Architecture of Mesopotamia

1190: 649: 432:. The growth of the city was partly planned and partly organic. Planning is evident in the walls, high temple district, main canal with harbor, and main street. The finer structure of residential and commercial spaces is the reaction of economic forces to the spatial limits imposed by the planned areas resulting in an irregular design with regular features. Because the Sumerians recorded real estate transactions it is possible to reconstruct much of the urban growth pattern, density, property value, and other metrics from cuneiform text source The typical city divided space into residential, mixed use, commercial, and civic spaces. The residential areas were grouped by profession. At the core of the city was a high temple complex always sited slightly off of the geographical centre. This high temple usually predated the founding of the city and was the nucleus around which the urban form grew. The districts adjacent to gates had a special religious and economic function. 496:. Houses could be tripartite, round, or rectangular. Houses had long-roofed central hallways, courtyards, and storeys. Most houses had a square centre room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves. The smallest rooms may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact, it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city, but there is very little direct evidence for this. Houses could have shops, workshops, storage rooms, and livestock in them. 614:, courtyards were introduced to Mesopotamia. Courtyards would become the basis for Mesopotamian architecture. These court yards would be surrounded by thick walled halls. These halls were probably reception rooms for guests. It is likely that most houses had an upper storey. The upper storey might have been used dining, sleeping, and entertaining, and might have also housed the bedrooms. People would plant vegetables or perform religious rituals on their roofs. Ground floors would be used to for shops, workshops, storage, and livestock. One room was usually a 559:(Akkadian) was the primary organizing feature of the house, all the rooms opened into it. The external walls were featureless with only a single opening connecting the house to the street, movement between the house and street required a 90° turn through a small antechamber. From the street only the rear wall of the antechamber would be visible through an open door, likewise there was no view of the street from the courtyard; this is because the Sumerians had a strict division of public and private spaces. The typical size for a Sumerian house was 90 m. 44: 194: 55: 1030:, 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5.7 m. Usually, a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat ( 1212:

slabs as being of several stories in height, the ground floor as usual having only a door and no windows. All have flat roofs, and we gather from one of the bas-reliefs, which represents a town on fire, that these roofs were made, just as they now are, with thick layers of earth on strong beams. These roofs are well-nigh fireproof, and the flames are represented as stopped by them, and coming out of the windows. No remains of a window, or, so far as we are aware, of an internal staircase, have been found.

385: 901: 457: 205: 1272: 920: 1263:, which was 198 feet (60 m) by 133 feet (41 m) at the base, and is even now 70 feet (21 m) high, and it is clear that both it and the Birs were built with diminishing stages, presenting a series of grand platforms, decreasing in length as they ascended, and leaving a comparatively small one at top for the temple cell. This has been found, it is supposed, at the Birs Nimroud, of vitrified brick made in ancient ovens. 580:

make luxurious buildings. Doors and door frames were made from wood. Sometimes Doors were made from ox-hide. Doors between houses were often so low, that people needed to crouch to walk though them. Houses would usually have no windows, if they did it would be made of clay or wooden grilles. Floors would usually be made of dirt. Mesopotamian houses would often crumble. Houses needed to be repaired often.

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rectangular with the corners pointing in cardinal directions to symbolize the four rivers which flow from the mountain to the four world regions. The orientation also serves a more practical purpose of using the temple roof as an observatory for Sumerian timekeeping. The temple was built on a low terrace of

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there are the remains of a wall, still 40 feet (12 m) high, built of blocks of stone 3 to 4 feet (1.2 m) thick, and the evidences wanting as to finishing of these is completely supplied by the sculptures, which show an extraordinary resemblance to medieval works of the same class. Tier upon

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pressed into the walls. Walls would also have artwork painted on them. Roofs could also be made planks of palm tree wood which would be covered in reeds. The top of the roof would be connected to the house through brick or wood stairs. Baked bricks were very expensive, and thus they were only used to

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Scholarly literature usually concentrates on the architecture of temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian

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era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples, and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower-like appearance.

