Stunted growth - Knowledge (XXG)

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interventions.The three main causes of stunting in South Asia, and probably in most developing countries, are poor feeding practices, poor maternal nutrition, and poor sanitation. A recent risk assessment analysis for 137 developing countries found that the leading risk factors for stunting were fetal growth restriction (birth weight <10th centile) followed by unimproved sanitation and diarrhea. It was estimated that 22% of stunting cases were attributable to environmental factors while 14% were attributable to child nutrition. In addition, looking at trends from 1970 to 2012 for 116 countries, women’s education, gender equality and finally quantity and quality of foods available at the country level have been instrumental in reducing stunting rates, while income growth and governance have played facilitating roles.

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since then, with the 2019 rate (28.8 percent) only marginally lower than that of 2008. Researchers attribute the problem to micronutrient deficiencies brought on by poverty, maternal under-education, food insecurity, and poor environmental conditions. To address stunting and other health and food security issues, the Philippine Plan of Action for Nutrition (PPAN) was established as an umbrella initiative to meet health and nutrition targets in the country by 2028. Since 2015, there has been a decline in stunting across all age groups, from infants to teenagers, with the most significant improvement observed among 5 to 10-year-olds, dropping from 31.2 percent in 2015 to 19.7 percent in 2021.

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prevalence of stunting, and is due to the high rates of population growth. The data therefore indicate that the rate of reduction of stunting in Africa has not been able to counterbalance the increased number of growing children that fall into the trap of malnutrition, due to population growth in the region. This is also true in Oceania, unlike Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean where substantial absolute reductions in the number of stunted children have been observed (for example, Asia reduced its number of stunted children from 133 million to 88 million between 2000 and 2015).

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in 2016. The decline is happening, but it is uneven geographically, it is unequal among different groups in society, and prevalence of stunting remains at unacceptably high numbers. Too many children who are not able to fulfill their genetic physical and cognitive developmental potential. A research paper published in January 2020, which mapped stunting, wasting and underweight in children in low- and middle-income countries, predicted that only five countries would meet global targets for reducing malnutrition by 2025 in all second administrative subdivisions.

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concurrently, due to increased wealth and the persistence of significant inequalities. The challenges these countries face are particularly difficult as they require intervening on two levels on what has come to be called “double burden of malnutrition”. As an example, in India 30% of children under 5 years of age are stunted, and 20% are overweight. Neglecting these nutritional problems is not an option anymore if countries are to escape poverty traps and provide opportunities to their people to live fulfilling productive lives without stunting.

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such series, investigators define the importance of the 1000 day and identify child malnutrition as being responsible for one third of all child deaths worldwide. This finding is key in that it points at malnutrition as a key determinant of child mortality that is often overlooked. When a child dies of pneumonia, malaria or diarrhea (some of the causes of child mortality in the world), it may well be that malnutrition is a key contributing factor that prevents the body from successfully fighting the infection and recovering from these diseases.

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component. The strategy was multisectoral in that it involved the health, education, water, sanitation and hygiene, agriculture and housing sectors and stakeholders. It was led by the Government and the Prime Minister himself, and included non-governmental partners at both central, regional and community level. After the strategy was implemented, stunting went from 22.9% to 17.9% (2005–2010), with very significant improvements in rural areas where it had been more difficult to reduce stunting rates in the past.

627:, with its 194 member states, convened to discuss global issues of maternal, infant and young child nutrition, and developed a plan with 6 targets for 2025. The first of such targets aims to reduce by 40% the number of children who are stunted in the world, by 2025. This would correspond to 100 million stunted children in 2025. At the current reduction rate, the predicted number in 2025 will be 127 million, indicating the need to scale-up and intensify efforts if the global community is to reach its goals. 748: 260:

over six months old. Breastfeeding in long time with inadequate complementary feeding leads to growth failure due to insufficient nutrients which are essential for childhood development. The relationship between undernutrition and prolonged duration of breastfeeding is mostly observed among children from poor households and whose parents are uneducated as they are more likely to continue breast-feeding without meeting minimum dietary diversity requirement.

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larger improvements than Africa, which needs to address this issue with much more effort if it is to win the battle against a problem that has been crippling its development for decades. Of these regions, Latin America and the Caribbean are on track to achieve global targets set with global initiatives such as the United Nations Millennium Development Goals and the World Health Assembly targets (see following section on global targets).

643:(SDGs) to be achieved by 2030. SDG 2 aims to “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture”. Sub-goal 2.2. aims to “by 2030 end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving by 2025 the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under five years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women, and older persons”. 462:-series on maternal and child nutrition estimated that the impact of all existing interventions designed to improve nutrition and prevent related diseases in mothers and children, could reduce stunting at 3 years by merely 36%. Hence, factors explaining the shortfall in observed associations between child feeding practices and nutrient intake and linear growth, have increasingly been the focus of scientific interest. 660:

1990 to 4.8% in 2008. The successful reduction in child malnutrition in Brazil can be attributed to strong political commitment that led to improvements in the water and sanitation system, increased female schooling, scale-up of quality maternal and child health services, increased economic power at family level (including successful cash transfer programs), and improvements in food security throughout the country.

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In Asia, the highest rate is observed in South Asia at 34.4%. South-East Asia is at 26.3%. Pacific Islands also display a high rate at 38.2%. Central and South America are respectively at 15.6 and 9.9%. South Asia, given its very high population at over 1 billion and high prevalence rate of stunting, is the region currently hosting the highest absolute number of children with stunting (60 million plus).

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that the country hosts almost half of all stunted children under 5 in the world. This was achieved through integrated community-based programs that were designed by a central advisory body that promoted multisectoral collaboration, provided advice to policy-makers on evidence-based solutions, and advocated for the key role of the 1000 days (pregnancy and first two years of life).

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as the country's food security landscape. Interventions to keep adolescent girls in school can be effective at delaying marriage with subsequent nutritional benefits for both women and babies. Regulating milk substitutes is also very important to ensure that as many mothers as possible breastfeed their babies, unless a clear contraindication is present.

