap integral, decreased recombination probability, and increased carrier lifetime. As such, applying an external strain can negate the internal quantum well strain, reducing the carrier lifetime and making the LEDs a more attractive light source for communications and other applications requiring fast modulation speeds.
63:, primarily with regards to sub-130 nm technologies. One key consideration in using strain engineering in CMOS technologies is that PMOS and NMOS respond differently to different types of strain. Specifically, PMOS performance is best served by applying compressive strain to the channel, whereas NMOS receives benefit from tensile strain. Many approaches to strain engineering induce strain locally, allowing both n-channel and p-channel strain to be modulated independently.
992:(DFT) simulations demonstrate distinct behaviors in the bandgap decreasing rates when strained along different directions. Straining along the <110> direction results in a higher bandgap decreasing rate, while straining along the <111> direction leads to a lower bandgap decreasing rate but a transition from an indirect to a direct bandgap. A similar indirect-direct bandgap transition can be observed in
1018:
rippling in black phosphorus leads to bandgap variations between +10% and -30%. In the case of ReSe2, the literature shows the formation of local wrinkle structures when the substrate is relaxed after stretching. This folding process results in a redshift in the absorption spectrum peak, leading to increased light absorption and changes in magnetic properties and bandgap. The research team also conducted
847:
self-organized, phase-separated, nanorod/nanopillar structures in numerous oxide films as reviewed here. In 2008, Thulin and Guerra published calculations of strain-modified anatase titania band structures, which included an indicated higher hole mobility with increasing strain. Additionally, in two dimensional materials such as
1009:
However, 2D materials have a greater range of elastic strain compared to bulk materials because they lack typical plastic deformation mechanisms like slip and dislocation. Additionally, it is easier to apply strain along a specific crystallographic direction in 2D materials compared to bulk materials.
1336:
Goyal, Amit; Kang, Sukill; Leonard, Keith; Martin, Patrick; Gapud, Albert; Varela, Maria; Paranthaman, M; Ijaduola, A; Specht, Eliot; Thompson, James; Christen, David; Pennycook, Steve; List, Fred (11 October 2005). "Irradiation-free, columnar defects comprised of self-assembled nanodots and nanorods
846:
Researchers more recently have achieved strain in thick oxide films larger than that achieved in epitaxial growth by incorporating nano-structured topologies (Guerra and
Vezenov, 2002) and nanorods/nanopillars within an oxide film matrix. Following this work, researchers world-wide have created such
1022:
tests on the stretched samples and found that a 30% stretching resulted in lower resistance compared to the unstretched samples. However, a 50% stretching showed the opposite effect, with higher resistance compared to the unstretched samples. This behavior can be attributed to the folding of ReSe2,
971:
Typically, the maximum elastic strain achievable in normal bulk materials ranges from 0.1% to 1%. This limits our ability to effectively modify material properties in a reversible and quantitative manner using strain. However, recent research on nanoscale materials has shown that the elastic strain
771:
Strain relaxation at thin film interfaces via misfit dislocation nucleation and multiplication occurs in three stages which are distinguishable based on the relaxation rate. The first stage is dominated by glide of pre-existing dislocations and is characterized by a slow relaxation rate. The second
253:
is the lattice parameter of the substrate. After some critical film thickness, it becomes energetically favorable to relieve some mismatch strain through the formation of misfit dislocations or microtwins. Misfit dislocations can be interpreted as a dangling bond at an interface between layers with
942:
switching character at this critical Al composition. Studies have established a linear relationship between this critical composition within the active layer and the Al composition used in the substrate templating region, underscoring the importance of strain engineering in the character of light
66:
One prominent approach involves the use of a strain-inducing capping layer. CVD silicon nitride is a common choice for a strained capping layer, in that the magnitude and type of strain (e.g. tensile vs compressive) may be adjusted by modulating the deposition conditions, especially temperature.
1008:
movement in the microstructure of the material. Plastic deformation is not commonly utilized in strain engineering due to the difficulty in controlling its uniform outcome. Plastic deformation is more influenced by local distortion rather than the global stress field observed in elastic strain.
