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and from mm- to dm-sized beyond 10 AU. These objects orbit through the gas like planetesimals but are slowed due to the headwind and undergo significant radial drift. The moderately coupled solids that participate in streaming instabilities are those dynamically affected by changes in the motions of gas on scales similar to those of the
Coriolis effect, allowing them to be captured by regions of high pressure in a rotating disk. Moderately coupled solids also retain influence on the motion of the gas. If the local solid to gas ratio is near or above 1, this influence is strong enough to reinforce regions of high pressure and to increase the orbital velocity of the gas and slow radial drift. Reaching and maintaining this local solid to gas at the mid-plane requires an average solid to gas ratio in a vertical cross section of the disk that is a few times solar. When the average solid to gas ratio is 0.01, roughly that estimated from measurements of the current Solar System, turbulence at the mid-plane generates a wavelike pattern that puffs up the mid-plane layer of solids. This reduces the solid to gas ratio at the mid-plane to less than 1, suppressing the formation of dense clumps. At higher average solid to gas ratios the mass of solids dampens this turbulence allowing a thin mid-plane layer to form. Stars with higher metallicities are more likely to reach the minimum solid to gas ratio making them favorable locations for planetesimal and planet formation.
267:
Solar System particles this small have Stokes numbers of ~0.001. At these Stokes numbers a vertically integrated solid to gas ratio greater than 0.04, roughly four times that of the overall gas disk, is required to form streaming instabilities. The required concentration may be reduced by half if the particles are able to grow to roughly cm-size. This growth, possibly aided by dusty rims that absorb impacts, may occur over a period of 10^5 years if a fraction of collisions result in sticking due to a broad distribution of collision velocities. Or, if turbulence and the collision velocities are reduced inside initial weak clumps, a runaway process may occur in which clumping aids the growth of solids and their growth strengthens clumping. A radial pile-up of solids may also lead to conditions that support streaming instabilities in a narrow annulus at roughly 1 AU. This would requires a shallow initial disk profile and that the growth of solids be limited by fragmentation instead of bouncing allowing cm-sized solids to form, however. The growth of particles may be further limited at high temperatures, possibly leading to an inner boundary of planetesimal formation where temperatures reaches 1000K.
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giant planet region the resulting planetesimal formation may be too late to produce giant planets. If the magnetic field of the disc is aligned with its angular momentum the Hall effect increases viscosity which can result in a faster depletion of the inner gas disk. A pile up of solids in the inner disk can occur due to slower rates of radial drift as Stoke's numbers decline with increasing gas densities. This radial pile up is reinforced as the velocity of the gas increases with the surface density of solids and could result in the formation of bands of planetesimals extending from sublimation lines to a sharp outer edges where solid to gas ratios first reach critical values. For some ranges of particle size and gas viscosity outward flow of the gas may occur, reducing its density and further increasing the solid to gas ratio. The radial pile ups may be limited due to a reduction in the gas density as the disk evolves however, and shorter growth timescales of solids closer to the star could instead result in the loss of solids from the inside out. Radial pile-ups also occur at locations where rapidly drifting large solids fragment into smaller slower drifting solids, for example, inside the
25:
drifting isolated particles. Massive filaments form that reach densities sufficient for the gravitational collapse into planetesimals the size of large asteroids, bypassing a number of barriers to the traditional formation mechanisms. The formation of streaming instabilities requires solids that are moderately coupled to the gas and a local solid to gas ratio of one or greater. The growth of solids large enough to become moderately coupled to the gas is more likely outside the ice line and in regions with limited turbulence. An initial concentration of solids with respect to the gas is necessary to suppress turbulence sufficiently to allow the solid to gas ratio to reach greater than one at the mid-plane. A wide variety of mechanisms to selectively remove gas or to concentrate solids have been proposed. In the inner Solar System the formation of streaming instabilities requires a greater initial concentration of solids or the growth of solid beyond the size of chondrules.
291:, with their porosity increasing as larger porous bodies collide, their radial drift timescales become long, allowing them to grow until they are compressed by gas drag and self-gravity forming small planetesimimals. Alternatively, if the local solid density of the disk is sufficient, they may settle into a thin disk that fragments due to a gravitational instability, forming planetesimals the size of large asteroids, once they grow large enough to become decoupled from the gas. A similar fractal growth of porous silicates may also be possible if they are made up of nanometer-sized grains formed from the evaporation and recondensation of dust. However, the fractal growth of highly porous solids may be limited by the infilling of their cores with small particles generated in collisions due to turbulence; by erosion as the impact velocity due to the relative rates of radial drift of large and small bodies increases; and by
199:. The motions of the solids near the high pressure regions are also affected: solids at its outer edge face a greater headwind and undergo faster radial drift, solids at its inner edge face a lesser headwind and undergo a slower radial drift. This differential radial drift produces a buildup of solids in higher pressure regions. The drag felt by the solids moving toward the region also creates a back reaction on the gas that reinforces the elevated pressure leading to a runaway process. As more solids are carried toward the region by radial drift this eventually yields a concentration of solids sufficient to drive the increase of the velocity of the gas and reduce the local radial drift of solids seen in streaming instabilities.
232:. This pile up can also increase the local velocity of the gas, extending the pile up to outside the ice line where it is enhanced by the outward diffusion and recondensation of water vapor. The pile-up could be muted, however, if the icy bodies are highly porous, which slows their radial drift. Icy solids can be concentrated outside the ice line due to the outward diffusion and recondensation of water vapor. Solids are also concentrated in radial pressure bumps, where the pressure reaches a local maximum. At these locations radial drift converges from both closer and farther from the star. Radial pressure bumps are present at the inner edge of the dead zone, and can form due to the
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require a low level of turbulence in the gas and some mechanism for the formation of 100 meter planetesimals. Size dependent clearing of planetesimals due to secular resonance sweeping could also remove small bodies creating a break in the size distribution of asteroids. Secular resonances sweeping inward through the asteroid belt as the gas disk dissipated would excite the eccentricities of the planetesimals. As their eccentricities were damped due to gas drag and tidal interaction with the disk the largest and smallest objects would be lost as their semi-major axes shrank leaving behind the intermediate sized planetesimals.
