356:
464:
42:
86:
276:
61:
288:, whose arm span is 134 cm (53 in) and whose body is 2.6 cm (roughly 1 inch) wide. Growth begins rapidly, but slows as the animal ages. Researchers estimate a growth rate of 8 cm (3.1 in)/year in the first several years of life, and a rate of 2.5 cm (0.98 in)/year later.
351:
of sunflower sea stars declined 80–100%. In 2020, the species was declared critically endangered by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature. There are suggestions that sea star wasting disease was caused by bacterial pathogens or parasites and was contagious, due to its tendency to spread
366:
Sunflower sea stars generally inhabit low subtidal and intertidal areas up to 435m deep that are rich in seaweed, kelp, sand, mud, shells, gravel, or rocky bottoms. They do not venture into high- and mid-tide areas because their body structure is heavy, and requires water to support it.
1118:
Hewson, Ian; Button, Jason B.; Gudenkauf, Brent M.; Miner, Benjamin; Newton, Alisa L.; Gaydos, Joseph K.; Wynne, Janna; Groves, Cathy L.; Hendler, Gordon; Murray, Michael; Fradkin, Steven; Breitbart, Mya; Fahsbender, Elizabeth; Lafferty, Kevin D.; Kilpatrick, A. Marm (2 December 2014).
407:. Sea star appetites and food can depend on environmental factors in their habitats, such as climate, amount of prey in the area, and latitude. Although the sunflower sea star can extend its mouth for larger prey, the stomach can extend outside the mouth to digest prey, such as
454:
larval period, the larvae settle to the bottom and mature into juveniles. Juvenile sunflower sea stars begin life with five arms, and grow the rest as they mature. The lifespan of most sunflower sea stars is three to five years.
283:
Sunflower sea stars can reach an arm span of 1 m (3.3 ft). They are the heaviest known sea star, weighing about 5 kg. They are the second-biggest sea star in the world, second only to the little known deep water
869:
Hewson, Ian; Button, Jason B.; Gudenkauf, Brent M.; Miner, Benjamin; Newton, Alisa L.; Gaydos, Joseph K.; Wynne, Janna; Groves, Cathy L.; Hendler, Gordon; Murray, Michael; Fradkin, Steven (17 November 2014).
438:. They have separate sexes. Sunflower sea stars breed from May through June. In preparing to spawn, they arch up using about a dozen arms to hoist their fleshy central mass above the seafloor and release
787:
Gravem, S.A.; Heady, W.N.; Saccomanno, V.R.; Alvstad, K.F.; Gehman, A.L.M.; Frierson, T.N.; Hamilton, S.L. (26 August 2020). "Pycnopodia helianthoides". IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species (Report).
1360:
1649:
1431:
Montecino-Latorre, Diego; Eisenlord, Morgan E.; Turner, Margaret; Yoshioka, Reyn; Harvell, C. Drew; Pattengill-Semmens, Christy V.; Nichols, Janna D.; Gaydos, Joseph K. (26 October 2016).
232:, it is among the largest sea stars in the world, with a maximum arm span of 1 m (3.3 ft). Adult sunflower sea stars usually have 16 to 24 limbs. They vary in color. A
375:
Sunflower sea stars are efficient hunters, moving at a speed of 1 m/min (3.3 ft/min) using 15,000 tube feet that lie on their undersides. They are commonly found around
1624:
2232:
940:
Harvell, C. D.; Montecino-Latorre, D.; Caldwell, J. M.; Burt, J. M.; Bosley, K.; Keller, A.; Heron, S. F.; Salomon, A. K.; Lee, L.; Pontier, O.; Pattengill-Semmens, C. (2019).
509:
spreads throughout the whole body. The limbs become affected and eventually fall off, ultimately causing death from degradation. Sea star wasting disease appears to be a
2152:
1930:
355:
256:. Although the species was widely distributed throughout the northeast Pacific, its population rapidly declined from 2013. The sunflower sea star is classified as
261:
2178:
1982:
1569:
Hodin, Jason; Pearson-Lund, Alexi; Anteau, Fluer P.; Kitaeff, Pema; Cefalu, Shannon; Shannon, Troy; Yannou, Bernard; Leroy, Yann; Cluzel, François (2021).