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significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. It has been

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valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. These third millennium BC palaces functioned as large-scale socio-economic institutions, and therefore, along with residential and private functions, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and are often associated with

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Bricks were sun baked to harden them. These types of bricks are much less durable than oven-baked ones so buildings eventually deteriorated. They were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This planned structural life cycle gradually raised the level of cities, so that they

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The favoured design was rounded bricks, which are somewhat unstable, so Mesopotamian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. The advantages of plano-convex bricks were the speed of manufacture as well as the irregular surface which held the finishing plaster

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show domes of varied form, and tower-like structures, each rising from a square base. Whether sloping roofs were used is uncertain. Mr. Bonomi believes that they were, and a few sculptures seem to support his view. Of the private houses nothing, of course, remains; but they are represented on the

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Temples of the Uruk Period divided the temple rectangle into tripartite, T-shaped, or combined plans. The tripartite plan inherited from the Ubaid had a large central hall with two smaller flanking halls on either side. The entry was along the short axis and the shrine was at the end of the long

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houses would be tripartite homes. They had a long roofed central hallway that smaller connected to on either of its sides. It is possible that the central hallway was used for dining and communal activities. There was variety in Ubaid houses. Some houses contained richer artifact assemblage than

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cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. Assyria, imitating Babylonian architecture, also built its palaces and temples of brick, even when stone was the natural building material of the country – faithfully preserving the brick platform, necessary in the marshy soil of

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There was an explosion of diversity in temple design during the following Early Dynastic Period. The temples still retained features such as cardinal orientation, rectangular plans, and buttresses. Now however they took on a variety new configurations including courtyards, walls, basins, and

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that joined all three layers. The role of the temple was to act as that axis mundi, a meeting place between gods and men. The sacredness of 'high places' as a meeting point between realms is a pre-Ubaid belief well attested in the Near East back the Neolithic age. The plan of the temple was

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Temples often predated the creation of the urban settlement and grew from small one room structures to elaborate multiacre complexes across the 2,500 years of Sumerian history. Sumerian temples, fortifications, and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as

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The doors of the long axis were the entry point for the gods, and the doors of the short axis the entry point for men. This configuration was called the bent axis approach, as anyone entering would make a ninety degree turn to face the cult statue at the end of the central hall.

1177:). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the 381:, was derived from Egyptian models. Transparent glass seems to have been first introduced in the reign of Sargon. Stone, clay and glass were used to make vases, and vases of hard stone have been dug up at Girsu similar to those of the early dynastic period of Egypt. 448:). The public streets that defined a block varied little over time while the blind-alleys were much more fluid. The current estimate is 10% of the city area was streets and 90% buildings. The canals; however, were more important than roads for good transportation. 334:

As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of Babylonian influence, and to use stone as well as brick. The walls of Assyrian palaces were lined with sculptured and coloured slabs of stone, instead of being painted as in

742:. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king's throne room opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met and state ceremonies were performed. 571:, with the house being made out of mudbrick. Wood, ashlar blocks, and rubble were also popular materials used to make houses. The mudbrick was made from clay and chopped straw. This mixture was packed into molds and then left in the sun to dry. They used 732:. These pictorial programs incorporated either cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculptures of apotropaic mythological figures, 425:—its massive walls, streets, markets, temples, and gardens. Uruk became the template of an urban culture which spread throughout Western Asia via colonization and conquest, and more generally as societies became larger and more sophisticated. 668:

came into existence during the Early Dynastic I period. From a rather modest beginning the palace grows in size and complexity as power is increasingly centralized. The palace is called a 'Big House' (Cuneiform: .GAL Sumerian e₂-gal Akkdian:

139:), encompassing several distinct cultures and spanning a period from the 10th millennium BC (when the first permanent structures were built) to the 6th century BC. Among the Mesopotamian architectural accomplishments are the development of 374:. At a later epoch, great excellence was attained in the manufacture of such jewellery as earrings and bracelets of gold. Copper, too, was worked with skill; indeed, it is possible that Babylonia was the original home of copper-working. 66: 435:

The city always included a belt of irrigated agricultural land including small hamlets. A network of roads and canals connected the city to this land. The transportation network was organized in three tiers: wide processional streets

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External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal. This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later

697:'s priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, and a ceremonial banquet hall. A similarly complex example of a Mesopotamian palace was excavated at 844:

The bent axis approach is an innovation from the Ubaid temples which had a linear axis approach, and is also a feature of Sumerian houses. An offering table was located in the centre of the temple at the intersection of the axes.