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Beyond the ice line hydrogen bonding allows particles of water ice to stick at higher collision velocities, possibly enabling the growth of large highly porous icy bodies to Stokes numbers approaching 1 before their growth is slowed by erosion. The condensation of vapor diffusing outward from sublimating icy bodies may also drive the growth of compact dm-size icy bodies outside the ice line. A similar growth of bodies due to recondensation of water could occur over a broader region following an FU Orionis event. At greater distances the growth of solids could again be limited if they are coated with a layer of CO
276:
the disk to gravitationally fragment and collapse into planetesimals. The difference in orbital velocities of the dust and gas, however, produces turbulence which inhibits settling preventing sufficient densities from being reached. If the average dust to gas ratio is increased by an order of magnitude at a pressure bump or by the slower drift of small particles derived from fragmenting larger bodies, this turbulence may be suppressed allowing the formation of planetesimals.
54:. Later, gravitational scattering by the larger objects excites relative motions, causing a transition to slower oligarchic accretion that ends with the formation of planetary embryos. In the outer Solar System the planetary embryos grow large enough to accrete gas, forming the giant planets. In the inner Solar System the orbits of the planetary embryos become unstable, leading to giant impacts and the formation of the terrestrial planets.
66:, roughly 1 mm in diameter. Icy solids may not be affected by the bouncing barrier but their growth can be halted at larger sizes due to fragmentation as collision velocities increase. Radial drift is the result of the pressure support of the gas, enabling it to orbit at a slower velocity than the solids. Solids orbiting through this gas lose angular momentum and spiral toward the central
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particles may form if collision velocities have a wide distribution, with a small fraction occurring at velocities that allow objects beyond the bouncing barrier to stick. However, the growth via mass transfer is slow relative to radial drift timescales, although it may occur locally if radial drift is halted locally at a pressure bump allowing the formation of planetesimals in 10^5 yrs.
46:. The aggregates settle toward the mid-plane of the disk and collide due to gas turbulence forming pebbles and larger objects. Further collisions and mergers eventually yield planetesimals 1–10 km in diameter held together by self-gravity. The growth of the largest planetesimals then accelerates, as gravitational focusing increases their effective cross-section, resulting in runaway
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reach densities sufficient to be gravitationally bound and slowly collapse into planetesimals. Recent research, however, indicates that larger objects such as conglomerates of chondrules may be necessary and that the concentrations produced from chondrules may instead act as the seeds of streaming instabilities.
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The cold classical Kuiper belt objects may have formed in a low mass disk dominated by cm-sized or smaller objects. In this model the gas disk epoch ends with km-sized objects, possibly formed via gravitational instability, embedded in a disk of small objects. The disk remains dynamically cool due to
70:
at rates that increase as they grow. At 1 AU this produces a meter-sized barrier, with the rapid loss of large objects in as little as ~1000 orbits, ending with their vaporization as they approach too close to the star. At greater distances the growth of icy bodies can become drift limited at smaller
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Collisions at velocities that would result in the fragmentation of equal sized particles can instead result in growth via mass transfer from the small to the larger particle. This process requires an initial population of 'lucky' particles that have grown larger than the majority of particles. These
283:
Planetesimals may also be formed from the concentration of chondrules between eddies in a turbulent disk. In this model the particles are split unequally when large eddies fragment increasing the concentrations of some clumps. As this process cascades to smaller eddies a fraction of these clumps may
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In the inner Solar System the formation of streaming instabilities requires a larger enhancement of the solid to gas ratio than beyond the ice line. The growth of silicate particles is limited by the bouncing barrier to ~1 mm, roughly the size of the chondrules found in meteorites. In the inner
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of its orbit. Small particles like dust are strongly coupled and move with the gas, large bodies such as planetesimals are weakly coupled and orbit largely unaffected by the gas. Moderately coupled solids, sometimes referred to as pebbles, range from roughly cm- to m-sized at asteroid belt distances
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planetesimals with low densities. Gas drag slows the fall of the smallest particles and less frequent collisions slows the fall of the largest particles during this process, resulting in the size sorting of particles with mid-sized particles forming a porous core and a mix of particle sizes forming
79:
Some evidence exists that planetesimal formation may have bypassed these barriers to incremental growth. In the inner asteroid belt all of the low albedo asteroids that have not been identified as part of a collisional family are larger than 35 km. A change in the slope of the size distribution
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Instead of actively driving their own concentration, as in streaming instabilities, solids may be passively concentrated to sufficient densities for planetesimals to form via gravitational instabilities. In an early proposal dust settled at the mid-plane until sufficient densities were reached for
223:
late in the gas disk epoch, causing solids to be concentrated in a ring at the edge of a cavity that forms in the gas disk, though the mass of planetesimals that forms may be too small to produce planets. The solid to gas ratio can also increase in the outer disk due to photoevaporation, but in the
206:
of 0.01 - 3; the local solid to gas ratio is near or larger than 1; and the vertically integrated solid to gas ratio is a few times Solar. The Stokes number is a measure of the relative influences of inertia and gas drag on a particle's motion. In this context it is the product of the timescale for
161:
or in some cases trinary objects resembling those in the Kuiper belt. In simulations the initial mass distribution of the planetesimals formed via streaming instabilities fits a power law: dn/dM ~ M, that is slightly steeper than that of small asteroids, with an exponential cutoff at larger masses.
24:
in which the drag felt by solid particles orbiting in a gas disk leads to their spontaneous concentration into clumps which can gravitationally collapse. Small initial clumps increase the orbital velocity of the gas, slowing radial drift locally, leading to their growth as they are joined by faster
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transition. If the back-reaction from the concentration of solids flattens the pressure gradient, the planetesimals formed at a pressure bump may be smaller than predicted at other locations. If the pressure gradient is maintained streaming instabilities may form at the location of a pressure bump
190:
Streaming instabilities form only in the presence of rotation and the radial drift of solids. The initial linear phase of a streaming instability, begins with a transient region of high pressure within the protoplanetary disk. The elevated pressure alters the local pressure gradient supporting the
122:
on the gas, increasing its velocity. When solid particles cluster in the gas, the reaction reduces the headwind locally, allowing the cluster to orbit faster and undergo less inward drift. The slower drifting clusters are overtaken and joined by isolated particles, increasing the local density and
113:
at its distance. The solid particles, however, are not supported by the pressure gradient and would orbit at
Keplerian velocities in the absence of the gas. The difference in velocities results in a headwind that causes the solid particles to spiral toward the central star as they lose momentum to
248:
Streaming instabilities are more likely to form in regions of the disk where: the growth of solids is favored, the pressure gradient is small, and turbulence is low. Inside the ice-line the bouncing barrier may prevent the growth of silicates large enough to take part in streaming instabilities.
