541:, 122 (United States District Court for the Northern District of California 2010-08-05) ("The trial record shows that strict scrutiny is the appropriate standard of review to apply to legislative classifications based on sexual orientation. All classifications based on sexual orientation appear suspect, as the evidence shows that California would rarely, if ever, have a reason to categorize individuals based on their sexual orientation."),
357:
is used, it means that the classification is one that overwhelmingly tends to be rational, e.g. distinguishing criminals from non-criminals. This leads to wide political discretion and a focus of judicial resources to other cases where the classification employed tends to be more suspicious, and thus
336:
is involved, the courts are more likely to oppose the discriminatory law when compared to a rational basis review particularly if a law is based on gender. However, a court will likely uphold a discriminatory law under intermediate scrutiny if the law has an exceedingly persuasive justification and
236:
held sexual orientation to be a quasi-suspect classification, and determined that laws that classify people on such basis should be subject to intermediate scrutiny. It was the first time a federal court had applied quasi-suspect classification in a sexual orientation case. The
Supreme Court,
273:
To satisfy the strict scrutiny, suspect classifications such as race, alienage, or national origin must be necessary to promote a compelling state interest when there is no less restrictive alternative method available to accomplish the government (state's) interest.
51:
The United States
Supreme Court has mentioned a variety of criteria that, in some combination, may qualify a group as a suspect class, but the Court has not declared that any particular set of criteria are either necessary or sufficient to qualify.
2982:
2226:
38:
discrimination is asserted against a law, regulation, or other government action, or sometimes private action. When a law or government action affects a group that falls under a "suspect classification," courts apply the
2194:
2050:
219:
1112:
1318:
1372:
222:
discussed this type of classification, but applied heightened scrutiny without specifically labeling gays and lesbians a suspect or quasi-suspect class in its decision. Striking down
Section 3 of
910:
124:
3006:
1803:
1216:
1898:
720:
3119:
1962:
1104:
233:
146:
2793:
1858:
1184:
2681:
30:
is a class or group of persons meeting a series of criteria suggesting they are likely the subject of discrimination. These classes receive closer scrutiny by courts when an
2341:
2210:
1064:
1978:
1655:
3109:
2857:
2146:
2066:
136:
317:, upholding affirmative action based upon racial diversity, are the only cases in which a racially discriminatory law has been upheld under the strict scrutiny test.
1938:
1232:
1019:
1463:
197:
are generally analyzed with rational basis review unless the topic is education of children, in which case they are analyzed under intermediate scrutiny based on
3014:
2365:
2122:
1970:
1763:
152:
As the law currently stands, neither sexual orientation nor gender identity is considered a federal suspect class, although many states do consider them such.
59:
The group has historically been discriminated against or have been subject to prejudice, hostility, or stigma, perhaps due, at least in part, to stereotypes.
2817:
2729:
1356:
441:
1615:
2841:
2373:
1388:
711:
622:
597:
338:
141:
3114:
2654:
1519:
1120:
987:
379:
186:
374:
must adhere. Hence, a State law that discriminates against citizens because of their race, must be reviewed by the applicable State and inferior
2026:
1200:
1011:
1380:
278:
99:
2218:
2202:
2106:
378:
using the strict scrutiny basis of review. A State may, generally, choose to give its citizens more rights or protections than the minimum
2531:
680:
3124:
3104:
2114:
1224:
297:
origin is almost always unconstitutional, unless it is a compelling, narrowly tailored and temporary piece of legislation dealing with
2930:
2646:
2571:
1835:
367:
560:
2990:
930:
1136:
581:
2809:
1679:
2082:
1559:
1404:
918:
131:
could be considered a suspect class, but on the facts presented
Proposition 8 failed even to satisfy the much more deferential
2074:
2785:
2389:
1247:
248:
is applied to all other discriminatory statutes. Rational basis scrutiny currently covers all other discriminatory criteria—
1031:
770:
704:
2873:
2689:
2349:
1787:
1639:
1591:
1332:
947:
504:
375:
88:
69:
They are powerless to protect themselves via the political process. (The group is a "discrete" and "insular" minority.)
2673:
1843:
1144:
995:
473:
458:
383:
277:
The practical result of this legal doctrine is that government sponsored discrimination on the account of a citizen's
2523:
2058:
1795:
520:
307:
177:, 403 U.S. 365 (1971)). As such, state actions are analyzed according to strict scrutiny. In contrast, because the
94:
2186:
2998:
2405:
2397:
2010:
1431:
1364:
163:, or the state of being an alien, i.e. a non-citizen of the United States, is a unique category. For purposes of
3030:
2974:
2138:
1695:
1663:
1088:
1072:
697:
228:
110:
as suspect classes; it therefore analyzes any government action that discriminates against these classes under
1294:
542:
3038:
2905:
2603:
2459:
1720:
1647:
1040:
955:
639:"The End of an Unjust Law: The Second Circuit Strikes Down DOMA and Sets the Stage for Supreme Court Review"
536:
488:
418:
223:
215:
190:
119:
31:
1779:
2269:
2018:
178:
2849:
2499:
1986:
1160:
2958:
2801:
2769:
2357:
1906:
1152:
854:
746:
354:
333:
245:
211:
72:
The group's distinguishing characteristic does not inhibit it from contributing meaningfully to society.