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tier of walls are represented, enclosing a great tower or keep in the centre. The entrances are great arched gateways flanked by square towers. These and the other towers have overhanging parapets just like the mediaeval

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houses had various shapes. Some houses were rectangular, others were round. Some houses in Mesopotamia had only one room, while others had many rooms. Occasionally some of these rooms would serve as basements. In the

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But in Chaldea there are some enormous masses of ruins, evidently remains of the vast mounds which formed the substructure of their temples. The grandest of all these and the most interesting is the temple of

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were huge pyramidal temple towers which were first built in Sumerian City-States and then developed in Babylonia and Assyrian cities as well. There are 32 ziggurats known at, or near, Mesopotamia—28 in

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Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, but today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in

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axis. The T-shaped plan, also from the Ubaid period, was identical to the tripartite plan except for a hall at one end of the rectangle perpendicular to the main hall. Temple C from the Eanna district of

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temples. As the temple decayed it was ritually destroyed and a new temple built on its foundations. The successor temple was larger and more articulated than its predecessor temple. The evolution of the

362:, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting. Two seal-cylinders from the age of 872:

The high temple was a special type of temple that was home to the patron god of the city. Functionally, it served as a storage and distribution centre as well as housing the priesthood. The

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Bryce, T. (2009). The Routledge handbook of the peoples and places of ancient Western Asia : the near East from the early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. London: Routledge.

488:, mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available around the city, although wood was not common in some cities of Sumer. Although most houses were made of 1022:

in the elevation. The Ziggurat of Ur is the best example of this style. Another change in temple design in this period was a straight as opposed to bent-axis approach to the temple.

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BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids. The step pyramid style began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.

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The people were famous at an early date for their embroideries and rugs. The forms of Assyrian pottery are graceful; the porcelain, like the glass discovered in the palaces of

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were feared who had wings like a bird, and the foundation stones – or rather bricks – of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them."

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structure. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colours and may have had

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Simple houses could be constructed out of bundles of reeds which would be tied together, and then inserted into the ground. More complex houses were constructed on stone

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It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seemed to have been double. ...

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In Babylonia, in place of the bas relief, there is greater use of three-dimensional figures in the round – the earliest examples being the statues from

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meant to represent the sacred mound of primordial land which emerged from the water called dukug, 'pure mound' (Sumerian: du₆-ku₃ Cuneiform:) during creation.

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other houses. Ubaid houses could also be interconnect with other houses. The architecture of Ubaid houses is indistinguishable from Ubaid Temples. During the

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is typical of a high temple which was built very high on a platform of adobe-brick. In the Early Dynastic period high temples began to include a

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The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were large-scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. Earliest known examples are from the

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ziggurat, archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass.

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states at the time. Bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates of major buildings, but were mostly looted at the fall of the empire; the

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suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis.

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Assyrian buildings were almost entirely rectangular at the base but could be topped by a minaret or a circular or octagonal dome. Slabs from

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In ancient Sumer, houses contained elaborately decorated stools, chairs, jars, and bathtubs. Wealthier citizens had toilets and

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Of temples distinct from the palace we have a few supposed remains, but little is absolutely known as to their general form.

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tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of

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is a frequently cited case-study of this process. Many temples had inscriptions engraved into them, such as the one at

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driven into the adobe-brick to create a protective sheath that decorated the façade. Specially prized were imported

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Of the fortifications we know much more. In the north wall of Nimroud fifty-eight towers have been traced, and at

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Classical ziggurats emerged in the Neo-Sumerian Period with articulated buttresses, vitreous brick sheathing, and

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as monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the

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Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of

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there are large remains of three walls, the lower part being of stone, and the upper of sun-dried bricks. At

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was the predominant typology, which has been used in Mesopotamia to the present day. This house called

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Mendenhall, George; Herbert Bardwell Huffmon; Frank A. Spina; Alberto Ravinell Whitney Green (1983).

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Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome

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The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were similar but not exact as those used today:

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were found in some Assyrian palaces pointing to an intense trade relationship with North Syrian

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evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. According to

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Crüsemann, Nicola; Ess, Margarete van; Hilgert, Markus; Salje, Beate; Potts, Timothy (2019).

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was sometimes used. Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are categorized by period.

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The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at

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are among the best examples of their kind. One of the first remarkable specimens of early

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Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a

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is typical of this era, as it was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a

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date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved

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for the walls, and mud and poplar for the roof. In the Ubaid period houses would be

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and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with

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came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resulting mounds are known as

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Dunham, Sally (2005). "Ancient Near Eastern architecture". In Daniel Snell (ed.).