302:
Planetesimal accretion could reproduce the size distribution of the asteroids if it began with 100 meter planetesimals. In this model collisional dampening and gas drag dynamically cool the disk and the bend in the size distribution is caused by a transition between growth regimes. This however
253:
or other ices that reduce the collision velocities where sticking occurs. A small pressure gradient reduces the rate of radial drift, limiting the turbulence generated by streaming instabilities. A smaller average solid to gas ratio is then necessary to suppress turbulence at the mid-plane. The
258:
models indicate that the smallest pressure gradients occur near the ice-line and in the inner parts of the disk. The pressure gradient also decreases late in the disk's evolution as the accretion rate and the temperature decline. A major source of turbulence in the protoplanetary disk is the
57:
A number of obstacles to this process have been identified: barriers to growth via collisions, the radial drift of larger solids, and the turbulent stirring of planetesimals. As a particle grows the time required for its motion to react to changes in the motion of the gas in turbulent eddies
75:
in the protoplanetary disk can create density fluctuations which exert torques on planetesimals exciting their relative velocities. Outside the dead zone the higher random velocities can result in the destruction of smaller planetesimals, and the delay of the onset of runaway growth until
88:
has also been cited as evidence the largest KBO's formed directly. Furthermore, if the cold classical KBO's formed in situ from a low mass disk, as suggested by the presence of loosely bound binaries, they are unlikely to have formed via the traditional mechanism. The dust activity of
245:. The break-up of vortices could also leave a ring of solids from which a streaming instability may form. Solids may also be concentrated locally if disk winds lower the surface density of the inner disc, slowing or reversing their inward drift, or due to thermal diffusion.
280:
inelastic collisions among the cm-sized objects. The slow encounter velocities result in efficient growth with a sizable fraction of the mass ending in the large objects. The dynamical friction from the small bodies would also aid in the formation of binaries.
80:
of asteroids at roughly 100 km can be reproduced in models if the minimal diameter of the planetesimals was 100 km and the smaller asteroids are debris from collisions. A similar change in slope has been observed in the size distribution of the
144:, leading to the formation of planetesimals the size of large asteroids. Impact speeds are limited during the collapse of the smaller clusters that form 1–10 km asteroids, reducing the fragmentation of particles, leading to the formation of porous
109:. The gas is hotter and denser closer to the star, creating a pressure gradient that partially offsets gravity from the star. The partial support of the pressure gradient allows the gas to orbit at roughly 50 m/s below the
33:
Planetesimals and larger bodies are traditionally thought to have formed via a hierarchical accretion, the formation of large objects via the collision and mergers of small objects. This process begins with the collision of
191:
gas, reducing the gradient on the region's inner edge and increasing the gradient on the region's outer edge. The gas therefore must orbit faster near the inner edge and is able to orbit slower near the outer edge. The
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at the distance of the asteroid belt. The densities of the filaments can exceed a thousand times the gas density, sufficient to trigger the gravitational collapse and fragmentation of the filaments into bound clusters.
236:. Pressure bumps may also be produced due to the back-reaction of dust on the gas creating self-induced dust traps. The ice line has also been proposed as the site of a pressure bump, however, this requires a steep
127:
of the initial clusters. In simulations the clusters form massive filaments that can grow or dissipate, and that can collide and merge or split into multiple filaments. The separation of filaments averages 0.2 gas
1101:
Blum, J.; Gundlach, B.; Mühle, S.; Trigo-Rodriguez, J. M. (2014). "Comets formed in solar-nebula instabilities! - An experimental and modeling attempt to relate the activity of comets to their formation process".
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magnetorotational instability. The impacts of turbulence generated by this instability could limit streaming instabilities to the dead zone, estimated to form near the mid-plane at 1-20 AU, where the
4808:
Okuzumi, Satoshi; Tanaka, Hidekazu; Kobayashi, Hiroshi; Wada, Koji (2012). "Rapid
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and increasing the density of the larger objects such as 100 km asteroid that form from a mixture of pebbles and pebble fragments. Collapsing swarms with excess
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986:
367:
Johansen, A.; Jacquet, E.; Cuzzi, J. N.; Morbidelli, A.; Gounelle, M. (2015). "New
Paradigms For Asteroid Formation". In Michel, P.; DeMeo, F.; Bottke, W. (eds.).
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Icy particles are more likely to stick and to resist compression in collisions which may allow the growth of large porous bodies. If the growth of these bodies is
3205:
Kretke, Katherine A.; Lin, D. N. C. (2007). "Grain
Retention and Formation of Planetesimals near the Snow Line in MRI-driven Turbulent Protoplanetary Disks".
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even in viscous disks with significant turbulence. Local pressure bumps also form in the spiral arms of a massive self-gravitating disk and in anti-cyclonic
105:
Streaming instabilities, first described by Andrew Youdin and Jeremy Goodman, are driven by differences in the motions of the gas and solid particles in the
4120:
Bitsch, Bertram; Johansen, Anders; Lambrechts, Michiel; Morbidelli, Alessandro (2015). "The structure of protoplanetary discs around evolving young stars".
1708:
Tsirvoulis, Georgios; Morbidelli, Alessandro; Delbo, Marco; Tsiganis, Kleomenis (2017). "Reconstructing the size distribution of the primordial Main Belt".
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Johansen, A.; Oishi, J. S.; Mac Low, M.-M.; Klahr, H.; Henning, T.; Youdin, A. (2007). "Rapid planetesimal formation in turbulent circumstellar disks".
4176:
Yang, Chao-Chin; Johansen, Anders; Carrera, Daniel (2017). "Concentrating small particles in protoplanetary disks through the streaming instability".
62:
the increased collision velocities cause dust aggregates to compact into solid particles that bounce rather than stick, ending growth at the size of
2144:
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5317:
3019:
3795:
Bai, Xue-Ning; Stone, James M. (2010). "Dynamics of Solids in the Midplane of Protoplanetary Disks: Implications for Planetesimal Formation".
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A high average solid to gas ratio may be reached due to the loss of gas or by the concentration of solids. Gas may be selectively lost due to
661:
402:
4711:
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3520:
Raettig, Natalie; Klahr, Hubert; Lyra, Wladimir (2015). "Particle Trapping and Streaming Instability in Vortices in Protoplanetary Disks".
3365:
Taki, Tetsuo; Fujimoto, Masaki; Ida, Shigeru (2016). "Dust and gas density evolution at a radial pressure bump in protoplanetary disks".