1012:
Recent research has shown significant progress in strain engineering in 2D materials through techniques such as deforming the substrate, inducing material rippling, and creating lattice asymmetry. These methods of applying strain effectively enhance the electric, magnetic, thermal, and optical
1017:
decreases at rates of approximately 45 and 120 meV/%, respectively, under 0-2.2% uniaxial strain. Additionally, the photoluminescence intensity of monolayer MoS2 decreases at 1% strain, indicating an indirect-to-direct bandgap transition. The reference also demonstrates that strain-engineered
105:
Epitaxial strain in thin films generally arises due to lattice mismatch between the film and its substrate and triple junction restructuring at the surface triple junction, which arises either during film growth or due to thermal expansion mismatch. Tuning this epitaxial strain can be used to
89:
of the underlying silicon-germanium. Conversely, compressive strain could be induced by using a solid solution with a smaller lattice constant, such as silicon-carbon. See, e.g., U.S. Patent No. 7,023,018. Another closely related method involves replacing the source and drain region of a
775:
Strain engineering has been well-studied in complex oxide systems, in which epitaxial strain can strongly influence the coupling between the spin, charge, and orbital degrees of freedom, and thereby impact the electrical and magnetic properties. Epitaxial strain has been shown to induce
843:. In alloy thin films, epitaxial strain has been observed to impact the spinodal instability, and therefore impact the driving force for phase separation. This is explained as a coupling between the imposed epitaxial strain and the system's composition-dependent elastic properties.
1411:
Chen, Aiping; Hu, Jia-Mian; Lu, Ping; Yang, Tiannan; Zhang, Wenrui; Li, Leigang; Ahmed, Towfiq; Enriquez, Erik; Weigand, Marcus; Su, Qing; Wang, Haiyan; Zhu, Jian-Xin; MacManus-Driscoll, Judith L.; Chen, Long-Qing; Yarotski, Dmitry; Jia, Quanxi (10 June 2016).
983:
In nanoscale elastic strain engineering, the crystallographic direction plays a crucial role. Most materials are anisotropic, meaning their properties vary with direction. This is particularly true in elastic strain engineering, as applying strain in different
766:
85:, to modulate channel strain. One manufacturing method involves epitaxial growth of silicon on top of a relaxed silicon-germanium underlayer. Tensile strain is induced in the silicon as the lattice of the silicon layer is stretched to mimic the larger
445:
1051:
U.S. Pat. No. 7,485,799; "Stress-induced bandgap-shifted semiconductor photoelectrolytic/photocatalytic/photovoltaic surface and method for making same," John M. Guerra, Priority Date May 7, 2002. Assigned to
Nanoptek
1325:
U.S. Pat. No. 7,485,799, John M. Guerra, "Stress-induced bandgap-shifted semiconductor photoelectrolytic/photocatalytic/photovoltaic surface and method for making same", Priority Date May 7, 2002. Assigned to
Nanoptek
2132:
Quereda, Jorge; San-Jose, Pablo; Parente, Vincenzo; Vaquero-Garzon, Luis; Molina-Mendoza, Aday J.; Agraït, Nicolás; Rubio-Bollinger, Gabino; Guinea, Francisco; Roldán, Rafael; Castellanos-Gomez, Andres (11 May 2016).
1984:
1174:
Bertoli, B.; Sidoti, D.; Xhurxhi, S.; Kujofsa, T.; Cheruku, S.; Correa, J. P.; Rago, P. B.; Suarez, E. N.; Jain, F. C. (2010). "Equilibrium strain and dislocation density in exponentially graded Si(1-x)Gex/Si (001)".
963:. All of these mechanisms compete across different thicknesses. By delaying strain accumulation to grow at a thicker epilayer before reaching the target relaxation degree, certain adverse effects can be reduced.
772:
stage has a faster relaxation rate, which depends on the mechanisms for dislocation nucleation in the material. Finally, the last stage represents a saturation in strain relaxation due to strain hardening.
1376:; Stocks, George; Goyal, Amit; Meng, Jianyong (12 November 2013). "Self-Assembly of Nanostructured, Complex, Multi-cation Films via Spontaneous Phase Separation and Strain-driven Ordering".
980:, semiconductor devices are continuously shrinking in size to the nanoscale. With the concept of "smaller is stronger", elastic strain engineering can be fully exploited at the nanoscale.
841:
1788:
Banerjee, Amit; Bernoulli, Daniel; Zhang, Hongti; Yuen, Muk-Fung; Liu, Jiabin; Dong, Jichen; Ding, Feng; Lu, Jian; Dao, Ming; Zhang, Wenjun; Lu, Yang; Suresh, Subra (20 April 2018).