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in his royal chariot, tramping a dead or dying enemy, part of a war scene from

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The Sumerians were the first society to conceive and construct the city as a

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The construction of cities was the end product of trends which began in the

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around 4000 BCE, and the White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BCE.

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The Quest for the Kingdom of God: Studies in Honor of George E. Mendenhall

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construct. That they were proud of this achievement is attested to in the

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was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the

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Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by

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Large buildings, implying centralized government, started to be made.

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The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available

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Mesopotamian Religious Architecture: Alexander Through the Parthians

1797: 1301:. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: 221:. The original pyramidal structure, the "Anu Ziggurat" dates to the 2666: 2303: 2298: 2278: 1862: 1329: 1270: 1237: 1229: 1188: 1118: 1106: 1062: 980: 918: 899: 866: 807: 794: 702: 674: 647: 593: 587: 383: 359: 295: 168: 2253: 1288: 1248: 1110: 1078: 1042: 988: 944: 940: 913: 881: 850: 825: 422: 318: 218: 2864: 2095: 1510:"The first cities: Why Settle Down? The Mystery of Communities" 820:

The form of a Sumerian temple is manifestation of Near Eastern

2917: 1741:“Households and the Emergence of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia 877: 801:. Palaces and city walls came much later after temples in the 1495:

Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History

1743:." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 24 (02) (June): 249–268. 1260: 1066: 923:

Partially reconstructed facade and access staircase of the

909: 306: 640:, but they could have been dedicated to important people. 305:, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at 262:

coat better than a smooth surface from other brick types.

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from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the

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Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from

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to be discovered by archaeologists is the silver vase of

1912:"Works of Heather D. Baker at the University of Toronto" 1185:

Design of Assyrian buildings, fortifications and temples

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Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age, especially at Kalhu/

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A history of architecture : settings and rituals