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launched at the UN General Assembly of 2010 and it calls for country-led multi-sectoral strategies to address child malnutrition by scaling-up evidence-based interventions in both nutrition specific and sensitive areas. As of 2016, 50 countries have joined the SUN Movement with strategies that are aligned with international frameworks of action.

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phase of the 1000 days of pregnancy and first two years of life. An example of this are attempts to control anemia in women of reproductive age. A well-nourished mother is the first step of stunting prevention, decreasing chances of the baby being born of low birth-weight, which is the first risk factor for future malnutrition.

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investment of $ 18 for every dollar spent thanks to its impact on economic productivity. Despite the evidence in favor of investing in the reduction of stunting, current investments are too low at about $ 2.9 billion per year, with $ 1.6 billion coming from Governments, $ 0.2 billion from donors, and $ 1.1 paid by individuals.

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should be prioritized. The same should be done for risk factors such as anemia, maternal under-nutrition, food insecurity, low birth-weight, breastfeeding practices etc. By collecting more detailed information, it is easier to ensure that policy interventions really address the root causes of stunting.

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Brazil displayed a remarkable reduction in the rates of child stunting under age 5, from 37% in 1974, to 7.1% in 2007. This happened in association with impressive social and economic development that reduced the numbers of Brazilians living in extreme poverty (less than $ 1.25 per day) from 25.6% in

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Sub-regional stunting rates are as follows: In Africa, the highest rates are observed in East Africa (37.5%). All other Sub-Saharan sub-regions also have high rates, with 32.1% in West Africa, 31.2% in Central Africa, and 28.4% in Southern Africa. North Africa is at 18%, and the Middle East at 16.2%.

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UNICEF has estimated that: "Globally, more than one quarter (26 per cent) of children under 5 years of age were stunted in 2011 – roughly 165 million children worldwide." and "In sub-Saharan Africa, 40 per cent of children under 5 years of age are stunted; in South Asia, 39 per cent are stunted." The

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After birth, in terms of interventions for the child, early initiation of breastfeeding, together with exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months, are pillars of stunting prevention. Introducing proper complementary feeding after 6 months of age together with breastfeeding until age 2 is the next

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is proposed as an immediate causal factor of childhood stunting. This is an asymptomatic small intestinal disorder characterized by chronic gut inflammation, reduced absorptive surface area, and disruption of intestinal barrier function. This small bowel disorder is attributable to sustained exposure

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Maternal undernutrition increases the risk of stunting at 2 years age. Based on data from 19 birth cohorts from LMICs, 20% of stunting is attributed to being born small-for-gestational-age (SGA). Further, estimated stunting at 2 years attributed to fetal growth restriction and preterm birth in 2011

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Over the period 2000–2015, Asia reduced its stunting prevalence from 38 to 24%, Africa from 38 to 32%, and Latin America and the Caribbean from 18 to 11%. This equates to a relative reduction of 36, 17 and 39% respectively, indicating that Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean have displayed much

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and stunting. No statistics are currently available for these combined conditions. Stunting has been on the decline for the past 15 years, but this decline has been too slow. As a comparison, there were 255 million stunted children in 1990, 224 in 1995, 198 in 2000, 182 in 2005, 169 in 2010, and 156

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Designing and implementing policies promoting proper breastfeeding and complementary feeding practice (focusing on diet diversity for both macro and micronutrients). This can ensure optimal infant nutrition as well as protection from infections that can weaken the child's body. Labor policy ensuring

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to improve complementary feeding may achieve behavioral change but have no or small effects on growth. Further, studies on the effect of micronutrient fortification, increased availability of key nutrients or increased energy density of complementary foods on stunting also show heterogenous results.

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of a child's life, from pregnancy to the child's second birthday, in order to reduce the prevalence of stunting. The first 1000 days in a child's life are a crucial "window of opportunity" because the brain develops rapidly, laying the foundation for future cognitive and social ability. Furthermore,

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and stroke. At societal level, stunted individuals do not fulfill their physical and cognitive developmental potential and will not be able to contribute maximally to society. Stunting can therefore limit economic development and productivity, and it has been estimated that it can affect a country's

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Nearly one-third of the children under five years of age are stunted in Bangladesh and 9% are severely stunted. The country is on track in reducing the prevalence of stunted growth. If the current trend continues, the prevalence would be 21% in 2025, while the target is 27%. Maternal undernutrition

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has investigated links between lack of sanitation and stunting in Vietnam and Lao PDR. An example is in Vietnam where the lack of sanitation in rural villages in mountainous regions of Vietnam led to five-year-old children being 3.7 cm shorter than healthy children living in villages with good

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As of 2015, it was estimated that there were 156 million stunted children under 5 in the world, 90% of them living in low and low-middle income countries. 56% of these were in Asia, and 37% in Africa. It is possible that some of these children concurrently had other forms of malnutrition, including

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Introducing interventions addressing social and other health determinants of stunting, such as poor sanitation and access to drinking water, early marriages, intestinal parasite infections, malaria and other childhood preventable disease (referred to as “nutrition-sensitive interventions”), as well

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Balanced protein–energy supplementation in pregnancy seem to improve birth weight of children, with greater effects in undernourished women. Meanwhile, micronutrient supplements and lipid based nutrient supplements (LNS) (providing both macro-and micronutrients) during pregnancy have shown mixed

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Stunting is highly prevalent in low- and middle income countries (LMICs) and has severe consequences including increased risk of infections, mortality and loss of human capital. The global prevalence of stunting decreased from 33% to 23% between 2000 and 2016. Meanwhile, 37% of children in South

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The State of Maharashtra in Central-Western India has been able to produce an impressive reduction in stunting rates in children under 2 years of age from 44% to 22.8% in the 2005–2012 period. This is particularly remarkable given the immense challenges India has faced to address malnutrition, and

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The "Scaling Up Nutrition Movement (SUN)" movement is the main network of governments, non-governmental and international organizations, donors, private companies and academic institutions working together in pursuit of improved global nutrition and a world without hunger and malnutrition. It was