583:
194:
1680:
Rienzi, Vincent; Smith, Jordan; Lim, Norleakvisoth; Chang, Hsun-Ming; Chan, Philip; Wong, Matthew S.; Gordon, Michael J.; DenBaars, Steven P.; Nakamura, Shuji (August 2022).
67:
Standard lithography patterning techniques can be used to selectively deposit strain-inducing capping layers, to deposit a compressive film over only the PMOS, for example.
2209:
Yang, Shengxue; Wang, Cong; Sahin, Hasan; Chen, Hui; Li, Yan; Li, Shu-Shen; Suslu, Aslihan; Peeters, Francois M.; Liu, Qian; Li, Jingbo; Tongay, Sefaattin (11 March 2015).
959:(IQE). Active layer thickness can trigger the bending and annihilation of threading dislocations, surface roughening, phase separation, misfit dislocation formation, and
1316:
NASA Contract No. NAS2-03114 with
Nanoptek Corporation, "Stress-induced Bandgap-shifted Titania Photocatalyst for Hydrogen Generation"; J. Guerra and D. Vezenov, 2002.
528:
508:
575:
279:
251:
224:
488:
530:
is the angle between the
Burgers vector and the vector normal to the dislocation's glide plane. The equilibrium in-plane strain for a thin film with a thickness (
859:
strain has been shown to induce conversion from an indirect semiconductor to a direct semiconductor allowing a hundred-fold increase in the light emission rate.
548:
468:
124:
1516:
Wu, Wei; Wang, Jin; Ercius, Peter; Wright, Nicomario; Leppert-Simenauer, Danielle; Burke, Robert; Dubey, Madan; Dongare, Avinash; Pettes, Michael (2018).
287:
898:
With appropriate strain engineering, it is possible to grow III-N LEDs on Si substrates. This can be accomplished via strain relaxed templates,
2264:
Wan, Wen; Chen, Li; Zhan, Linjie; Zhu, Zhenwei; Zhou, Yinghui; Shih, Tienmo; Guo, Shengshi; Kang, Junyong; Huang, Han; Cai, Weiwei (May 2018).
78:
techniques are used to selectively deposit a tensile silicon nitride film over the NMOS and a compressive silicon nitride film over the PMOS.
1946:
1264:
Lahiri, A.; Abinandanan, T. A.; Gururajan, M. P.; Bhattacharyya, S. (2014). "Effect of epitaxial strain on phase separation in thin films".
943:
emitted from DUV LEDs. Furthermore, any existing lattice mismatch causes phase separation and surface roughness, in addition to creating
887:
region. The composition of In within the InGaN layer can be tuned to change the color of the light emitted from these LEDs. However, the
1851:
Dang, C; Chou, JP; Dai, B; Chou, CT; Yang, Y; Fan, R; Lin, W; Meng, F; Hu, A; Zhu, J; Han, J; Minor, AM; Li, J; Lu, Y (1 January 2021).
1019:
1749:
Liu, Chenshu; Liu, Jianxun; Huang, Yingnan; Sun, Xiujian; Sun, Qian; Feng, Meixin; Xu, Qiming; Shen, Yanwei; Yang, Hui (1 May 2024).
1119:"Restructuring of emergent grain boundaries at free surfaces–An interplay between core stabilization and elastic stress generation"
1095:
996:. Theoretically, achieving this indirect-direct bandgap transition in silicon requires a strain of more than 14% uniaxial strain.
2009:
Conley, Hiram J.; Wang, Bin; Ziegler, Jed I.; Haglund, Richard F.; Pantelides, Sokrates T.; Bolotin, Kirill I. (14 August 2013).
906:
metal substrates have also shown promise in applying an external counterbalancing strain to increase the overall LED efficiency.
1615:
Du, Chunhua; Huang, Xin; Jiang, Chunyan; Pu, Xiong; Zhao, Zhenfu; Jing, Liang; Hu, Weiguo; Wang, Zhong Lin (14 November 2016).
39:
through the channel. Another example are semiconductor photocatalysts strain-engineered for more effective use of sunlight.
2082:
Rice, C.; Young, R. J.; Zan, R.; Bangert, U.; Wolverson, D.; Georgiou, T.; Jalil, R.; Novoselov, K. S. (15 February 2013).