693:" (Sumerian: gi₆-par₄-ku₃) at Ur where the Moon god 3731: 3700: 3649: 3514: 3251: 3210: 3085: 2998: 2916: 2817: 2771: 2745: 2649: 2546: 2439: 2347: 2340: 2211: 2138: 2129: 971:, Iran (the most recent to be discovered), and the 113: 2056:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 792. 2005:"The Urban Form in First Millennium BC Babylonia." 2003:Gwendolyn Leick; Heather D. Baker (2 June 2009). 499:Residential design was a direct development from 339:. Three stages may be traced in the art of these 231:Sumerian masonry was usually mortarless although 1388:"The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions" 1328:basin, dating back to ca. 3000 B.C., found at 2876: 2107: 127:is ancient architecture of the region of the 108:, approximately 575 BC in the Pergamon Museum 8: 2074:Ancient Mesopotamia: The Eden that Never was 1283:, as well as the place that man was created. 1053:valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the 351:, and refined but wanting in boldness under 30: 2702:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 2077:. Cambridge University Press. p. 259. 326:Babylonia, but little needed in the north. 2883: 2869: 2861: 2344: 2135: 2114: 2100: 2092: 853:is a case-study of classical temple form. 29: 1350:Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement 1279:, said to be the site for the meeting of 1240:, the capital of Assyria before Nineveh. 31:Architecture of Mesopotamian civilization 1753:Museum, British; BIENKOWSKI, ed (2000). 1493:Nicholas Postgate, J N Postgate (1994). 455: 321:or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted 1376: 1365:List of cities of the ancient Near East 3836:Ancient Near East art and architecture 689:shrines. For instance, the so-called " 444:), and private blind alleys (Akkadian: 1782:"Tell Taya (1972-73): Summary Report" 1735: 1733: 1731: 1647: 1645: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1439:Uruk: First City of the Ancient World 7: 1759:. University of Pennsylvania Press. 1407:A Companion to the Ancient Near East 1386:, Professor of Assyriology, Oxford, 979:, Iran. Ziggurats were built by the 628:Ancient furniture § Mesopotamia 440:), public through streets (Akkadian: 1954:Harmansah, Ömür (3 December 2007). 1756:Dictionary of the Ancient Near East 1442:. Getty Publications. p. 325. 1077:remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of 1034:), and crowned by a temple. At the 162:, the primitive pictographs of the 1569:Hunter, Nick (10 September 2015). 1113:, Iron Age palaces and temples at 421:which opens with a description of 343:: it is vigorous but simple under 25: 1655:Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia 1596:Mark, Joushua J (14 March 2018). 460:Terracotta model of a house from 94:, approximately 21st century BC; 27:Western Asian architectural style 2840:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 2331: 1652:Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998). 1622:Gates, Charles (21 March 2011). 947:. Notable ziggurats include the 724:, have become famous due to the 396:hovering above the tree of life. 203: 192: 64: 53: 42: 1887:from the original on 2 May 2010 1682:The Literature of Ancient Sumer 812:A partial view of the ruins of 2397:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 2392:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 1658:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 1411:. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 347:, careful and realistic under 239:Patzen 80×40×15 cm: Late 117:10th millennium-6th century BC 1: 3846:Sumerian art and architecture 3831:Assyrian art and architecture 3143:Anatolian Seljuk architecture 2779:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 2176:Tigris–Euphrates river system 1526:10.1126/science.282.5393.1442 1097:, Late Bronze Age palaces at 757:are the principal survivors. 246:Riemchen 16×16 cm: Late 1981:. Eisenbrauns. p. 316. 1275:Ruins from a temple ancient 551: 541: 135:river system (also known as 2845:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 2727:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 2722:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2011:. Routledge. pp. 66–. 1706:Stone, Elizabeth C (1987). 1685:. Oxford University Press. 1572:Daily Life in Ancient Sumer 1320:In Mesopotamia, the use of 466:Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum 125:architecture of Mesopotamia 3867: 2850:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 1937:Cambridge University Press 1603:World History Encyclopedia 764: 625: 404: 392:throneroom relief showing 253:Plano-convex 10x19x34 cm: 2898: 2329: 2026:Downey, Susan B. (1988). 1834:Mendenhall, 1983 p205-208 1679:Black, Jeremy A. (2006). 186:Anu/White Temple ziggurat 88:, approximately 1350 BC; 35: 1628:. Taylor & Francis. 1255:(now Birs Nimrod), near 654:The Monuments of Nineveh 2908:History of construction 2892:History of architecture 2071:Pollock, Susan (1999). 1932:Sumer and the Sumerians 1927:Crawford, Harriet E. W. 1880:Encyclopædia Britannica 1360:Achaemenid architecture 726:Assyrian palace reliefs 634:proper drainage systems 2903:Architectural timeline 2682:Babylonian mathematics 1554:Susan Pollock (1999). 1284: 1267:Landscape architecture 1204: 932: 927:, originally built by 916: 817: 747:ivory furniture pieces 661: 597: 473: 397: 3841:Architectural history 3445:America and Australia 3065:Medieval Scandinavian 1780:Reade, J. E. (1973). 