291:
Their color ranges from bright orange, yellow-red to brown, and sometimes purple, with soft, velvet-textured bodies and 5–24 arms with powerful
2126:
1904:
2165:
1943:
589:
1245:"Pycnopodia helianthoides: Gravem, S.A., Heady, W. N., Saccomanno, V. R., Alvstad, K. F., Gehman, A. L. M., Frierson, T. N. & Hamilton, S.L."
1379:
1995:
942:"Disease epidemic and a marine heat wave are associated with the continental-scale collapse of a pivotal predator (Pycnopodia helianthoides)"
1315:
513:(SSaDV). The disease creates behavioral changes and lesions. This disease is known to be more prevalent and harmful in warmer water. The
2237:
1571:"Dataset for the manuscript: "Progress towards complete life-cycle culturing of the endangered sunflower star Pycnopodia helianthoides""
514:
491:. Captive breeding efforts include seasonal production, larval development, and growth and feeding experiments. On August 18, 2021, the
328:
718:
754:
500:
2204:
2044:
520:
Sunflower sea stars are one of sea urchins' main predators. Sea stars control their population and help maintain the health of
492:
510:
2170:
1948:
581:
471:
Since 2013, sunflower sea star populations have been in a rapid decline due to disease and changes in climate. In 2020, the
65:
1498:
Gravem, S.A.; Heady, W. N.; Saccomanno, V. R.; Alvstad, K. F.; Gehman, A. L. M.; Frierson, T. N.; Hamilton, S.L. (2021).
1057:
Harvell, C.D.; Montecino-Latorre, D.; Caldwell, J.M.; Burt, J.M.; Bosley, K.; Keller, A.; et al. (30 January 2019).
999:"Demography, Ecology, and Management of Sea Star Populations: Introduction to a Special Issue in The Biological Bulletin"
1830:
2100:
1865:
201:
544:
Gravem, S.A.; Heady, W. N.; Saccomanno, V.R.; Alvstad, K.F.; Gehman, A.L.M.; Frierson, T.N.; Hamilton, S.L. (2021) .
85:
1857:
1059:"Disease epidemic and a marine heat wave are associated with the continental-scale collapse of a pivotal predator (
2183:
1987:
1545:"Critically endangered sea star not recovering in the wild, scientists point to the need for restoration efforts"
506:
484:
324:
524:. Due to the decrease in sea star population, sea urchin populations are increasing and posing a threat to
463:
236:
animal, Sunflower sea stars eat many different kinds of dead and alive prey to fill their diets. They are
1792:
517:
in
California, Washington, and Oregon have coincided with the increased risk of sea star wasting disease.
496:
480:
443:
419:
2105:
1870:
1701:
1522:
1262:
1253:
1244:
793:
476:
257:
184:
1675:
614:
2209:
2049:
1891:
1839:
1444:
1132:
1074:
953:
883:
1727:
359:
2242:
1768:
320:
308:
50:
41:
1974:
1702:"This sea star was almost killed off. Now scientists are breeding it to help fight climate change"
2026:
1844:
1606:
1406:
1329:
1034:
664:
435:
340:
80:
1544:
1961:
1935:
1321:
1289:
2191:
2157:
2113:
2008:
1878:
1598:
1480:
1462:
1168:
1150:
1100:
1026:
1018:
979:
919:
901:
642:
634:
348:
2036:
2013:
1590:
1582:
1517:
1470:
1452:
1248:
1187:
1158:
1140:
1090:
1082:
1010:
969:
961:
909:
891:
788:
626:
488:
316:
292:
2196:
2091:
1755:
1650:"Sunflower sea star, once a common sight off Oregon Coast, proposed for federal protection"
1227:
762:
1499:
1341:
1275:
689:
545:
344:
335:. The species disappeared from its habitats in the waters off the coast of California and
275:
836:
1448:
1136:
1078:
957:
887:
1475:
1432:
1163:
1120:
1095:
1058:
998:
974:
941:
914:
871:
376:
332:
295:. Most sea star species have a mesh-like skeleton that protects their internal organs.