3848:
Bai, Xue-Ning; Stone, James M. (2010). "The Effect of the Radial Pressure Gradient in Protoplanetary Disks on Planetesimal Formation".
4861:
Kataoka, Akimasa; Tanaka, Hidekazu; Okuzumi, Satoshi; Wada, Koji (2013). "Fluffy dust forms icy planetesimals by static compression".
3101:
Dittrich, K.; Klahr, H.; Johansen, A. (2013). "Gravoturbulent Planetesimal Formation: The Positive Effect of Long-lived Zonal Flows".
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Drążkowska, J.; Windmark, F.; Dullemond, C. P. (2013). "Planetesimal formation via sweep-up growth at the inner edge of dead zones".
5255:"Planetesimal clearing and size-dependent asteroid retention by secular resonance sweeping during the depletion of the solar nebula"
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as they approach ice lines, reducing their ability to absorb collisions, resulting in bouncing or fragmentation during collisions.
58:
increases. The relative motions of particles, and collision velocities, therefore increases as with the mass of the particles. For
821:
4285:
Carrera, D.; Johansen, A.; Davies, M. B. (2015). "How to form planetesimals from mm-sized chondrules and chondrule aggregates".
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denser outer layers. The impact speeds and the fragmentation of particles increase with the mass of the clusters, lowering the
229:
2223:
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926:
1157:"Evidence for the formation of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko through gravitational collapse of a bound clump of pebbles"
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from the disk may shift the size distribution of the largest objects toward that of the current asteroid belt. In the
4792:"Planetesimal Initial Mass Functions and Creation Rates Under Turbulent Concentration Using Scale-Dependent Cascades"
4479:
Ida, S.; Guillot, T. (2016). "Formation of dust-rich planetesimals from sublimated pebbles inside of the snow line".
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Ormel, C. W.; Cuzzi, J. N.; Tielens, A. G. G. M. (2008). "Co-Accretion of Chondrules and Dust in the Solar Nebula".
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Krijt, S.; Ormel, C. W.; Dominik, C.; Tielens, A. G. G. M. (2015). "Erosion and the limits to planetesimal growth".
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Drążkowska, J.; Alibert, Y.; Moore, B. (2016). "Close-in planetesimal formation by pile-up of drifting pebbles".
225:
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Yang, C.-C.; Johansen, A. (2014). "On the Feeding Zone of Planetesimal Formation by the Streaming Instability".
528:
4774:"Primary Accretion by Turbulent Concentration: The Rate of Planetesimal Formation and the Role of Vortex Tubes"
1309:"Adding particle collisions to the formation of asteroids and Kuiper belt objects via streaming instabilities"
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Fraser, Wesley C.; and 21 others (2017). "All planetesimals born near the Kuiper belt formed as binaries".
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indicates a low tensile strength that would be the result of a gentle formation process with collisions at
3048:; Turner, N. J. (2009). "Assembling the Building Blocks of Giant Planets Around Intermediate-Mass Stars".
2949:"Fractal Growth and Radial Migration of Solids: The Role of Porosity and Compaction in an Evolving Nebula"
1001:"At Pluto, New Horizons Finds Geology of All Ages, Possible Ice Volcanoes, Insight into Planetary Origins"
2340:"X-ray photoevaporation's limited success in the formation of planetesimals by the streaming instability"
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Weidenschilling, S. J., S. J. (2011). "Initial sizes of planetesimals and accretion of the asteroids".
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Schoonenberg, Djoreke; Ormel, Chris W. (2017). "Planetesimal formation near the snowline: in or out?".
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3583:"Dust Capture and Long-lived Density Enhancements Triggered by Vortices in 2D Protoplanetary Disks"
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Birnstiel, T.; Fang, M.; Johansen, A. (2016). "Dust Evolution and the Formation of Planetesimals".
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diminished turbulence also enables the growth of larger solids by lowering impact velocities.
212:
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Streaming instabilities form when the solid particles are moderately coupled to the gas, with
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sizes when their drift timescales become shorter than their growth timescales.
749:
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3780:
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3446:
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3020:"Watermelon Dust is the Best Dust: Forming Planetesimals Near the Snow Line"
2788:"Global variation of the dust-to-gas ratio in evolving protoplanetary discs"
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4975:"Rocky Planetesimal Formation via Fluffy Aggregates of Nanograins"
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4243:
4134:
3971:
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3326:
3273:
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3115:
3062:
2804:
2729:"Effect of dust radial drift on viscous evolution of gaseous disk"
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886:
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3642:"Dust-vortex Instability in the Regime of Well-coupled Grains"
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4340:"Is There a Temperature Limit in Planet Formation at 1000 K?"
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The clusters shrink as energy is dissipated by gas drag and
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4587:"Forming the Cold Classical Kuiper Belt in a Light Disk"
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3750:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3467:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3424:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3160:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2792:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2344:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2282:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
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1161:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
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228:where silicate grains are released as icy bodies
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313:Numerical Simulation of 3D Streaming Instability
4280:
4278:
4797:. 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.
4779:. 43rd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.
2954:. 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.
1024:"Neptune Acquitted on One Count of Harassment"
4440:"Planetesimal Formation Induced by Sintering"
211:of a particle's velocity due to drag and the
170:the largest objects can continue to grow via
84:objects. The low numbers of small craters on
42:producing larger aggregates held together by
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4914:Michikoshi, Shugo; Kokubo, Eiichiro (2016).
3418:Auffinger, Jérémy; Laibe, Guillaume (2017).
529:"The bouncing barrier of silicates and ices"
4696:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4397:Goldreich, Peter; Ward, William R. (1973).
1367:Wahlberg Jansson, K.; Johansen, A. (2014).
985:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4790:Cuzzi, J. N.; Hartlep, T.; Estrada, P. R.
2276:Alexander, R. D.; Armitage, P. J. (2007).
2199:"Dirty Stars Make Good Solar System Hosts"
123:further reducing radial drift, fueling an
76:planetesimals reach radii of 100 km.
5288:
5270:
5160:
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5078:
5037:
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4990:
4949:
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4772:Cuzzi, J. N., J. N.; Hogan, R. C., R. C.
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3640:Surville, Clément; Mayer, Lucio (2018).
1369:"Formation of pebble-pile planetesimals"
2847:"Planetesimal Formation by Sublimation"
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654:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816531240-ch024
395:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816532131-ch025
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1655:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
687:"What is the meter size barrier?"
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527:Küffmeier, Michael (2016-01-27).
4399:"The Formation of Planetesimals"
3498:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08339.x
2823:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20892.x
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820:Temming, Maria (3 August 2017).