1712:University of Chicago 1274: 1192: 922: 903: 811: 803:Early Dynastic Period 765:Further information: 651: 591: 459: 405:Further information: 387: 255:Early Dynastic Period 18:Sumerian architecture 3687:Critical regionalism 2677:Babylonian astronomy 2156:Mesopotamian Marshes 2009:The Babylonian World 1708:Nippur Neighborhoods 1355:Abbasid architecture 1049:period sites in the 957:Ziggurat of Aqar Quf 949:Great Ziggurat of Ur 596:Temple, final Ubaid. 503:. Although Sumerian 430:Neolithic Revolution 257:(3100–2300 BC) 250:(3600–3200 BC) 243:(3600–3200 BC) 3626:Stripped Classicism 3601:International style 3584:Rationalist-Fascist 3233:Portuguese Colonial 2983:Pre-Islamic Persian 2758:Destruction by ISIL 2712:Sumerian literature 2687:Akkadian literature 2123:Ancient Mesopotamia 1852:Crawford, pp. 73-74 1556:Ancient Mesopotamia 1508:Balter, M. (1998). 1471:Crawford 2004, p.77 1055:Third Dynasty of Ur 745:Massive amounts of 658:Austen Henry Layard 313:and column, and of 278:such as cedar from 32: 3851:Asian architecture 3631:Postconstructivism 3574:Streamline Moderne 2794:Mesopotamian myths 1910:Baker, Heather D. 1285: 1205: 999:during the fourth 933: 917: 818: 705:, dating from the 681:lived and worked. 662: 598: 492:, mudplaster, and 474: 438:sūqu ilāni u šarri 398: 276:building materials 179:Building materials 3816: 3815: 2858: 2857: 2809:Ziggurat (Temple) 2784:Sumerian religion 2542: 2541: 2489:Middle Babylonian 2431:Kish civilization 2327: 2326: 2151:Lower Mesopotamia 2146:Upper Mesopotamia 2084:978-0-521-57568-3 2063:978-0-19-508378-1 2039:978-0-691-03589-5 2018:978-1-134-26128-4 1988:978-0-931464-15-7 1946:978-0-521-53338-6 1861:Knowledge (XXG), 1766:978-0-8122-3557-9 1739:Ur, Jason. 2014. 1692:978-0-19-929633-0 1665:978-0-313-29497-6 1635:978-1-136-82328-2 1582:978-1-4062-9864-2 1449:978-1-60606-444-3 1422:978-0-631-23293-3 1384:Sayce, Rev. A. H. 1294:Epic of Gilgamesh 418:Epic of Gilgamesh 213:Anu/White Temple 121: 120: 80:from The Gate of 16:(Redirected from 3858: 3708:Deconstructivism 3467:Spanish Colonial 3228:Spanish Colonial 3128:Western Chalukya 2936:Ancient Egyptian 2885: 2878: 2871: 2862: 2707:Sumerian cuisine 2697:Warfare in Sumer 2692:Economy of Sumer 2345: 2335: 2219:Fertile Crescent 2203:Sinjar Mountains 2198:Hamrin Mountains 2193:Zagros Mountains 2171:Taurus Mountains 2136: 2116: 2109: 2102: 2093: 2088: 2067: 2043: 2022: 1992: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1958:. Archived from 1950: 1922: 1920: 1918: 1897: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1871: 1865: 1859: 1853: 1850: 1844: 1841: 1835: 1832: 1826: 1825: 1777: 1771: 1770: 1750: 1744: 1737: 1726: 1725: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1676: 1670: 1669: 1649: 1640: 1639: 1619: 1608: 1607: 1593: 1587: 1586: 1566: 1560: 1559: 1551: 1545: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1505: 1499: 1498: 1490: 1484: 1481: 1472: 1469: 1463: 1460: 1454: 1453: 1433: 1427: 1426: 1410: 1400: 1394: 1392:Not in copyright 1381: 1311:paradise gardens 716:, Dur Sharrukin/ 554: 544: 534: 533: 528: 345:Ashurnasirpal II 207: 196: 68: 57: 46: 33: 21: 3866: 3865: 3861: 3860: 3859: 3857: 3856: 3855: 3821: 3820: 3817: 3812: 3727: 3696: 3645: 3579:Totalitarianism 3569:New Objectivity 3510: 3363:Serbo-Byzantine 3358:Russo-Byzantine 3247: 3206: 3081: 3058:Islamic Persian 2994: 2912: 2894: 2889: 2859: 2854: 2813: 2767: 2741: 2650:Culture/society 2645: 2538: 2534:Muslim conquest 2504:Fall of Babylon 2435: 2336: 2323: 2207: 2125: 2120: 2085: 2070: 2064: 2046: 2040: 2025: 2019: 2002: 1999: 1997:Further reading 1989: 1974: 1965: 1963: 1962:on 12 July 2012 1953: 1947: 1939:. p. 252. 1925: 1916: 1914: 1909: 1906: 1901: 1900: 1890: 1888: 1873: 1872: 1868: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1843:Crawford, p. 73 1842: 1838: 1833: 1829: 1798:10.2307/4199963 1779: 1778: 1774: 1767: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1738: 1729: 1722: 1705: 1704: 1700: 1693: 1678: 1677: 1673: 1666: 1651: 1650: 1643: 1636: 1621: 1620: 1611: 1595: 1594: 1590: 1583: 1568: 1567: 1563: 1553: 1552: 1548: 1538: 1536: 1507: 1506: 1502: 1492: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1475: 1470: 1466: 1462:Harmansah, 2007 1461: 1457: 1450: 1435: 1434: 1430: 1423: 1402: 1401: 1397: 1382: 1378: 1373: 1346: 1269: 1187: 1032:Leonard Woolley 931:, circa 2100 BC 898: 769: 763: 646: 630: 624: 586: 565: 531: 530: 526: 513:courtyard house 454: 409: 403: 390:Ashurnasirpal's 364:Sargon of Akkad 332: 229: 228: 227: 226: 210: 209: 208: 199: 198: 197: 188: 187: 181: 160:Archibald Sayce 145:courtyard house 109: 95: 89: 74: 73: 72: 71: 70: 69: 60: 59: 58: 49: 48: 47: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3864: 3862: 3854: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3823: 3822: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3784: 3783: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3746: 3741: 3735: 3733: 3729: 3728: 3726: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3653: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3564:Constructivism 3561: 3556: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3539: 3537:Prairie School 3534: 3529: 3524: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3509: 3508: 3507: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3481: 3480: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3448: 3447: 3442: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3418: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3366: 