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Improvement in nutrition surveillance activities to identify rates and trends of stunting and other forms of malnutrition within countries. This should be done with an equity perspective, as it is likely that stunting rates will vary greatly between different population groups. The most vulnerable

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is recommended for the first six months of life and complementary feeding of nutritious food alongside breastfeeding for children aged six months to 2-years-old. Prolonged exclusive breastfeeding is associated with undernutrition because breast milk alone is nutritionally insufficient for children

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The impact of stunting on child development has been established in multiple studies. If a child is stunted at age 2 they will have higher risk of poor cognitive and educational achievement in life, with subsequent socio-economic and inter-generational consequences. Multi-country studies have also

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In the Philippines, one in three children below five years old is stunted. Even though the country's economic growth has steadily increased by 4% annually, almost a third of Filipino children have stunted growth. The prevalence of stunting declined during the early 2000s but has remained the same

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has published two comprehensive series on maternal and child nutrition, in 2008 and 2013. The series review the epidemiology of global malnutrition and analyze the state of the evidence for cost-effective interventions that should be scaled-up to achieve impact and global targets. In the first of

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Recent works showed promise that intervention with egg may improve linear growth in children. Comprehensive intervention package containing eggs also found to be effective in improving linear growth in children. However, the effect of egg intervention may not persist for longer period. Therefore,

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for shortness and not because of inadequate nutrition. However, if substantially more than 5% of an identified child population have height for age that is less than the fifth percentile on the reference curve, then the population is said to have a higher-than-expected prevalence of stunting, and

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As of 2020, an estimated 149 million children under 5 years of age, are stunted worldwide. More than 85% of the world's stunted children live in Africa and Asia. Once established, stunting and its effects typically become permanent. Stunted children may never regain the height lost as a result of

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In the follow-up series in 2013, the focus on undernutrition is expanded to the increasing burden of obesity in both high, middle and low income countries. Several countries with high levels of child stunting and undernutrition are starting to display worrisome increasing trends of child obesity

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Designing and implementing policies promoting nutritional and health well-being of mothers and women of reproductive age. The main focus should be on the 1000 days of pregnancy and first two years of life, but the pre-conception period should not be neglected as it can play a significant role in

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Ensuring proper nutrition of pregnant and lactating mothers is essential. Achieving so by helping women of reproductive age be in good nutritional status at conception is an excellent preventive measure. A focus on the pre-conception period has recently been introduced as a complement to the key

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As an indicator of nutritional status, comparisons of children's measurements with growth reference curves may be used differently for populations of children than for individual children. The fact that an individual child falls below the fifth percentile for height for age on a growth reference

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After a decade (1995–2005) in which stunting rates stagnated in the country, Peru designed and implemented a national strategy against child malnutrition called crecer ("grow"), which complemented a social development conditional cash-transfer program called juntos, which included a nutritional

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The reduction in stunting is closely linked to poverty reduction and the will and ability of governments to set up solid multisectoral approaches to reduce chronic malnutrition. Low income countries are the only group with more stunted children today than in the year 2000. Conversely, all other

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practices. The ingestion of high quantities of fecal bacteria by young children through putting soiled fingers or household items in the mouth leads to intestinal infections. This affect children's nutritional status by diminishing appetite, reducing nutrient absorption, and increasing nutrient

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The World Bank estimates that the extra cost to achieve the reduction goal will be $ 8.50 yearly per stunted child, for a total of $ 49.6 Billion for the next decade. Stunting has been shown to be one of the most cost-effective global health problems to invest in, with an estimated return on

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Looking at absolute numbers of children under 5 affected by stunting, it is obvious why current efforts and reductions are insufficient. The absolute number of stunted children has increased in Africa from 50.4 to 58.5 million in the time 2000–2015. This is despite the reduction in percentage

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predisposes the fetus to poor growth leading to intrauterine growth retardation, which is strongly associated with low birth weight and size. Women who are underweight or anemic during pregnancy, are more likely to have stunted children which perpetuates the inter-generational transmission of

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Poor maternal nutrition during pregnancy and breastfeeding can lead to stunted growth of their children. Proper nutrition for mothers during the prenatal and postnatal period is important for ensuring healthy birth weight and for healthy childhood growth. Prenatal causes of child stunting are

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According to the World Health organisation if less than 20% of the population is affected by stunting, this is regarded as "low prevalence" in terms of public health significance. Values of 40% or more are regarded as very high prevalence, and values in between as medium to high

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Almost all stunting occurs within the 1,000-day period that spans from conception to a child's second birthday, which constitutes a window of opportunity for growth promotion. The recognition of pre-natal factors underlines the inter-generational aspects of growth, and the need for early

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Inadequate complementary child feeding and a general lack of vital nutrients beside pure caloric intake is one cause for stunted growth. Children need to be fed diets which meet the minimum requirements in terms of frequency and diversity in order to prevent undernutrition. Exclusive

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and increased pathogen load in the intestine are the major risk factors of stunting in Bangladeshi children. Daily supplementation with egg, cow milk, and micronutrient powder found to be effective in improving linear growth of children in a community-based trial in Bangladesh.

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It is estimated that education interventions, if optimally designed and implemented, could reduce stunting by 0.6 z-scores while food-based interventions could reduce stunting by 0.5 z-scores, which is moderate compared to the average global growth deficit. Finally, the

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The global community has recognized more and more the critical importance of stunting during the past decade. Investments to address it have increased but remain far from being sufficient to solve it and unleash the human potential that remains trapped in malnutrition.

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In Nepal, short maternal stature, low maternal education, poor access to health services and poverty are strong determinants for stunting. However, in Nepal, stunting has decreased from 57% in 2001 to 36% in 2016, with lower prevalence in urban than in rural settings.

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Dewey KG, Mridha MK, Matias SL, Arnold CD, Cummins JR, Khan MS, Maalouf-Manasseh Z, Siddiqui Z, Ullah MB, Vosti SA (April 2017). "Lipid-based nutrient supplementation in the first 1000 d improves child growth in Bangladesh: a cluster-randomized effectiveness trial".