1574:
Shih, Huei-Jyun; Lo, Ikai; Wang, Ying-Chieh; Tsai, Cheng-Da; Lin, Yu-Chung; Lu, Yi-Ying; Huang, Hui-Chun (17 March 2022).
914:
In addition to traditional strain engineering that takes place with III-N LEDs, Deep
Ultraviolet (DUV) LEDs, which use
776:
metal-insulator transitions and shift the Curie temperature for the antiferromagnetic-to-ferromagnetic transition in
2084:"Raman-scattering measurements and first-principles calculations of strain-induced phonon shifts in monolayer MoS 2"
1951:
952:
24:
779:
1682:"Demonstration of III-Nitride Red LEDs on Si Substrates via Strain-Relaxed Template by InGaN Decomposition Layer"
989:
919:
1576:"Growth and Characterization of GaN/InxGa1−xN/InyAl1−yN Quantum Wells by Plasma-Assisted Molecular Beam Epitaxy"
1617:"Tuning carrier lifetime in InGaN/GaN LEDs via strain compensation for high-speed visible light communication"
761:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{||}={\frac {f}{|f|}}{\frac {b(1-\nu cos^{2}(\alpha )}{8\pi |f|(1+\nu )cos\lambda }}}
1013:
properties of the material. For example, in the reference provided, the optical gap of monolayer and bilayer
930:
at a critical Al composition within the active region. The polarity switch arises from the negative value of
2301:
935:
36:
132:
880:
872:
1724:
871:, one of the most ubiquitous and efficient LED varieties that has only gained popularity after the 2014
102:
Strain can be induced in thin films with either epitaxial growth, or more recently, topological growth.
1517:
1233:"Epitaxial strain induced metal insulator transition in La0.9Sr0.1MnO3 and La0.88Sr0.1MnO3 thin films"
1004:
In the case of elastic strain, when the limit is exceeded, plastic deformation occurs due to slip and
2222:
2156:
2032:
1960:
1864:
1801:
1628:
1532:
1425:
1283:
1184:
1130:
1014:
868:
2211:"Tuning the Optical, Magnetic, and Electrical Properties of ReSe 2 by Nanoscale Strain Engineering"
1117:
Zhang, Xiaopu; Wang, Mengyuan; Wang, Hailong; Upmanyu, Moneesh; Boland, John J. (1 January 2023).
81:
A second prominent approach involves the use of a silicon-rich solid solution, especially silicon-
2265:
2188:
2146:
2111:
2064:
2022:
1976:
1915:
1896:
1833:
1556:
1393:
1354:
1299:
1273:
1211:
956:
2135:"Strong Modulation of Optical Properties in Black Phosphorus through Strain-Engineered Rippling"
1947:"A study of strain-induced indirect-direct bandgap transition for silicon nanowire applications"
2266:"Syntheses and bandgap alterations of MoS2 induced by stresses in graphene-platinum substrates"
2246:
2238:
2180:
2172:
2103:
2056:
2048:
1888:
1880:
1825:
1817:
1770:
1703:
1662:
1644:
1597:
1548:
1498:
1459:
1441:
1156:
931:
915:
513:
32:
1751:"Toward High-Performance AlGaN-Based UV-B LEDs: Engineering of the Strain Relaxation Process"
493:
23:
manufacturing to enhance device performance. Performance benefits are achieved by modulating
2277:
2230:
2164:
2095:
2040:
1968:
1927:
1872:
1809:
1762:
1693:
1652:
1636:
1587:
1540:
1490:
1449:
1433:
1385:
1346:
1291:
1244:
1192:
1146:
1138:
1032:
993:
892:
86:
1852:
1414:"Role of scaffold network in controlling strain and functionalities of nanocomposite films"
553:
257:
229:
202:
988:
can have a significant impact on the material's properties. Taking diamond as an example,
927:
923:
876:
473:
106:
moderate the properties of thin films and induce phase transitions. The misfit parameter (
2226:
2160:
2134:
2036:
1964:
1868:
1805:
1632:
1536:
1429:
1287:
1188:
1134:
1103:
1080:
Martyniuk, M, Antoszewski, J. Musca, C.A., Dell, J.M., Faraone, L. Smart Mater. Struct.