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5096:Astronomy & Astrophysics
4863:Astronomy & Astrophysics
4481:Astronomy & Astrophysics
4178:Astronomy & Astrophysics
4122:Astronomy & Astrophysics
3959:Astronomy & Astrophysics
3906:Astronomy & Astrophysics
3880:10.1088/2041-8205/722/2/L220
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3693:Astronomy & Astrophysics
3367:Astronomy & Astrophysics
3261:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2967:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2896:Astronomy & Astrophysics
2591:Astronomy & Astrophysics
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2997:10.1051/0004-6361/201630013
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2621:10.1051/0004-6361/201628983
2485:10.3847/2041-8205/827/2/L37
2176:10.1088/0004-637X/704/2/L75
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1916:10.1051/0004-6361/201219127
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3618:10.3847/0004-637X/831/1/82
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3344:10.1088/0004-637X/747/1/11
2872:10.1088/0004-637X/728/1/20
2705:10.3847/2041-8205/828/1/L2
2255:10.1088/0004-637X/804/1/29
2093:Astronomy and Astrophysics
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1376:Astronomy and Astrophysics
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848:"Were Asteroids Born Big?"
569:Astronomy and Astrophysics
484:Astronomy and Astrophysics
5259:The Astrophysical Journal
5059:The Astrophysical Journal
4810:The Astrophysical Journal
4591:The Astrophysical Journal
4534:The Astrophysical Journal
4344:The Astrophysical Journal
4231:The Astrophysical Journal
4067:The Astrophysical Journal
3797:The Astrophysical Journal
3646:The Astrophysical Journal
3587:The Astrophysical Journal
3522:The Astrophysical Journal
3314:The Astrophysical Journal
3207:The Astrophysical Journal
3103:The Astrophysical Journal
3050:The Astrophysical Journal
2851:The Astrophysical Journal
2733:The Astrophysical Journal
2535:The Astrophysical Journal
2395:The Astrophysical Journal
2225:The Astrophysical Journal
1596:The Astrophysical Journal
1484:The Astrophysical Journal
1253:The Astrophysical Journal
1200:The Astrophysical Journal
1080:10.1088/0004-637X/743/1/1
1050:The Astrophysical Journal
874:The Astrophysical Journal
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628:Protostars and Planets VI
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5118:2012A&A...540A..73W
4885:2013A&A...557L...4K
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4503:2016A&A...596L...3I
4309:2015A&A...579A..43C
4200:2017A&A...606A..80Y
4144:2015A&A...575A..28B
3981:2013A&A...552A.137R
3928:2015A&A...574A..83K
3715:2016A&A...596A..74S
3389:2016A&A...591A..86T
3283:2014A&A...570A..75B
2989:2017A&A...602A..21S
2918:2017A&A...608A..92D
2644:"Why is Mars so small?"
2613:2016A&A...594A.105D
2115:2016A&A...586A..20K
1908:2012A&A...544A..32L
1855:2017A&A...597A..69S
1398:2014A&A...570A..47W
1338:2012A&A...537A.125J
798:10.1126/science.aam6036
591:2014A&A...572A..78D
506:2010A&A...513A..57Z
174:, possibly forming the
162:Continued accretion of
16:In planetary science a
1800:10.1126/sciadv.1500109
157:can fragment, forming
4403:Astrophysical Journal
4047:10.1093/mnras/stw2882
3781:10.1093/mnras/stv2895
3447:10.1093/mnras/stx2395
2375:10.1093/mnras/stx2294
1464:10.1093/mnras/stx1470
1184:10.1093/mnras/stx2741
720:Space Science Reviews
18:streaming instability
3191:10.1093/mnras/stx016
142:inelastic collisions
44:van der Waals forces
5281:2017ApJ...836..207Z
5214:2011Icar..214..671W
5071:2011ApJ...735..131S
5001:2016ApJ...832L..19A
4942:2016ApJ...825L..28M
4832:2012ApJ...752..106O
4743:10.1038/nature01227
4735:2002Natur.420..643G
4668:2017NatAs...1E..88F
4613:2016ApJ...818..175S
4556:2002ApJ...580..494Y
4456:2011ApJ...733L..41S
4415:1973ApJ...183.1051G
4366:2017ApJ...846...48D
4253:2008ApJ...679.1588O
4089:2016ApJ...818...16M
4038:2017MNRAS.465.1910H
3872:2010ApJ...722L.220B
3819:2010ApJ...722.1437B
3772:2016MNRAS.456.3079H
3609:2016ApJ...831...82S
3544:2015ApJ...804...35R
3489:2004MNRAS.355..543R
3336:2012ApJ...747...11K
3229:2007ApJ...664L..55K
3182:2017MNRAS.467.1984G
3125:2013ApJ...763..117D
3072:2009ApJ...690..407K
2863:2011ApJ...728...20S
2814:2012MNRAS.423..389H
2755:2017ApJ...844..142K
2696:2016ApJ...828L...2A
2557:2004ApJ...601.1109Y
2476:2016ApJ...827L..37S
2417:2017ApJ...839...16C
2366:2017MNRAS.472.4117E
2304:2007MNRAS.375..500A
2247:2015ApJ...804...29G
2168:2009ApJ...704L..75J
2057:2011MNRAS.415.3591J
1995:10.1038/nature06086
1987:2007Natur.448.1022J
1971:(7157): 1022–1025.
1792:2015SciA....1E0109J
1732:2018Icar..304...14T
1677:2017ApJ...847L..12S
1618:2016ApJ...822...55S
1561:2010AJ....140..785N
1506:2017ApJ...835..109W
1455:2017MNRAS.469S.149W
1275:2014ApJ...792...86Y
1222:2005ApJ...620..459Y
1126:2014Icar..235..156B
1072:2011ApJ...743....1P
965:2017Icar..287..187R
896:2014ApJ...782..100F
852:Sky & Telescope
789:2017Sci...357.1026D
783:(6355): 1026–1029.
742:2016SSRv..205...41B
646:2014prpl.conf..547J
453:2009Icar..204..558M
387:2015aste.book..471J
107:protoplanetary disk
50:forming the larger
4719:(6916): 643–+646.