3522:"Supplementation of Maternal Diets during Pregnancy and for 6 Months Postpartum and Infant Diets Thereafter with Small-Quantity Lipid-Based Nutrient Supplements Does Not Promote Child Growth by 18 Months of Age in Rural Malawi: A Randomized Controlled Trial" 4005:

Kim R, Mejía-Guevara I, Corsi DJ, Aguayo VM, Subramanian SV (August 2017). "Relative importance of 13 correlates of child stunting in South Asia: Insights from nationally representative data from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan".

2858:"Combining Intensive Counseling by Frontline Workers with a Nationwide Mass Media Campaign Has Large Differential Impacts on Complementary Feeding Practices but Not on Child Growth: Results of a Cluster-Randomized Program Evaluation in Bangladesh" 437:

it is also the time when young children are the most at risk of infections that lead to diarrhoea. It is the time when they stop breast feeding (weaning process), begin to crawl, put things in their mouths and become exposed to faecal matter from

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Huybregts L, Roberfroid D, Lanou H, Menten J, Meda N, Van Camp J, Kolsteren P (December 2009). "Prenatal food supplementation fortified with multiple micronutrients increases birth length: a randomized controlled trial in rural Burkina Faso".

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Research on a global level has found that the proportion of stunting that could be attributed to five or more episodes of diarrhoea before two years of age was 25%. Since diarrhoea is closely linked with water, sanitation and hygiene

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causing linear growth failure is unclear, but it is hypothesized that chronic inflammatory state and impaired absorption associated with this condition may inhibit bone growth and affect the linear growth during early years of life.

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suggested that stunting is associated with reductions in schooling, decreased economic productivity and poverty. Stunted children also display higher risk of developing chronic non-communicable conditions such as diabetes and

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was 33% in all developing countries and 41% in South Asia. Restricted pre- and postnatal growth are in turn important determinants of short adult height, increasing the likelihood of the next generation also being stunted.

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of the reference population in height for age are defined as stunted, regardless of the reason. The lower than fifth percentile corresponds to less than two standard deviations of the WHO Child Growth Standards median.

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effects on birth weight and -length. Similarly, studies supplementing LNS to mothers during pregnancy and lactation and their children during the complementary feeding period show heterogeneous results for stunting.

1787:"Interventions to Improve Intake of Complementary Foods by Infants 6 to 12 Months of Age in Developing Countries: Impact on Growth and on the Prevalence of Malnutrition and Potential Contribution to Child Survival" 211:

The prevalence of child stunting generally increases as cities become smaller and moving away from urban centres while child wasting and overweight are lower and exhibit less evident trends across the rural-urbann

182:, that can produce metabolic imbalances if the individual is exposed to excessive or poor quality diets as an adult. This can lead to higher risk of developing other related non-communicable diseases such as 278:

stunting. Children born with low birthweight are more at risk of stunting. However, the effect of prenatal undernutrition can be addressed during the postnatal period through proper child feeding practices.

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Ngure FM, Reid BM, Humphrey JH, Mbuya MN, Pelto G, Stoltzfus RJ (January 2014). "Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), environmental enteropathy, nutrition, and early child development: making the links".

242:. However, this is not uncontradicted. Recent evidence stresses that stunting may not be taken as a synonym of malnutrition, but as the natural condition of human height in non-Westernized societies. 2566:

Millward DJ (June 2017). "Nutrition, infection and stunting: the roles of deficiencies of individual nutrients and foods, and of inflammation, as determinants of reduced linear growth of children".

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as adults. If a stunted child undergoes substantial weight gain after age 2, there is a higher chance of becoming obese. This is believed to be caused by metabolic changes produced by chronic

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Black RE, Victora CG, Walker SP, Bhutta ZA, Christian P, de Onis M, et al. (August 2013). "Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries".

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Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta ZA, Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Ezzati M, et al. (January 2008). "Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences".

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found that in 2019 22.5 percent of children under the age of five were stunted, 9.2 percent were wasted, and 9.9 percent were overweight across several Arab and North African countries.

405:"). Without provision of toilets, prevention of tropical intestinal diseases, which may affect almost all children in the developing world and lead to stunting will not be possible. 2701: 514:

Broadly speaking, effective policies to reduce stunting require multisectoral approaches, strong political commitment, community involvement and integrated service delivery.

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Bhutta ZA, Ahmed T, Black RE, Cousens S, Dewey K, Giugliani E, et al. (February 2008). "What works? Interventions for maternal and child undernutrition and survival".

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NENA Regional Network on Nutrition-sensitive Food System. Empowering women and ensuring gender equality in agri-food systems to achieve better nutrition − Technical brief

3236:"A comprehensive intervention package improves the linear growth of children under 2-years-old in rural Bangladesh: a community-based cluster randomized controlled trial" 166:

Women of shorter stature have a greater risk for complications during child birth due to their smaller pelvis, and are at risk of delivering a baby with low birth weight

2907:"Social Franchising and a Nationwide Mass Media Campaign Increased the Prevalence of Adequate Complementary Feeding in Vietnam: A Cluster-Randomized Program Evaluation" 4351: 577:

and malnutrition, whereby malnourished children are not able to maximally contribute to economic development as adults, and poverty increases chances of malnutrition.

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Ulep, Valerie; Uy, Jhanna; Casas, Lyle Daryll D.; Capanzana, Mario V.; Nkoroi, Alice; Galera Jr., Rene Gerard; Carpio, Maria Evelyn; Tan, Frederich (February 2023).

3752:"Investing in the Next Generation - Children grow taller, and smarter, in rural, mountainous villages of Lao PDR where all community members use improved sanitation" 5021: 3841: 573:

countries (high-income, upper-middle income, lower-middle income) have achieved reductions in the numbers of stunted children. This sadly perpetuates a vicious

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In 2015, the United Nations and its member states agreed on a new sustainable development agenda to promote prosperity and reduce poverty, putting forward 17

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access to sanitation. This difference in height is irreversible and matters a great deal for a child's cognitive development and future productive potential.