1657:
1454:
1413:
977:
903:
533:
453:
109:
48:
2083:
1789:
1478:
1350:
2295:
2192:
1980:
1900:
1560:
1358:
1303:
939:
47:
The use of various strain engineering techniques has been reported by many prominent
20:
2115:
1397:
976:, exhibits up to 9.0% uniform elastic strain at the nanoscale. Keeping in line with
440:{\displaystyle h_{c}={\frac {b(2-\nu cos^{2}\alpha )}{8\pi |f|(1+\nu )cos\lambda }}}
2068:
1837:
1750:
985:
960:
948:
899:
884:
1931:
1142:
2281:
2168:
1544:
1295:
1945:
Li, Song; Chou, Jyh-Pin; Zhang, Hongti; Lu, Yang; Hu, Alice (28 February 2019).
1373:
1118:
1005:
944:
75:
74:(DSL) approach reported by IBM-AMD. In the DSL process, standard patterning and
2099:
1494:
28:
2242:
2210:
2176:
2107:
2052:
2010:
1884:
1821:
1774:
1707:
1648:
1601:
1502:
1445:
1160:
1063:
1876:
1813:
1766:
1616:
951:. The former results in local current leakage while the latter enhances the
82:
2250:
2184:
2060:
1892:
1829:
1666:
1552:
1463:
1437:
1389:
1698:
1681:
1592:
1575:
1518:"Giant Mechano-Optoelectronic Effect in an Atomically Thin Semiconductor"
888:
510:
is the angle between the
Burgers vector and misfit dislocation line, and
1853:"Achieving large uniform tensile elasticity in microfabricated diamond"
1151:
973:
2234:
2044:
1972:
1640:
1196:
1249:
1232:
91:
2151:
1337:
resulting in strongly enhanced flux-pinning in YBa2Cu3O7−δ films".
2027:
1278:
1216:
60:
1479:"Calculations of strain-modified anatase TiO 2 band structures"
56:
52:
2011:"Bandgap Engineering of Strained Monolayer and Bilayer MoS 2"
972:
range is much broader. Even the hardest material in nature,
829:
816:
803:
254:
different lattice constants. This critical thickness (
1790:"Ultralarge elastic deformation of nanoscale diamond"
782:
586:
556:
536:
516:
496:
476:
456:
290:
260:
232:
205:
135:
112:
1210:Zhmakin, A. I. (2011). "Strain relaxation models".
891:of the LED quantum well have inherently mismatched
226:is the lattice parameter of the epitaxial film and
835:
760:
569:
542:
522:
502:
482:
462:
439:
273:
245:
218:
188:
118:
1231:Razavi, F. S.; Gross, G.; Habermeier, H. (2000).
1023:with the folded regions being particularly weak.
867:Strain engineering plays a major role in III-N
281:) was computed by Mathews and Blakeslee to be:
955:process, both reducing the device's internal
836:{\displaystyle {\ce {La_{1-x}Sr_{x}MnO_{3}}}}
8:
1477:Thulin, Lukas; Guerra, John (14 May 2008).
875:. Most III-N LEDs utilize a combination of
2150:
2026:
1697:
1656:
1591:
1453:
1277:
1248:
1215:
1150:
828:
823:
815:
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802:
793:
792:
788:
783:
781:
723:
715:
687:
657:
629:
621:
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592:
591:
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561:
555:
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515:
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455:
402:
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366:
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332:
304:
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289:
265:
259:
237:
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210:
204:
180:
171:
162:
149:
134:
111:
19:refers to a general strategy employed in
1372:Wee, Sun Hun; Gao, Yanfei; Zuev, Yuri;
1044:
902:, and pseudo-substrates. Furthermore,
2204:
2202:
2127:
2125:
2004:
2002:
1719:
1717:
1339:Superconductor Science and Technology
470:is the length of the Burgers vector,
189:{\displaystyle f=(a_{s}-a_{e})/a_{e}}
7:
1914:Zhu, Ting; Li, Ju (September 2010).
126:) is given by the equation below:
14:
1987:from the original on 19 July 2023
1094:Weiss, Peter (28 February 2004).
926:, undergo a polarity switch from
577:is then given by the expression:
1062:Wang, David (30 December 2005).