197:geostropic balance
168:outer Solar System
125:exponential growth
111:Keplerian velocity
2336:Ercolano, Barbara
663:978-0-8165-3124-0
404:978-0-8165-3213-1
213:angular frequency
209:exponential decay
5325:
5303:
5302:
5292:
5274:
5250:
5244:
5243:
5241:
5232:
5226:
5225:
5197:
5191:
5190:
5164:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5111:
5091:
5085:
5084:
5082:
5050:
5044:
5043:
5041:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5012:
4994:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4953:
4935:
4911:
4905:
4904:
4878:
4858:
4852:
4851:
4825:
4805:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4787:
4781:
4780:
4778:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4728:
4726:astro-ph/0208490
4708:
4702:
4701:
4695:
4687:
4661:
4646:Nature Astronomy
4641:
4635:
4634:
4624:
4606:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4549:
4547:astro-ph/0207536
4529:
4523:
4522:
4496:
4476:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4377:
4359:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4302:
4282:
4273:
4272:
4246:
4237:(2): 1588–1610.
4226:
4220:
4219:
4193:
4173:
4164:
4163:
4137:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4100:
4082:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4031:
4022:(2): 1910–1914.
4007:
4001:
4000:
3974:
3954:
3948:
3947:
3921:
3901:
3892:
3891:
3865:
3856:(2): L220–L223.
3845:
3839:
3838:
3812:
3803:(2): 1437–1459.
3792:
3786:
3785:
3783:
3765:
3756:(3): 3079–3089.
3741:
3735:
3734:
3708:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3671:
3661:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3620:
3602:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3537:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3500:
3482:
3480:astro-ph/0408390
3458:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3439:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3382:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3329:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3276:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3222:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3175:
3166:(2): 1984–1996.
3151:
3145:
3144:
3118:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3065:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2982:
2962:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2911:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2874:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2825:
2807:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2766:
2748:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2707:
2689:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2654:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2606:
2586:
2577:
2576:
2550:
2548:astro-ph/0309247
2541:(2): 1109–1119.
2530:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2487:
2469:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2428:
2410:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2359:
2350:(4): 4117–4125.
2332:
2326:
2325:
2315:
2297:
2295:astro-ph/0611821
2273:
2267:
2266:
2240:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2161:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2108:
2088:
2079:
2078:
2068:
2050:
2041:(4): 3591–3598.
2026:
2015:
2014:
1980:
1960:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1901:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1848:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1785:
1770:Science Advances
1761:
1752:
1751:
1725:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1688:
1670:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1629:
1611:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1554:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1517:
1499:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1448:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1391:
1373:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1331:
1313:
1304:
1295:
1294:
1268:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1215:
1213:astro-ph/0409263
1195:
1189:
1188:
1186:
1176:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1119:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1065:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1019:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1008:
997:
991:
990:
984:
976:
948:
942:
941:
939:
937:
922:
916:
915:
889:
869:
863:
862:
860:
858:
843:
837:
836:
834:
832:
817:
811:
810:
800:
768:
762:
761:
735:
715:
702:
701:
699:
697:
682:
676:
675:
639:
622:
611:
610:
584:
566:
557:
544:
543:
541:
539:
524:
518:
517:
499:
479:
473:
472:
446:
426:
417:
416:
380:
364:
343:
342:
340:
328:
221:photoevaporation
172:pebble accretion
155:angular momentum
116:aerodynamic drag
5333:
5332:
5328:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5323:
5322:
5308:
5307:
5306:
5252:
5251:
5247:
5239:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5199:
5198:
5194:
5146:
5145:
5141:
5093:
5092:
5088:
5052:
5051:
5047:
5031:
5030:
5026:
4972:
4971:
4967:
4913:
4912:
4908:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4807:
4806:
4802:
4794:
4789:
4788:
4784:
4776:
4771:
4770:
4766:
4710:
4709:
4705:
4688:
4643:
4642:
4638:
4584:
4583:
4579:
4531:
4530:
4526:
4478:
4477:
4473:
4437:
4436:
4432:
4396:
4395:
4391:
4337:
4336:
4332:
4284:
4283:
4276:
4228:
4227:
4223:
4175:
4174:
4167:
4119:
4118:
4114:
4060:
4059:
4055:
4009:
4008:
4004:
3956:
3955:
3951:
3903:
3902:
3895:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3794:
3793:
3789:
3743:
3742:
3738:
3690:
3689:
3685:
3639:
3638:
3634:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3519:
3518:
3514:
3460:
3459:
3455:
3417:
3416:
3412:
3364:
3363:
3359:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3257:
3256:
3252:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3153:
3152:
3148:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3043:
3042:
3038:
3028:
3026:
3017:
3016:
3012:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2951:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2667:
2666:
2662:
2652:
2650:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2588:
2587:
2580:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2517:
2515:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2207:
2205:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2090:
2089:
2082:
2028:
2027:
2018:
1962:
1961:
1952:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1763:
1762:
1755:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1371:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1298:
1250:
1249:
1245:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1047:
1046:
1042:
1032:
1030:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1006:
1004:
999:
998:
994:
977:
950:
949:
945:
935:
933:
924:
923:
919:
871:
870:
866:
856:
854:
845:
844:
840:
830:
828:
819:
818:
814:
770:
769:
765:
717:
716:
705:
695:
693:
684:
683:
679:
664:
624:
623:
614:
564:
559:
558:
547:
537:
535:
526:
525:
521:
481:
480:
476:
428:
427:
420:
405:
366:
365:
346:
330:
329:
325:
321:
309:
273:
252:
193:Coriolis forces
188:
132:, roughly 0.02
103:
40:Brownian motion
31:
12:
11:
5:
5331:
5329:
5321:
5320:
5310:
5309:
5305:
5304:
5245:
5227:
5208:(2): 671–684.
5192:
5139:
5086:
5045:
5024:
4965:
4906:
4853:
4800:
4782:
4764:
4703:
4636:
4577:
4564:10.1086/343109
4540:(1): 494–505.
4524:
4471:
4430:
4424:10.1086/152291
4389:
4330:
4274:
4261:10.1086/587836
4221:
4165:
4112:
4053:
4002:
3949:
3893:
3840:
3787:
3736:
3683:
3632:
3573:
3560:10211.3/173113
3512:
3473:(2): 543–552.
3453:
3410:
3357:
3304:
3250:
3237:10.1086/520718
3213:(1): L55–L58.
3197:
3146:
3093:
3056:(1): 407–415.
3036:
3010:
2957:
2939:
2886:
2837:
2798:(1): 389–405.
2778:
2719:
2660:
2634:
2578:
2565:10.1086/379368
2525:
2499:
2440:
2381:
2327:
2288:(2): 500–512.
2268:
2215:
2189:
2152:(2): L75–L79.