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intervention programs should consider egg intervention for a longer period with emphasis on overall diet quality and improvement of environmental conditions.

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Three of these determinants should receive attention in particular: access to sanitation, and diversity of calorie sources from food supplies. A study by the

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Victora CG, de Onis M, Hallal PC, Blössner M, Shrimpton R (March 2010). "Worldwide timing of growth faltering: revisiting implications for interventions".

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Political will to develop and implement national targets and strategies in line with evidence-based international guidelines as well as contextual factors.

1218:"Associations of suboptimal growth with all-cause and cause-specific mortality in children under five years: a pooled analysis of ten prospective studies" 528:

four countries with the highest prevalence are Timor-Leste, Burundi, Niger and Madagascar where more than half of children under 5 years old are stunted.

1177:"The effect of multiple anthropometric deficits on child mortality: meta-analysis of individual data in 10 prospective studies from developing countries" 453:

shows only small benefits for linear growth and results from studies supplementing lipid based nutrient supplements (LNS) to children are inconclusive.

1035: 3774:"Nutritional interventions for preventing stunting in children (birth to 59 months) living in urban slums in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC)" 332:

to intestinal pathogens caused by faecal contamination of food and water. Recent evidence confirmed a causal relationship between stunted growth and

2398: 2374:"Under-nutrition and water, sanitation and hygiene - Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) play a fundamental role in improving nutritional outcomes" 3953:"Childhood stunting in relation to the pre- and postnatal environment during the first 2 years of life: The MAL-ED longitudinal birth cohort study" 408:

Studies have looked at ranking the underlying determinants in terms of their potency in reducing child stunting and found in the order of potency:

224: 1644:"Risk Factors for Childhood Stunting in 137 Developing Countries: A Comparative Risk Assessment Analysis at Global, Regional, and Country Levels" 729: 4167: 216: 4698: 3668: 3615: 3577: 150:

Stunted growth in children has the following public health impacts apart from the obvious impact of shorter stature of the person affected:

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Near East and North Africa Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2020. Enhancing resilience of food systems in the Arab States

2768:"Linear growth increased in young children in an urban slum of Haiti: a randomized controlled trial of a lipid-based nutrient supplement" 5014: 4725: 4637: 362:

curve may reflect normal variation in growth within a population: the individual child may be short simply because both parents carried

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in children. Several studies are also underway to examine the link between this condition and stunted growth. The exact pathogenesis of

2817:"Provision of 10-40 g/d Lipid-Based Nutrient Supplements from 6 to 18 Months of Age Does Not Prevent Linear Growth Faltering in Malawi" 429:

has stressed that: "The first two should be prioritized because they have strong impacts yet are farthest below their desired levels".

125: 1828:"Determinants of suboptimal complementary feeding practices among children aged 6-23 months in four anglophone West African countries" 311:), this is a good indicator for the connection between WASH and stunted growth. To what extent improvements in drinking water safety, 3185:"Daily Supplementation With Egg, Cow Milk, and Multiple Micronutrients Increases Linear Growth of Young Children with Short Stature" 532: 3567: 426: 5096: 5038: 5324: 5292: 4404: 4337: 3674: 382:

applying several nutritional modifications or changes in a population on a large scale which have a high benefit and a low cost

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Delayed neurocognitive development and therefore poorer school performance and later on reduced productivity in the work force

5007: 1984:"Risk of childhood undernutrition related to small-for-gestational age and preterm birth in low- and middle-income countries" 615:

Nutritional interventions such as dietary supplementation and nutritional education have the potential to decrease stunting.

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Iannotti LL, Dulience SJ, Green J, Joseph S, François J, Anténor ML, Lesorogol C, Mounce J, Nickerson NM (January 2014).

5101: 4582: 4479: 586: 3891:. National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT). Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. October 2020. 5371: 4885: 809: 134:

stunting, and most children will never gain the corresponding body weight. Living in an environment where many people

2959:"Systematic review of the efficacy and effectiveness of complementary feeding interventions in developing countries" 393:

To prevent stunting, it is not just a matter of providing better nutrition but also access to clean water, improved

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Asia are stunted, and due to a large population size, the region bears about 40% of the global burden of stunting.

4577: 1324: 734: 239: 233: 98:, is defined as impaired growth and development manifested by low height-for-age. It is a primary manifestation of 3425:

Adu-Afarwuah S, Lartey A, Okronipa H, Ashorn P, Zeilani M, Peerson JM, Arimond M, Vosti S, Dewey KG (April 2015).

2686: 61: 5453: 4956: 4572: 4439: 1736:"Prevalence and determinants of stunting in a conflict-ridden border region in Armenia - a cross-sectional study" 350: 337: 333: 328: 119: 5394: 4966: 4489: 2702:"The first 1,000 days of a child's life are the most important to their development - and our economic success" 3884: 1042: 5106: 4484: 1036:"World Health Assembly Global Nutrition Targets 2025: Stunting Policy Brief, World Health Organization 2014" 319:

practices contribute to reduce stunting depends on the how bad these practices were prior to interventions.

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In many publications, the causes for stunting are considered very similar if not the same as the causes for

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Stunted growth can be passed to the next generation, known as the "intergenerational cycle of malnutrition"

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Child next to open sewer in slum in Kampala, Uganda, at risk of diarrhea and stunted growth

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The goal of UN agencies, governments and NGO is now to optimise nutrition during the

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Growth stunting is identified by comparing measurements of children's heights to the

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brought on by a malnourished mother. The definition of stunting according to the

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Previous interventions to reduce stunting have shown modest effects. Multiple

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mothers have the chance to breastfeed should be considered where necessary.

290:

There is most likely a link between children's linear growth and household

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malnutrition is generally the first cause considered.