883:, the latter being used as the
35:(or hole mobility) and thereby
1266:Philosophical Magazine Letters
1064:"IEDM 2005: Selected Coverage"
740:
728:
724:
716:
704:
695:
681:
672:
669:
663:
635:
622:
614:
598:
593:
419:
407:
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383:
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344:
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310:
168:
142:
70:Capping layers are key to the
1:
1932:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2010.04.001
1920:Progress in Materials Science
1378:Advanced Functional Materials
1143:10.1016/j.actamat.2022.118432
2282:10.1016/j.carbon.2018.01.085
2169:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04670
1545:10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b05229
1296:10.1080/09500839.2014.968652
1755:Crystal Growth & Design
1351:10.1088/0953-2048/18/11/021
986:crystallographic directions
2318:
2100:10.1103/PhysRevB.87.081307
1952:Journal of Applied Physics
1916:"Ultra-strength materials"
1495:10.1103/PhysRevB.77.195112
1237:Journal of Applied Physics
1177:Journal of Applied Physics
953:nonradiative recombination
1725:"Optica Publishing Group"
990:Density Functional Theory
51:manufacturers, including
27:, as one example, in the
523:{\displaystyle \lambda }
94:with silicon-germanium.
31:channel, which enhances
1877:10.1126/science.abc4174
1814:10.1126/science.aar4165
1767:10.1021/acs.cgd.3c01459
1183:(11): 113525–113525–5.
1068:Real World Technologies
967:In nano-scale materials
938:, which results in its
936:crystal field splitting
503:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1438:10.1126/sciadv.1600245
1390:10.1002/adfm.201202101
873:Nobel Prize in Physics
837:
762:
571:
544:
524:
504:
490:is the Poisson ratio,
484:
464:
441:
275:
247:
220:
190:
120:
1699:10.3390/cryst12081144
1593:10.3390/cryst12030417
1106:on 12 September 2005.
1096:"Straining for Speed"
838:
763:
572:
570:{\displaystyle h_{c}}
545:
525:
505:
485:
465:
442:
276:
274:{\displaystyle h_{c}}
248:
246:{\displaystyle a_{s}}
221:
219:{\displaystyle a_{e}}
191:
121:
43:In CMOS manufacturing
780:
584:
554:
534:
514:
494:
483:{\displaystyle \nu }
474:
454:
288:
258:
230:
203:
133:
110:
2227:2015NanoL..15.1660Y
2161:2016NanoL..16.2931Q
2037:2013NanoL..13.3626C
1965:2019JAP...125h2520L
1869:2021Sci...371...76D
1806:2018Sci...360..300B
1633:2016NatSR...637132D
1537:2018NanoL..18.2351W
1430:2016SciA....2E0245C
1288:2014PMagL..94..702L
1189:2010JAP...108k3525B
1135:2023AcMat.24218432Z
1100:Science News Online
831:
818:
805:
1621:Scientific Reports
957:quantum efficiency
833:
819:
806:
784:
758:
567:
540:
520:
500:
480:
460:
437:
271:
243:
216:
186:
116:
17:Strain engineering
2235:10.1021/nl504276u
2088:Physical Review B
2045:10.1021/nl4014748
1973:10.1063/1.5052718
1800:(6386): 300–302.
1641:10.1038/srep37132
1483:Physical Review B
1384:(15): 1912–1918.
1197:10.1063/1.3514565
893:lattice constants
822:
813:
809:
800:
787:
756:
627:
543:{\displaystyle h}
463:{\displaystyle b}
435:
119:{\displaystyle f}
72:Dual Stress Liner
33:electron mobility
2309:
2286:
2285:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2221:(3): 1660–1666.
2206:
2197:
2196:
2154:
2145:(5): 2931–2937.
2129:
2120:
2119:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2030:
2021:(8): 3626–3630.
2006:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1761:(9): 3672–3680.
1746:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1701:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1660:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1595:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1531:(4): 2351–2357.