2136:
2080:
2016:
1950:
1929:
1876:
1823:
1776:(3): 1500109.
1753:
1700:
1641:
1582:
1545:(3): 785–793.
1529:
1470:
1419:
1359:
1296:
1243:
1230:10.1086/426895
1206:(1): 459–469.
1190:
1147:
1093:
1040:
1028:Universe Today
1014:
992:
943:
917:
864:
838:
812:
763:
726:(1–4): 41–75.
703:
677:
662:
612:
545:
519:
474:
437:(2): 558–573.
418:
403:
344:
322:
320:
317:
316:
315:
308:
307:External links
305:
272:
269:
250:
204:Stokes numbers
187:
184:
102:
99:
30:
27:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5330:
5319:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5300:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5249:
5246:
5238:
5231:
5228:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5196:
5193:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5143:
5140:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5090:
5087:
5081:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5049:
5046:
5040:
5035:
5028:
5025:
5020:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4969:
4966:
4961:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4910:
4907:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4857:
4854:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4804:
4801:
4793:
4786:
4783:
4775:
4768:
4765:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4707:
4704:
4699:
4693:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4640:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4578:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4528:
4525:
4520:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4475:
4472:
4466:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4434:
4431:
4425:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4409:: 1051–1062.
4408:
4404:
4400:
4393:
4390:
4385:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4334:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4225:
4222:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4116:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4054:
4048:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4006:
4003:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3953:
3950:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3844:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3791:
3788:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3740:
3737:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3687:
3684:
3679:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3633:
3628:
3624:
3619:
3614:
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3266:
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3246:
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3014:
3011:
3006:
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2806:
2801:
2797:
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2723:
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2701:
2697:
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2649:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2529:
2526:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2400:
2396:
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2385:
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2376:
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2363:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2216:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2140:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1945:
1940:
1933:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1645:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1583:
1578:
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1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1439:: S149–S157.
1438:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1363:
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1355:
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1310:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1292:
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1262:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1191:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1167:: S755–S773.
1166:
1162:
1158:
1151:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1041:
1029:
1025:
1018:
1015:
1002:
996:
993:
988:
982:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
944:
932:
931:UniverseToday
928:
921:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
888:
883:
879:
875:
868:
865:
853:
849:
842:
839:
827:
823:
816:
813:
808:
804:
799:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
734:
729:
725:
721:
714:
712:
710:
708:
704:
692:
688:
681:
678:
673:
669:
665:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
638:
633:
629:
621:
619:
617:
613:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
578:
574:
570:
563:
556:
554:
552:
550:
546:
534:
530:
523:
520:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
493:
489:
485:
478:
475:
470:
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462:
458:
454:
450:
445:
440:
436:
432:
425:
423:
419:
414:
410:
406:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
379:
374:
370:
363:
361:
359:
357:
355:
353:
351:
349:
345:
339:
334:
327:
324:
318:
314:
311:
310:
306:
304:
300:
296:
294:
290:
285:
281:
277:
270:
268:
264:
262:
257:
246:
244:
239:
235:
231:
227:
222:
217:
214:
210:
205:
200:
198:
194:
185:
183:
181:
180:giant planets
177:
173:
169:
165:
160:
156:
152:
147:
143:
138:
135:
131:
130:scale heights
126:
121:
117:
112:
108:
100:
98:
96:
92:
87:
83:
77:
74:
69:
65:
61:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
28:
26:
23:
22:planetesimals
19:
5262:
5258:
5248:
5230:
5205:
5201:
5195:
5152:
5148:
5142:
5099:
5095:
5089:
5062:
5058:
5048:
5027:
4982:
4978:
4968:
4923:
4919:
4909:
4866:
4862:
4856:
4813:
4809:
4803:
4785:
4767:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4692:cite journal
4649:
4645:
4639:
4594:
4590:
4580:
4537:
4533:
4527:
4484:
4480:
4474:
4447:
4443:
4433:
4406:
4402:
4392:
4347:
4343:
4333:
4290:
4286:
4234:
4230:
4224:
4181:
4177:
4125:
4121:
4115:
4070:
4066:
4056:
4019:
4015:
4005:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3909:
3905:
3853:
3849:
3843:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3753:
3749:
3739:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3649:
3645:
3635:
3590:
3586:
3576:
3525:
3521:
3515:
3470:
3466:
3456:
3427:
3423:
3413:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3317:
3313:
3307:
3264:
3260:
3253:
3210:
3206:
3200:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3106:
3102:
3096:
3053:
3049:
3039:
3027:. Retrieved
3023:
3013:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2942:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2795:
2791:
2781:
2736:
2732:
2722:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2651:. Retrieved
2647:
2637:
2594:
2590:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2516:. Retrieved
2512:
2502:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2398:
2394:
2384:
2347:
2343:
2330:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2228:
2224:
2218:
2206:. Retrieved
2203:ScienceDaily
2202:
2192:
2149:
2145:
2139:
2096:
2092:
2038:
2034:
1968:
1964:
1932:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1773:
1769:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1599:
1595:
1585:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1436:
1432:
1422:
1379:
1375:
1362:
1319:
1315:
1256:
1252:
1246:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1031:. Retrieved
1027:
1017:
1005:. Retrieved
995:
981:cite journal
956:
952:
946:
934:. Retrieved
930:
920:
877:
873:
867:
855:. Retrieved
851:
841:
829:. Retrieved
825:
815:
780:
776:
766:
723:
719:
694:. Retrieved
690:
680:
627:
572:
568:
536:. Retrieved
532:
522:
487:
483:
477:
434:
430:
369:Asteroids IV
368:
326:
301:
297:
286:
282:
278:
274:
271:Alternatives
265:
256:Hydrodynamic
247:
218:
201:
189:
186:Requirements
139:
104:
97:velocities.
78:
56:
32:
17:
15:
4652:(4): 0088.
3430:: 796–805.
2518:17 November
1110:: 156–169.
959:: 187–206.
826:ScienceNews
146:pebble pile
101:Description
82:Kuiper belt
5272:1610.09670
5265:(2): 207.
5065:(2): 131.
5039:1611.00167
4992:1611.03859
4985:(2): L19.
4933:1606.06824
4926:(2): L28.
4816:(2): 106.
4659:1705.00683
4604:1510.01323
4597:(2): 175.
4494:1610.09643
4450:(2): L41.
4357:1710.00606
4300:1501.05314
4191:1611.07014
4080:1601.04854
4029:1611.01538
3763:1512.02538
3706:1609.00437
3659:1801.07509
3652:(2): 176.