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World map in 2016: Share of children who are stunted

5405: 5370: 5268: 5199: 5076: 5067: 5037: 4914: 4744: 4661: 4525: 4368: 4274: 2672: 2670: 2610:"The Lancet series on Maternal and Child Nutrition" 1785:Caulfield LE, Huffman SL, Piwoz EG (January 1999). 73: 51: 46: 4091: 4089: 3885:"Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2017-18" 2679:"How to better link WASH and nutrition programmes" 1729: 1727: 114:and even before birth, due to malnutrition during 375:Three main things are needed to reduce stunting: 4046:"Stunting in Nepal: looking back, looking ahead" 2367: 2365: 537:Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 4324:Visualizing child growth failure from 2000-2017 4044:Devkota MD, Adhikari RK, Upreti SR (May 2016). 4039: 4037: 3745: 3743: 2217: 2215: 2074:"The stunting syndrome in developing countries" 810:"Nutrition Landscape Information System (NLiS)" 3842:"United Nations Sustainable Development Goals" 3821: 3819: 3817: 3561: 3559: 3557: 2271:Denno DM, Tarr PI, Nataro JP (December 2017). 1941:Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 1934: 1932: 1637: 1635: 854: 852: 5015: 4855:(American 'crib' and 'cradle', British 'cot') 4345: 3951:MAL-ED Network Investigators (October 2017). 2952: 2950: 2072:Prendergast AJ, Humphrey JH (November 2014). 1693: 1691: 1689: 1450: 1448: 1127: 1125: 8: 4194:Philippine Institute for Development Studies 154:Greater risk for illness and premature death 4000: 3998: 3778:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2392: 2390: 1370:"Stunting is not a synonym of malnutrition" 385:a strong foundation that can drive change ( 5073: 5022: 5008: 5000: 4352: 4338: 4330: 4271: 4129:Nepal demographic and health survey 2016. 3469:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 3431:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 3384:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2772:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2517:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2078:Paediatrics and International Child Health 2037:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1181:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 415:access to sanitation and women's education 43: 34:. 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The Lancet. 6 June 2013 2580:10.1017/S0954422416000238 2339:10.1038/s41385-018-0036-1 1753:10.1186/s40795-017-0204-9 1387:10.1038/s41430-019-0439-4 885:10.1038/s41586-019-1878-8 455:Educational interventions 351:World Health Organization 338:environmental enteropathy 334:environmental enteropathy 329:environmental enteropathy 323:Environmental enteropathy 269:associated with maternal 120:World Health Organization 68: 59: 4967:Parental child abduction 4490:Oral rehydration therapy 3526:The Journal of Nutrition 3189:The Journal of Nutrition 2911:The Journal of Nutrition 2862:The Journal of Nutrition 2821:The Journal of Nutrition 2731:The Journal of Nutrition 947:10.23750/abm.v92i1.11346 240:malnutrition in children 4972:Parental responsibility 4485:Newborn care and safety 3481:10.3945/ajcn.116.147942 3444:10.3945/ajcn.114.091546 3396:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28253 2784:10.3945/ajcn.113.063883 1194:10.3945/ajcn.112.047639 4716:Grandparent visitation 4221:10.1596/1813-9450-9294 3920:10.1093/infdis/jiab473 3871:scalingupnutrition.org 3150:10.1542/peds.2016-3459 3025:10.1542/peds.107.5.e75 2189:10.1542/peds.2016-0641 2050:10.1093/ajcn/77.6.1498 1894:10.3390/ijerph14080863 1561:10.1542/peds.2009-1519 229: 221: 213: 188:coronary heart disease 163:Future risk of obesity 130: 5278:Electrolyte imbalance 5146:Pyridoxine deficiency 5120:Riboflavin deficiency 4475:Infant sleep training 3826:Procee P (May 2013). 3539:10.3945/jn.114.207225 2923:10.3945/jn.116.243907 2874:10.3945/jn.116.232314 2834:10.3945/jn.114.208181 2744:10.3945/jn.111.146845 2700:Lake A (2017-01-14). 2434:10.1056/NEJMoa1916004 2403:IDS Working Paper 450 2289:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0183 2240:10.1093/nutrit/nuy068 1048:on September 9, 2014. 625:World Health Assembly 327:The condition termed 232:Further information: 227: 219: 210: 128: 96:linear growth failure 5256:Vitamin K deficiency 5250:Vitamin E deficiency 5227:Vitamin D deficiency 5208:Vitamin A deficiency 5107:Korsakoff's syndrome 4633:Prenatal development 4533:Attachment parenting 4507:Shaken baby syndrome 4102:Global Food Security 3655:. Cairo: FAO. 2023. 3602:. Cairo: FAO. 2021. 3096:International Health 2706:World Economic Forum 531:The 2020 edition of 487:Policy interventions 418:access to safe water 136:defecate in the open 4947:Infant ear piercing 3352:(Suppl 1): 178–90. 3252:2022NatSR..1221962A 2639:(9694): 1032–1035. 2529:2014NYASA1308..118N 2477:(Suppl 1): 91–105. 2133:(9875): 1405–1416. 1602:(Suppl 1): 302–14. 1234:2013PLoSO...864636O 915:Spears, D. (2013). 877:2020Natur.577..231L 831:nina (2022-07-06). 715:Compensatory growth 682:India (Maharashtra) 5270:Mineral deficiency 5069:Vitamin deficiency 4455:Infant food safety 4056:(Suppl 1): 257–9. 3852:on 4 January 2017. 3761:. USA: World Bank. 3240:Scientific Reports 2969:(Suppl 1): 24–85. 2537:10.1111/nyas.12330 2326:Mucosal Immunology 2000:10.1093/ije/dyt109 1838:(Suppl 1): 14–30. 1510:(Suppl 1): 29–37. 1423:10.1002/ajhb.23693 552:and stunting, and 264:Maternal nutrition 230: 222: 214: 192:metabolic syndrome 131: 5436: 5435: 5385:Failure to thrive 5380:Delayed milestone 5264: 5263: 5242:Harrison's groove 5172:Folate deficiency 5159:Biotin deficiency 4997: 4996: 4857: 4694:Children's rights 4608:Object permanence 4430:Failure to thrive 4320:, program website 4307: 4306: 4062:10.1111/mcn.12286 3670:978-92-5-137438-2 3617:978-92-5-134471-2 3579:978-92-806-4686-3 3309:10.1111/mcn.12925 3202:10.1093/jn/nxz253 3055:(9610): 417–440. 2868:(10): 2075–2084. 2483:10.1111/mcn.12258 2228:Nutrition Reviews 1947:(14): 2320–2330. 1844:10.1111/mcn.12194 1704:World Development 1517:10.1159/000346185 1498:Allen LH (2012). 1463:(9890): 427–451. 1287:(9609): 340–357. 1140:(9608): 243–260. 871:(7789): 231–234. 720:Failure to thrive 250:Feeding practices 116:fetal development 85: 84: 41:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 5466: 5454:Growth disorders 5074: 5024: 5017: 5010: 5001: 4853: 4538:Baby-led weaning 4354: 4347: 4340: 4331: 4318:Alive and Thrive 4272: 4260: 4259: 4257: 4256: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4204: 4198: 4197: 4191: 4182: 4176: 4175: 4163: 4157: 4156: 4150: 4141: 4135: 4134: 4126: 4120: 4119: 4117: 4093: 4084: 4083: 4073: 4041: 4032: 4031: 4002: 3993: 3992: 3982: 3972: 3963:(10): e1002408. 