1522:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1457:
1418:Science Advances
1408:
1402:
1401:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1333:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1281:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1252:
1250:10.1063/1.125687
1228:
1222:
1221:
1219:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1154:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1102:. Archived from
1091:
1085:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1059:
1053:
1049:
1033:Strained silicon
994:strained silicon
858:
857:
856:
842:
840:
839:
834:
832:
830:
827:
820:
817:
814:
811:
807:
804:
801:
798:
797:
785:
767:
765:
764:
759:
757:
755:
727:
719:
707:
691:
662:
661:
630:
628:
626:
625:
617:
608:
603:
602:
601:
596:
576:
574:
573:
568:
566:
565:
549:
547:
546:
541:
529:
527:
526:
521:
509:
507:
506:
501:
489:
487:
486:
481:
469:
467:
466:
461:
446:
444:
443:
438:
436:
434:
406:
398:
386:
370:
365:
364:
337:
336:
305:
300:
299:
280:
278:
277:
272:
270:
269:
252:
250:
249:
244:
242:
241:
225:
223:
222:
217:
215:
214:
195:
193:
192:
187:
185:
184:
175:
167:
166:
154:
153:
125:
123:
122:
117:
87:lattice constant
2317:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2263:
2262:
2258:
2208:
2207:
2200:
2131:
2130:
2123:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2008:
2007:
2000:
1990:
1988:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1863:(6524): 76–78.
1850:
1849:
1845:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1731:
1723:
1722:
1715:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1520:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1424:(6): e1600245.
1410:
1409:
1405:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1272:(11): 702–707.
1263:
1262:
1258:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1173:
1172:
1168:
1123:Acta Materialia
1116:
1115:
1111:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1084:(2006) S29-S38)
1079:
1075:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1029:
1002:
1000:In 2D materials
969:
912:
865:
855:
852:
851:
850:
848:
778:
777:
708:
653:
631:
612:
587:
582:
581:
557:
552:
551:
550:) that exceeds
532:
531:
512:
511:
492:
491:
472:
471:
452:
451:
387:
356:
328:
306:
291:
286:
285:
261:
256:
255:
233:
228:
227:
206:
201:
200:
176:
158:
145:
131:
130:
108:
107:
100:
45:
12:
11:
5:
2315:
2313:
2305:
2304:
2302:Semiconductors
2294:
2293:
2288:
2287:
2256:
2198:
2121:
2074:
1998:
1937:
1926:(7): 710–757.
1906:
1843:
1780:
1741:
1729:opg.optica.org
1713:
1672:
1607:
1566:
1508:
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1469:
1403:
1364:
1328:
1318:
1309:
1256:
1243:(2): 155–157.
1223:
1202:
1166:
1109:
1086:
1073:
1054:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1028:
1025:
1001:
998:
968:
965:
911:
908:
904:electro-plated
864:
861:
853:
826:
796:
791:
769:
768:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
739:
736:
733:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
711:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
690:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
660:
656:
652:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
634:
624:
620:
616:
611:
606:
600:
595:
590:
564:
560:
539:
519:
499:
479:
459:
448:
447:
433:
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
390:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
369:
363:
359:
355:
352:
349:
346:
343:
340:
335:
331:
327:
324:
321:
318:
315:
312:
309:
303:
298:
294:
268:
264:
240:
236:
213:
209:
197:
196:
183:
179:
174:
170:
165:
161:
157:
152:
148:
144:
141:
138:
115:
99:
96:
49:microprocessor
44:
41:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2314:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2260:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2094:(8): 081307.
2093:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1941:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1784:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1742:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1676:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1570:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1407:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1329:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1310:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1257:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1224:
1218:
1213:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1170:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1077:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1058:
1055:
1048:
1045:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1016:
1010:
1007:
999:
997:
995:
991:
987:
981:
979:
975:
966:
964:
962:
961:point defects
958:
954:
950:
949:point defects
946:
941:
940:valence bands
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
909:
907:
905:
901:
900:superlattices
896:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
863:In III-N LEDs
862:
860:
844:
824:
794:
789:
773:
752:
749:
746:
743:
737:
734:
731:
720:
712:
709:
701:
698:
692:
688:
684:
678:
675:
666:
658:
654:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
632:
618:
609:
604:
588:
580:
579:
578:
562:
558:
537:
517:
497:
477:
457:
431:
428:
425:
422:
416:
413:
410:
399:
391:
388:
380:
377:
371:
367:
361:
357:
350:
347:
338:
333:
329:
325:
322:
319:
316:
313:
307:
301:
296:
292:
284:
283:
282:
266:
262:
238:
234:
211:
207:
181:
177:
172:
163:
159:
155:
150:
146:
139:
136:
129:
128:
127:
113:
103:
98:In thin films
97:
95:
93:
88:
84:
79:
77:
73:
68:
64:
62:
58:
54:
50:
42:
40:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
21:semiconductor
18:
2273:
2269:
2259:
2218:
2215:Nano Letters
2214:
2142:
2139:Nano Letters
2138:
2091:
2087:
2077:
2018:
2015:Nano Letters
2014:
1989:. Retrieved
1956:
1950:
1940:
1923:
1919:
1909:
1860:
1856:
1846:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1732:. Retrieved
1728:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1627:(1): 37132.