3600:1601.05945
3535:1501.05364
3437:1709.08660
3380:1605.02744
3173:1701.01115
3109:(2): 117.
3046:Garaud, P.
3024:astrobites
2980:1702.02151
2909:1710.00009
2746:1706.08975
2739:(2): 142.
2687:1608.03592
2648:astrobites
2604:1607.05734
2513:astrobites
2467:1608.00573
2460:(2): L37.
2408:1703.07895
2357:1709.00361
2238:1502.07369
2208:6 December
2106:1511.07762
1944:1509.06382
1846:1611.02285
1783:1503.07347
1723:1706.02091
1668:1705.03889
1661:(2): L12.
1609:1512.00009
1497:1609.07052
1490:(1): 109.
1446:1706.03655
1174:1710.07846
1033:3 December
936:4 December
880:(2): 100.
857:3 December
733:1604.02952
696:3 December
691:astrobites
538:4 December
533:Astrobites
378:1505.02941
338:2212.04509
319:References
261:ionization
164:chondrules
73:Turbulence
64:chondrules
29:Background
5299:250882893
5187:119284033
5162:1306.3412
5109:1201.4282
5019:119061230
4960:118396736
4901:118516580
4876:1307.7984
4848:119244313
4823:1204.5035
4684:256713769
4631:118603263
4384:119412274
4350:(1): 48.
4325:118527321
4244:0802.4048
4216:119446303
4135:1411.3255
4107:119088797
4073:(1): 16.
3972:1302.3755
3919:1412.3593
3888:119286714
3863:1005.4981
3835:119231567
3810:1005.4982
3731:118549097
3678:119474231
3627:119236890
3593:(1): 82.
3528:(1): 35.
3405:119202965
3352:119249887
3327:1112.5264
3320:(1): 11.
3299:119026521
3274:1408.1016
3220:0706.1272
3141:119293669
3116:1211.2095
3063:0806.1521
2934:119396838
2881:119446694
2857:(1): 20.
2832:118496591
2805:1203.2940
2773:119240000
2680:(1): L2.
2494:118420788
2435:119472343
2401:(1): 16.
2322:119457321
2231:(1): 29.
2159:0909.0259
2131:119097386
2075:119200938
2048:1104.5396
1978:0708.3890
1899:1205.3030
1871:118425732
1748:118957910
1716:: 14–23.
1695:118969826
1636:118512664
1602:(1): 55.
1577:118451279
1552:1007.1465
1524:118563238
1414:119105944
1389:1408.2535
1329:1111.0221
1291:119269321
1266:1407.5995
1259:(2): 86.
1142:118337148
1117:1403.2610
1088:119287342
1063:1108.2505
1007:3 January
887:1401.2157
758:255075691
672:119300087
637:1402.1344
607:118510809
582:1410.3832
497:1001.0488
444:0907.2512
413:118709894
293:sintering
238:viscosity
230:sublimate
95:free-fall
60:silicates
52:asteroids
48:accretion
5312:Category
5134:54211635
4751:12478286
4519:58889066
4269:16630361
4160:73588069
3997:21727166
3965:: A137.
3944:29547121
3568:20205024
3245:16822412
3088:17298782
3005:73590617
2714:55886038
2629:55846864
2597:: A105.
2263:36371330
2003:17728751
1924:53961588
1818:26601169
1354:54176646
1322:: A125.
1056:(1): 1.
831:5 August
807:28775212
469:12632943
243:vortices
226:ice line
151:porosity
120:reaction
5277:Bibcode
5210:Bibcode
5167:Bibcode
5155:: A37.
5114:Bibcode
5102:: A73.
5067:Bibcode
4997:Bibcode
4938:Bibcode
4881:Bibcode
4828:Bibcode
4759:4386134
4731:Bibcode
4664:Bibcode
4609:Bibcode
4552:Bibcode
4499:Bibcode
4452:Bibcode
4411:Bibcode
4362:Bibcode
4305:Bibcode
4293:: A43.
4249:Bibcode
4196:Bibcode
4184:: A80.
4140:Bibcode
4128:: A28.
4085:Bibcode
4034:Bibcode
3977:Bibcode
3924:Bibcode
3912:: A83.
3868:Bibcode
3815:Bibcode
3768:Bibcode
3711:Bibcode
3699:: A74.
3605:Bibcode
3540:Bibcode
3507:2605554
3485:Bibcode
3385:Bibcode
3373:: A86.
3332:Bibcode
3279:Bibcode
3267:: A75.
3225:Bibcode
3178:Bibcode
3121:Bibcode
3068:Bibcode
3029:20 June
2985:Bibcode
2973:: A21.
2914:Bibcode
2902:: A92.
2859:Bibcode
2810:Bibcode
2751:Bibcode
2692:Bibcode
2653:20 June
2609:Bibcode
2573:7320458
2553:Bibcode
2472:Bibcode
2413:Bibcode
2362:Bibcode
2300:Bibcode
2243:Bibcode
2184:2097171
2164:Bibcode
2111:Bibcode
2099:: A20.
2053:Bibcode
2011:4417583
1983:Bibcode
1904:Bibcode
1892:: A32.
1851:Bibcode
1839:: A69.
1809:4640629
1788:Bibcode
1728:Bibcode
1673:Bibcode
1614:Bibcode
1557:Bibcode
1502:Bibcode
1451:Bibcode
1394:Bibcode
1382:: A47.
1334:Bibcode
1271:Bibcode
1238:9586787
1218:Bibcode
1122:Bibcode
1068:Bibcode
961:Bibcode
912:2410254
892:Bibcode
785:Bibcode
777:Science
738:Bibcode
642:Bibcode
587:Bibcode
575:: A78.
502:Bibcode
490:: A57.
449:Bibcode
383:Bibcode
289:fractal
38:due to
5297:
5202:Icarus
5185:
5132:
5017:
4958:
4899:
4869:: L4.
4846:
4757:
4749:
4713:Nature
4682:
4629:
4572:299829
4570:
4517:
4487:: L3.
4382:
4323:
4267:
4214:
4158:
4105:
3995:
3942:
3886:
3833:
3729:
3676:
3625:
3566:
3505:
3403:
3350:
3297:
3243:
3139:
3086:
3003:
2932:
2879:
2830:
2771:
2712:
2627:
2571:
2492:
2433:
2320:
2261:
2182:
2129:
2073:
2009:
2001:
1965:Nature
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