3948: 3942: 3941: 3931: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3863: 3854: 3853: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3823: 3812: 3811: 3801: 3769: 3763: 3762: 3756: 3747: 3738: 3737: 3731: 3723: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3661:10.4060/cc3657en 3647: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3608:10.4060/cb4902en 3594: 3588: 3587: 3586:on May 13, 2013. 3582:. Archived from 3563: 3552: 3551: 3541: 3532:(6): 1345–1353. 3517: 3511: 3510: 3492: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3446: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3361: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3320: 3288: 3282: 3281: 3271: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3214: 3204: 3180: 3171: 3170: 3152: 3143:(1): e20163459. 3128: 3122: 3121: 3111: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3027: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2986: 2954: 2945: 2944: 2934: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2885: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2836: 2827:(8): 1909–1915. 2812: 2806: 2805: 2795: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2746: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2713: 2712: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2685:. Archived from 2674: 2665: 2664: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2606: 2600: 2599: 2563: 2557: 2556: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2494: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2445: 2413: 2407: 2406: 2394: 2385: 2384: 2369: 2360: 2359: 2341: 2332:(5): 1290–1298. 2317: 2311: 2310: 2300: 2283:(6): 1643–1646. 2268: 2262: 2261: 2251: 2219: 2210: 2209: 2191: 2182:(6): e20160641. 2167: 2161: 2160: 2150: 2118: 2112: 2111: 2101: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2052: 2028: 2022: 2021: 2011: 1994:(5): 1340–1355. 1979: 1973: 1972: 1936: 1927: 1921: 1916: 1906: 1896: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1855: 1823: 1817: 1816: 1806: 1782: 1776: 1775: 1765: 1755: 1731: 1722: 1721: 1719: 1695: 1684: 1683: 1673: 1663: 1654:(11): e1002164. 1639: 1630: 1629: 1611: 1587: 1581: 1580: 1544: 1538: 1537: 1519: 1495: 1489: 1488: 1452: 1443: 1442: 1406: 1400: 1399: 1389: 1365: 1359: 1358: 1350: 1344: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1329: 1321: 1315: 1314: 1304: 1272: 1266: 1265: 1255: 1245: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1196: 1172: 1166: 1165: 1129: 1120: 1119: 1108: 1087: 1086: 1075: 1050: 1049: 1047: 1041:. Archived from 1040: 1032: 969: 968: 958: 926: 920: 913: 907: 906: 896: 856: 847: 846: 844: 843: 828: 822: 821: 819: 817: 806: 787: 786: 784: 783: 769: 750: 575:cycle of poverty 90:, also known as 64: 44: 21: 5474: 5473: 5469: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5432: 5401: 5366: 5260: 5195: 5188: 5181: 5168: 5155: 5142: 5129: 5116: 5088: 5063: 5040: 5033: 5028: 4998: 4993: 4987:Paternity fraud 4937:Closed adoption 4910: 4866:Infant clothing 4841:Haberman Feeder 4811:Car seat safety 4740: 4721:Infant swimming 4699:UN Child rights 4657: 4568:Gestational age 4521: 4364: 4358: 4308: 4303: 4302: 4283: 4269: 4264: 4263: 4254: 4252: 4243: 4242: 4238: 4206: 4205: 4201: 4189: 4184: 4183: 4179: 4165: 4164: 4160: 4148: 4143: 4142: 4138: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4095: 4094: 4087: 4043: 4042: 4035: 4004: 4003: 3996: 3950: 3949: 3945: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3889:The DHS Program 3883: 3882: 3878: 3865: 3864: 3857: 3840: 3839: 3835: 3825: 3824: 3815: 3784:(6): CD011695. 3771: 3770: 3766: 3754: 3749: 3748: 3741: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3689: 3680: 3678: 3671: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3635: 3633: 3618: 3596: 3595: 3591: 3580: 3566:UNICEF (2013). 3565: 3564: 3555: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3465: 3464: 3460: 3424: 3423: 3419: 3390:(6): 1593–600. 3380: 3379: 3375: 3339: 3338: 3334: 3290: 3289: 3285: 3233: 3232: 3228: 3182: 3181: 3174: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3005: 3004: 3000: 2956: 2955: 2948: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2855: 2854: 2850: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2737:(11): 2066–75. 2724: 2723: 2719: 2710: 2708: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2676: 2675: 2668: 2630: 2629: 2625: 2615: 2613: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2565: 2564: 2560: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2396: 2395: 2388: 2371: 2370: 2363: 2319: 2318: 2314: 2270: 2269: 2265: 2221: 2220: 2213: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2120: 2119: 2115: 2071: 2070: 2066: 2043:(6): 1498–505. 2030: 2029: 2025: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1938: 1937: 1930: 1874: 1873: 1869: 1825: 1824: 1820: 1784: 1783: 1779: 1733: 1732: 1725: 1697: 1696: 1687: 1641: 1640: 1633: 1589: 1588: 1584: 1546: 1545: 1541: 1497: 1496: 1492: 1454: 1453: 1446: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1374:Eur J Clin Nutr 1367: 1366: 1362: 1352: 1351: 1347: 1337: 1335: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1318: 1274: 1273: 1269: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1174: 1173: 1169: 1131: 1130: 1123: 1118:. January 2008. 1110: 1109: 1090: 1077: 1076: 1053: 1045: 1038: 1034: 1033: 972: 941:(1): e2021168. 935:Acta Bio-Medica 928: 927: 923: 914: 910: 858: 857: 850: 841: 839: 830: 829: 825: 815: 813: 808: 807: 790: 781: 779: 771: 770: 766: 743: 711: 702: 693: 684: 675: 666: 657: 637: 621: 600: 598:Review articles 583: 545: 521: 489: 472: 447: 439:open defecation 434:first 1000 days 373: 347: 325: 288: 273:. Low maternal 266: 252: 236: 205: 148: 138:due to lack of 42: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5472: 5470: 5462: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5441: 5440: 5434: 5433: 5431: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5409: 5407: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5387: 5382: 5376: 5374: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5355:Keshan disease 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5274: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5258: 5252: 5246: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5215: 5203: 5201: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5193: 5192: 5191: 5186: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5174: 5166: 5163: 5162: 5161: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5148: 5140: 5137: 5136: 5135: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5086: 5082: 