3365: 3360: 3345: 3344: 3343: 3333: 3332: 3331: 3326: 3321: 3316: 3311: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3248: 3246: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3183: 3182: 3172: 3167: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3132: 3131: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3112: 3111: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3089: 3087: 3083: 3082: 3080: 3079: 3078: 3077: 3070:Pre-Romanesque 3067: 3062: 3061: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3030: 3029: 3028: 3023: 3015: 3010: 3004: 3002: 3000:1st millennium 2996: 2995: 2993: 2992: 2991: 2990: 2980: 2979: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2958: 2953: 2952: 2951: 2946: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2922: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2895: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2880: 2873: 2865: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2832: 2830:Assyriologists 2827: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2814: 2812: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2768: 2766: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2739: 2737:List of rulers 2734: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2646: 2644: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2626:Proto-Armenian 2623: 2618: 2613: 2611:Middle Persian 2608: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2552: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2540: 2539: 2537: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2499:Neo-Babylonian 2496: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2479:Old Babylonian 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2449:Early Dynastic 2445: 2443: 2437: 2436: 2434: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2353: 2351: 2342: 2338: 2337: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2324: 2322: 2321: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2221: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2208: 2206: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2190: 2189: 2188: 2183: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2142: 2140: 2133: 2127: 2126: 2121: 2119: 2118: 2111: 2104: 2096: 2090: 2089: 2083: 2068: 2062: 2044: 2038: 2023: 2017: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1993: 1987: 1972: 1951: 1945: 1923: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1898: 1866: 1854: 1845: 1836: 1827: 1792:(2): 155–187. 1772: 1765: 1745: 1727: 1720: 1698: 1691: 1671: 1664: 1641: 1634: 1609: 1588: 1581: 1561: 1546: 1520:(5393): 1442. 1500: 1485: 1473: 1464: 1455: 1448: 1428: 1421: 1395: 1375: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1345: 1342: 1268: 1265: 1226:machicolations 1186: 1183: 1069:(Sanctuary of 1061:(Sanctuary of 1047:Early Dynastic 925:Ziggurat of Ur 897: 894: 890:Tower of Babel 857:barracks. The 762: 759: 707:Old Babylonian 645: 642: 626:Main article: 623: 620: 585: 582: 564: 561: 505:cylinder seals 453: 450: 402: 401:Urban planning 399: 331: 328: 259: 258: 251: 244: 212: 211: 202: 201: 200: 191: 190: 189: 185: 184: 183: 182: 180: 177: 156:archaeological 141:urban planning 119: 118: 115: 111: 110: 98:Reconstruction 92:Ziggurat of Ur 75: 63: 62: 61: 52: 51: 50: 41: 40: 39: 38: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3863: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3819: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3751: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3718:New Classical 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3699: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3662:Structuralism 3660: 3658: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3606:Functionalism 3604: 3602: 3599: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3581: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3548: 3545: 3544: 3543: 3542:Expressionism 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3519: 3517: 3513: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3494:Liberty style 3492: 3490: 3487: 3486: 3485: 3482: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3427:Neo-Manueline 3425: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3402: 3401: 3400:Monumentalism 3398: 3396: 3393: 3391: 3390:Mediterranean 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3355: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3346: 3342: 3339: 3338: 3337: 3334: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3260: 3257: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3226: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3209: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3170:Romano-Gothic 3168: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3135: 3133: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3095: 3094: 3091: 3090: 3088: 3084: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3035: 3034: 3031: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3018: 3016: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3006: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2989: 2986: 2985: 2984: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2971:Ancient Roman 2969: 2967: 2966:Ancient Greek 2964: 2963: 2962: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2886: 2881: 2879: 2874: 2872: 2867: 2866: 2863: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 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