619:
Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology
2226:
1956:
1610:
1508:
1433:"Devastating Transboundary Impacts of Sea Star Wasting Disease on Subtidal Asteroids"
1038:
554:
396:
323:, and southern Alaska. Between 2013 and 2015, the population declined rapidly due to
264:
253:
225:
137:
70:
2118:
1883:
525:
400:
17:
2076:
1457:
2139:
2085:
2021:
1969:
1917:
1824:
521:
312:
233:
1815:
1625:"Petition Seeks Protection for Sunflower Sea Star After 90% Population Decline"
630:
451:
414:
Easily stressed by predators such as large fish and other sea stars, they can
380:
241:
147:
117:
1780:
1466:
1154:
1022:
905:
638:
495:
created a petition asking that the sunflower sea star be protected under the
1145:
896:
423:
249:
237:
97:
1602:
1484:
1172:
1104:
1086:
1030:
983:
965:
923:
646:
2070:
1809:
615:"Specific dynamic action in the sunflower star, Pycnopodia helianthoides"
415:
221:
127:
1121:"Densovirus associated with sea-star wasting disease and mass mortality"
872:"Densovirus associated with sea-star wasting disease and mass mortality"
2131:
1909:
439:
408:
392:
1594:
2144:
1922:
1852:
503:
proposed listing the sunflower sea star as threatened under the act.
447:
388:
336:
304:
107:
1786:
1586:
1570:
1014:
303:
Sunflower sea stars were once common in the northeast
Pacific from
462:
404:
384:
354:
274:
229:
1676:"Signs of hope, and a prime suspect, in sea star wasting disease"
2000:
1759:
1679:
758:
472:
450:
float and feed near the surface for two to ten weeks. After the
343:. Ecologists using shallow-water observations and deep offshore
245:
1896:
1790:
1052:
1050:
1048:
339:, and saw its population reduced by 99.2% in the waters near
347:
surveys found that, in their study period (2004–2017), mean
1320:(Online ed.). Monterey Bay Aquarium. Archived from
813:
782:
780:
1230:. Channel Islands National Park. National Park Service.
997:
Caballes, Ciemon F.; Byrne, Maria (1 December 2021).
613:
McGaw, Iain J.; Twitchit, Tabitha A. (1 March 2012).
562:(amended assessment ed.): e.T178290276A197818455
2060:
1799:
1523:
10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T178290276A197818455.en
1254:
10.2305/iucn.uk.2021-1.rlts.t178290276a197818455.en
794:
10.2305/iucn.uk.2020-3.rlts.t178290276a178341498.en
719:"A starfish-killing disease is remaking the oceans"
434:Sunflower sea stars can reproduce sexually through
422:within a few weeks. They are preyed upon by the
1386:. Invertebrate Zoology. Evergreen State College
1125:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
876:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
475:first assessed that the sunflower sea star was
1728:"Sea stars critical to kelp forest resilience"
712:
710:
1239:
1237:
483:and its partner institutions, along with the
403:, California, they may feed on dead or dying
8:
1355:
1353:
1351:
2233:IUCN Red List critically endangered species
1305:
1303:
1787:
1726:Simon Fraser University (13 August 2018).
830:
828:
826:
824:
822:
806:
804:
59:
40:
31:
1521:
1474:
1456:
1252:
1162:
1144:
1094:
973:
913:
895:
792:
1216:. Arcata, CA: Humboldt State University.
590:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
536:
1337:
1327:
1271:
1260:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
1769:"Sunflower Stars: Rulers of the Reef"
1188:"Sunflower Sea Star | NOAA Fisheries"
935:
933:
864:
862:
860:
7:
658:
656:
608:
606:
1674:Scigliano, Eric (23 January 2015).
1509:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
555:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
1186:Fisheries, NOAA (24 August 2023).
383:is a favorite food. They also eat
25:
501:National Marine Fisheries Service
279:Underside of a sunflower sea star
1767:Byrnes, Jarrett (27 July 2018).
528:, particularly in kelp forests.
84:
1629:Center for Biological Diversity
493:Center for Biological Diversity
757:. Fisheries. Species ID.
511:Sea Star-associated Densovirus
1:
1700:Sean, Fleming (20 May 2021).