1624:
1620:
1610:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1528:
1525:Nano Letters
1524:
1511:
1486:
1482:
1472:
1421:
1417:
1406:
1381:
1377:
1374:More, Karren
1367:
1345:(11): 1533.
1342:
1338:
1331:
1326:Corporation.
1321:
1312:
1269:
1265:
1259:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1205:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1126:
1122:
1112:
1104:the original
1099:
1089:
1081:
1076:
1067:
1057:
1052:Corporation.
1047:
1011:
1003:
982:
970:
945:dislocations
913:
897:
885:quantum well
866:
845:
774:
770:
449:
198:
104:
101:
80:
71:
69:
65:
46:
37:conductivity
16:
15:
1692:(8): 1144.
1152:2262/101841
1006:dislocation
978:Moore's law
910:In DUV LEDs
76:lithography
2152:1509.01182
1586:(3): 417.
1129:: 118432.
1039:References
29:transistor
2276:: 26–30.
2243:1530-6984
2193:206731478
2177:1530-6984
2108:1098-0121
2053:1530-6984
2028:1305.3880
1981:125681415
1901:229935085
1885:0036-8075
1822:0036-8075
1775:1528-7483
1708:2073-4352
1649:2045-2322
1602:2073-4352
1561:206746478
1503:1098-0121
1446:2375-2548
1359:119857651
1304:118565360
1279:1310.5899
1217:1102.5000
1161:1359-6454
1020:I-V curve
889:epilayers
795:−
753:λ
738:ν
713:π
667:α
645:ν
642:−
589:ϵ
518:λ
498:α
478:ν
432:λ
417:ν
392:π
339:α
320:ν
317:−
156:−
83:germanium
2296:Category
2251:25642738
2185:27042865
2116:58934891
2061:23819588
1985:Archived
1893:33384375
1830:29674589
1686:Crystals
1667:27841368
1580:Crystals
1553:29558623
1464:27386578
1398:98171464
1027:See also
928:TE to TM
2223:Bibcode
2157:Bibcode
2069:8191142
2033:Bibcode
1991:19 July
1961:Bibcode
1865:Bibcode
1857:Science
1838:5047604
1802:Bibcode
1794:Science
1658:5107897
1629:Bibcode
1533:Bibcode
1455:4928986
1426:Bibcode
1284:Bibcode
1185:Bibcode
1131:Bibcode
974:diamond
2270:Carbon
2249:
2241:
2191:
2183:
2175:
2114:
2106:
2067:
2059:
2051:
1979:
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1734:10 May
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1501:
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1357:
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922:, and
450:where
199:where
92:MOSFET
59:, and
25:strain
2189:S2CID
2147:arXiv
2112:S2CID
2065:S2CID
2023:arXiv
1977:S2CID
1959:(8).
1897:S2CID
1834:S2CID
1557:S2CID
1521:(PDF)
1394:S2CID
1355:S2CID
1300:S2CID
1274:arXiv
1212:arXiv
920:AlGaN
881:InGaN
61:Intel
2247:PMID
2239:ISSN
2181:PMID
2173:ISSN
2104:ISSN
2057:PMID
2049:ISSN
1993:2023
1889:PMID
1881:ISSN
1826:PMID
1818:ISSN
1771:ISSN
1736:2024
1704:ISSN
1663:PMID
1645:ISSN
1598:ISSN
1549:PMID
1499:ISSN
1460:PMID
1442:ISSN
1157:ISSN
1015:MoS2
947:and
879:and
869:LEDs
2278:doi
2274:131
2231:doi
2165:doi
2096:doi
2041:doi
1969:doi
1957:125
1928:doi
1873:doi
1861:371
1810:doi
1798:360
1763:doi
1694:doi
1653:PMC
1637:doi
1588:doi
1541:doi
1491:doi
1450:PMC
1434:doi
1386:doi
1347:doi
1292:doi
1245:doi
1193:doi
1181:108
1147:hdl
1139:doi
1127:242
934:’s
932:AlN
924:GaN
916:AlN
877:GaN
849:WSe
821:MnO
57:IBM
53:AMD
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