5080: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5045: 5043: 5039:Protein-energy 5035: 5034: 5029: 5027: 5026: 5019: 5012: 5004: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4990: 4989: 4979: 4977:Parenting plan 4974: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4918: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4861:Infant carrier 4858: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4801:Baby transport 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4759: 4754: 4748: 4746: 4742: 4741: 4739: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4702: 4701: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4665: 4663: 4659: 4658: 4656: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4529: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4520: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4498: 4497: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4465:Infant massage 4462: 4460:Infant formula 4457: 4452: 4450:Infant feeding 4447: 4445:Infant bathing 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4410:Bottle feeding 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4376: 4374: 4366: 4365: 4363:and their care 4359: 4357: 4356: 4349: 4342: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4321: 4315: 4305: 4304: 4301: 4300: 4284: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275:Classification 4268: 4267:External links 4265: 4262: 4261: 4236: 4199: 4177: 4158: 4136: 4121: 4085: 4033: 3994: 3943: 3894: 3876: 3855: 3833: 3813: 3764: 3739: 3687: 3669: 3642: 3616: 3589: 3578: 3553: 3512: 3475:(4): 944–957. 3458: 3417: 3373: 3332: 3283: 3226: 3195:(2): 394–403. 3172: 3123: 3082: 3039: 2998: 2946: 2917:(4): 670–679. 2897: 2848: 2807: 2778:(1): 198–208. 2758: 2717: 2692: 2689:on 2015-12-28. 2666: 2623: 2601: 2558: 2523:(1): 118–128. 2506: 2457: 2428:(4): 321–333. 2408: 2386: 2361: 2312: 2263: 2234:(4): 240–253. 2211: 2162: 2113: 2064: 2023: 1974: 1928: 1867: 1818: 1797:(2): 183–200. 1777: 1723: 1685: 1631: 1582: 1555:(3): e473–80. 1539: 1490: 1444: 1401: 1380:(3): 377–386. 1360: 1345: 1316: 1267: 1208: 1187:(4): 896–901. 1167: 1121: 1088: 1051: 970: 921: 908: 848: 823: 788: 773:"Malnutrition" 763: 762: 742: 739: 738: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 710: 707: 701: 698: 692: 689: 683: 680: 674: 671: 665: 662: 656: 653: 636: 633: 620: 617: 599: 596: 582: 579: 544: 541: 520: 517: 516: 515: 512: 508: 504: 500: 497: 488: 485: 471: 468: 446: 443: 423: 422: 419: 416: 413: 391: 390: 383: 380: 372: 369: 346: 343: 324: 321: 287: 284: 271:undernutrition 265: 262: 251: 248: 204: 201: 195:GDP up to 3%. 171: 170: 167: 164: 161: 158: 155: 147: 146:Health effects 144: 88:Stunted growth 83: 82: 77: 71: 70: 66: 65: 57: 56: 53: 49: 48: 47:Stunted growth 40: 32:Stunt (botany) 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5471: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5444: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5404: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5390:Short stature 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5280: 5279: 5276: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5267: 5257: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5228: 5224: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5213:Bitot's spots 5211: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5198: 5190: 5183: 5182: 5177: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5151: 5147: 5144: 5143: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5066: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5036: 5032: 5025: 5020: 5018: 5013: 5011: 5006: 5005: 5002: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4952:Open adoption 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4932:Child neglect 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4856: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4766:Hidden camera 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4749: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4689:Child custody 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4660: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4603:Nursery rhyme 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4593:Kangaroo care 4591: 4589: 4588:Infant crying 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4502:Preterm birth 4500: 4496: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4395:Breastfeeding 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4355: 4350: 4348: 4343: 4341: 4336: 4335: 4332: 4325: 4322: 4319: 4316: 4313: 4312:Stop stunting 4310: 4309: 4299: 4295: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4285: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4266: 4250: 4249:reliefweb.int 4246: 4240: 4237: 4231: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4200: 4195: 4188: 4181: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4159: 4154: 4147: 4140: 4137: 4132: 4125: 4122: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4040: 4038: 4034: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3957:PLOS Medicine 3954: 3947: 3944: 3939: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3898: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3880: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3862: 3860: 3856: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3837: 3834: 3829: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3768: 3765: 3760: 3753: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3728: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3676: 3672: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3653: 3646: 3643: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3600: 3593: 3590: 3585: 3581: 3575: 3571: 3570: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3549: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3516: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3459: 3454: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3437:(4): 835–46. 3436: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3377: 3374: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3336: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3303:(2): e12925. 3302: 3298: 3294: 3287: 3284: 3279: 3275: 3270: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3230: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3151: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3102:(3): 172–80. 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3083: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3043: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3026: 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