1458:10.1371/journal.pone.0163190
1214:North Coast Intertidal Guide
717:Yong, Ed (30 January 2019).
1365:City of Edmonds, Washington
690:"Sunflower Sea Stars Facts"
2259:
2238:Starfish described in 1835
1516:: e.T178290276A197818455.
1407:"Pycnopodia helianthoides"
1212:"Seastars & Urchins".
665:"Pycnopodia helianthoides"
631:10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.11.010
228:. The only species of its
224:found in the northeastern
1361:"Sea Stars and Relatives"
845:(article & LD photos)
467:Top of sunflower sea star
329:warmer water temperatures
190:
183:
81:Scientific classification
79:
57:
48:
39:
34:
1858:pycnopodia-helianthoides
1845:Pycnopodia_helianthoides
1831:Pycnopodia helianthoides
1801:Pycnopodia helianthoides
1678:. Washington Sea Grant.
1502:Pycnopodia helianthoides
1382:Pycnopodia helianthoides
1312:Pycnopodia helianthoides
1061:Pycnopodia helianthoides
584:Pycnopodia helianthoides
548:Pycnopodia helianthoides
507:Sea star wasting disease
487:are working to initiate
485:University of Washington
399:and other sea stars. In
325:sea star wasting disease
299:Distribution and habitat
216:, commonly known as the
213:Pycnopodia helianthoides
194:Pycnopodia helianthoides
1575:The Biological Bulletin
1146:10.1073/pnas.1416625111
1003:The Biological Bulletin
897:10.1073/pnas.1416625111
843:Emerald Sea Photography
352:to multiple locations.
311:, and were dominant in
1549:The Nature Conservancy
1270:Cite journal requires
1087:10.1126/sciadv.aau7042
966:10.1126/sciadv.aau7042
497:Endangered Species Act
481:The Nature Conservancy
468:
444:external fertilization
363:
280:
1783:on Sealife Collection
1384:, the Sunflower Star"
1294:North Island Explorer
499:. In March 2023, the
477:critically endangered
466:
358:
278:
258:Critically Endangered
176:P. helianthoides
66:Critically Endangered
27:Species of echinoderm
1756:"Sunflower sea star"
1706:World Economic Forum
1411:Animal Diversity Web
755:"Sunflower sea star"
669:Animal Diversity Web
459:Conservation efforts
240:, feeding mostly on
1449:2016PLoSO..1163190M
1137:2014PNAS..11117278H
1131:(48): 17278–17283.
1079:2019SciA....5.7042H
958:2019SciA....5.7042H
888:2014PNAS..11117278H
882:(48): 17278–17283.
811:Telnack, Jennifer.
442:into the water for
321:northern California
309:southern California
51:Conservation status
35:Sunflower sea star
1781:Sunflower sea star
1654:The Register-Guard
765:on 2 February 2018
469:
436:broadcast spawning
364:
286:Midgardia xandaros
281:
252:, and other small
218:sunflower sea star
18:Sunflower starfish
2220:
2219:
2192:Open Tree of Life
2009:Open Tree of Life
1793:Taxon identifiers
1310:"Sunflower star:
815:. NW Marine Life.
418:to escape, which
371:Diet and behavior
331:caused by global
209:
208:
165:
74:
16:(Redirected from
2250:
2213:
2212:
2200:
2199:
2187:
2186:
2174:
2173:
2161:
2160:
2148:
2147:
2135:
2134:
2122:
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2096:
2095:
2094:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2053:
2052:
2040:
2039:
2030:
2029:
2017:
2016:
2004:
2003:
1991:
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1978:
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1965:
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1495:
1489:
1488:
1478:
1460:
1443:(10): e0163190.
1428:
1422:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1405:Yagoda, Shayna.
1402:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1378:Shepard, Aaron.
1375:
1369:
1368:
1357:
1346:
1345:
1339:
1335:
1333:
1325:
1324:on 24 July 2003.
1307:
1298:
1297:
1290:"Sunflower Star"
1286:
1280:
1279:
1273:
1268:
1266:
1258:
1256:
1247:26 August 2020.
1241:
1232:
1231:
1228:"Sunflower Star"
1224:
1218:
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1209:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1166:
1148:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1098:
1067:Science Advances
1054:
1043:
1042:
994:
988:
987:
977:
946:Science Advances
937:
928:
927:
917:
899:
866:
855:
854:
852:
850:
832:
817:
816:
808:
799:
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784:
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774:
772:
770:
761:. Archived from
751:
734:
733:
731:
729:
714:
705:
704:
702:
700:
686:
680:
679:
677:
675:
663:Yagoda, Shayna.
660:
651:
650:
610:
601:
600:
598:
596:
578:
572:
571:
569:
567:
541:
489:captive breeding
317:British Columbia
196:
163:
89:
88:
68:
63:
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44:
32:
21:
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2020:
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2007:
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1808:
1795:
1773:deepseanews.com
1766:
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1211:
1210:
1206:
1196:
1194:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1073:(1): eaau7042.
1056:
1055:
1046:
996:
995:
991:
952:(1): eaau7042.
939:
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931:
868:
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83:
75:
64:
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53:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2256:
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2240:
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2218:
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2201:
2188:
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2149:
2136:
2123:
2110:
2097:
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2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
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2018:
2005:
1992:
1979:
1966:
1953:
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1849:
1836:
1821:
1805:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1777:
1764:
1758:. Species ID.
1750:
1749:External links
1747:
1745:
1744:
1718:
1692:
1666:
1641:
1616:
1587:10.1086/716552
1581:(3): 243–258.
1561:
1536:
1490:
1423:
1397:
1370:
1347:
1338:|website=
1299:
1281:
1272:|journal=
1233:
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360:MacDonald Spit
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223:
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219:
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185:Binomial name
182:
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559:
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526:biodiversity
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2086:Wikispecies
2022:SeaLifeBase
1970:NatureServe
1918:iNaturalist
1825:Wikispecies
1737:24 November
1529:19 November
1390:28 February
1317:Field Guide
313:Puget Sound
271:Description
242:sea urchins
234:carnivorous
2243:Asteriidae
2227:Categories
2092:Pycnopodia
2062:Pycnopodia
1779:Photos of
1634:5 November
1595:1773/46681
1554:5 November
728:30 January
532:References
452:planktonic
381:sea urchin
341:Washington
250:sea snails
159:Pycnopodia
148:Asteriidae
128:Asteroidea
2077:Q19739859
1962:178290276
1711:1 January
1611:244446037
1467:1932-6203
1340:ignored (
1330:cite book
1155:0027-8424
1039:245051292
1023:0006-3185
906:0027-8424
639:1095-6433
424:king crab
416:shed arms
379:, as the
238:predatory
170:Species:
104:Kingdom:
98:Eukaryota
2071:Wikidata
1975:2.973574
1936:10191014
1816:Q1857023
1810:Wikidata
1732:phys.org
1685:4 August
1659:16 March
1603:35015622
1485:27783620
1437:PLOS ONE
1173:25404293
1105:30729157
1031:35015623
984:30729157
924:25404293
849:31 March
769:4 August
647:22127024
265:Red List
222:sea star
144:Family:
114:Phylum:
108:Animalia
94:Domain:
71:IUCN 3.1
2158:1304003
2132:2274564
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1476:5082671
1445:Bibcode
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1133:Bibcode
1096:6353623
1075:Bibcode
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954:Bibcode
915:4260605
884:Bibcode
595:9 April
566:18 July
440:gametes
409:abalone
393:abalone
349:biomass
293:suckers
260:on the
204:, 1835)
154:Genus:
134:Order:
124:Class:
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420:regrow
389:snails
337:Oregon
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2153:IRMNG
2145:47674
2119:7PX4J
2106:82337
2045:WoRMS
2027:49541
1931:IRMNG
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1884:4QMT2
1871:82338
1607:S2CID
1035:S2CID
405:squid
385:clams
345:trawl
246:clams
230:genus
2184:7613
2179:NCBI
2166:ITIS
2127:GBIF
2101:BOLD
1996:OBIS
1988:7614
1983:NCBI
1957:IUCN
1944:ITIS
1905:GBIF
1866:BOLD
1760:NOAA
1739:2021
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1599:PMID
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