2825:
2737:
2595:
2587:
2483:
2381:
2966:
2130:
2950:
2697:
2563:
2547:
2440:
2245:
2178:
2162:
1954:
1687:
1623:
1503:
1340:
1168:
1128:
1080:
313:
173:
2865:
2475:
2277:
2881:
2833:
2777:
2713:
2705:
2638:
2555:
2515:
2491:
2154:
2098:
2042:
2034:
1671:
1551:
1535:
1412:
1192:
1176:
870:
754:
86:
The
Supreme Court established the judicial precedent for suspect classifications in the cases of
2942:
2761:
2753:
2579:
2539:
2424:
2293:
2285:
2253:
2170:
1994:
1946:
1922:
1890:
1811:
1755:
1747:
1599:
1495:
1310:
979:
894:
823:
734:
302:
128:
23:
2507:
638:
3077:
3069:
3022:
2745:
2619:
2333:
2090:
1930:
1914:
1865:
1851:
1827:
1583:
1567:
1527:
1455:
1396:
1096:
1003:
939:
886:
778:
689:
321:
298:
35:
2325:
2301:
1882:
1631:
1607:
1471:
878:
846:
794:
554:
1739:
1479:
1348:
902:
862:
786:
661:
585:
564:
413:
111:
103:
40:
404:
classify sexual orientation as a quasi-suspect class under their respective state laws.
2889:
2721:
2467:
2432:
2309:
1819:
1575:
1487:
1256:
762:
575:
132:
3098:
2611:
2002:
1874:
1543:
1511:
1439:
1302:
1208:
1056:
971:
342:
199:
20:
237:
however, has not decided whether sexual orientation fits into any identified class.
2897:
2261:
1447:
802:
2147:
Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of
America v. Jacksonville
1771:
1048:
963:
835:
397:
294:
194:
182:
168:
260:, wealth, political preference, political affiliation, or criminal conviction.
214:
is applied to groups that fall under a "quasi-suspect classification." Sex and
2317:
393:
387:
371:
257:
164:
63:
2983:
Florida
Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank
286:
337:
applies to real, fact-based, or biological differences between the sexes.
290:
160:
107:
2227:
Students for Fair
Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
2195:
Parents
Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
2051:
Village of
Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.
43:
standard in reviewing the constitutional validity of a law or action.
525:, 323 U.S., 214 (United States Supreme Court=2010-09-13).
253:
509:, 320 U.S., 81 (United States Supreme Court=2013-09-13).
189:
government action that discriminates based on alienage will receive
1113:
Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists
396:
classifies sexual orientation as a suspect class under state law.
282:
401:
3057:
2928:
1718:
1319:
Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York
821:
732:
693:
1373:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
382:
standard when considering state law. For example, in 2008 the
125:
U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California
386:
used the strict scrutiny basis of review to strike down a
3007:
Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett
911:
O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.
390:
statute denying legal recognition of same-sex marriages.
218:
have been held to be quasi-suspect classes. In 2012, the
1804:
Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
1217:
Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.
320:
Strict scrutiny is also applied to restrictions of any
1899:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
1963:
United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education
1105:
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
147:
United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit
2794:
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
1859:
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
1185:
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England
98:, 323 U.S. 214 (1944). The Supreme Court recognizes
2682:
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.
2665:
2630:
2451:
2416:
2237:
1731:
1423:
1243:
1030:
929:
834:
55:Some of the criteria that have been cited include:
2342:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
2211:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
1065:Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth
1979:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
1656:Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health
370:holdings impose a minimum standard to which each
2858:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
2067:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
137:U.S. District Court for the District of Nebraska
1939:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
1464:Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.
3015:Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs
2366:Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County
2123:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
1971:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
1764:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
705:
8:
3120:Anti-discrimination law in the United States
1233:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
1137:Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
1020:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
220:U.S. District Court for Northern California
2818:Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia
2730:Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections
1357:Will v. Michigan Department of State Police
435:
433:
3054:
2925:
2083:Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education
1728:
1715:
1616:Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill
831:
818:
729:
712:
698:
690:
611:Golinski v. Office of Personnel Management
2842:New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer
2374:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
1389:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee
660:Souter, David, US Supreme Court Justice.
339:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
2075:Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1
577:Citizens for Equal Protection v. Bruning
556:Citizens for Equal Protection v. Bruning
142:Citizens for Equal Protection v. Bruning
127:in its Findings of Fact commented that
3110:United States equal protection case law
2786:Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.
2655:Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward
1520:Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur
1121:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
988:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
681:Homosexuality and the Law: A Dictionary
429:
2027:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
662:"Vacco v. Quill - 521 U.S. 793 (1997)"
453:
451:
1381:City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams
311:, regarding Japanese internment, and
7:
2107:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
1248:Section 1979 of the Revised Statutes
598:Mississippi Univ. for Women v. Hogan
358:close judicial balancing is needed.
324:, regardless of the group involved.
145:, but was reversed on appeal by the
2874:Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools
2690:Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth
2115:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
1225:June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo
1201:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
1012:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
558:, 368 F. Supp. 2d 980 (D.Neb. 2005)
442:Sexual Orientation and Human Rights
2647:Arlington County Board v. Richards
2572:Examining Board v. Flores de Otero
2350:Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.
1836:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
721:United States Fourteenth Amendment
627:, 12-2335-cv(L), October 18, 2012.
14:
2991:Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents
2532:Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n
2810:Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas
2219:Fisher v. University of Texas II
1680:Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.
637:Kemp, David (October 22, 2012).
2524:Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach
2203:Fisher v. University of Texas I
1560:Moore v. City of East Cleveland
1405:Los Angeles County v. Humphries
919:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
362:Classifications under state law
3115:Legal doctrines and principles
2390:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
613:, C 10-00257 (N.D. Cal. 2012).
579:, 455 F.3d 859 (8th Cir. 2006)
1:
2059:Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman
1264:McNeese v. Board of Education
771:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
1788:Hirabayashi v. United States
1640:DeShaney v. Winnebago County
1592:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.
1333:Owen v. City of Independence
948:Pierce v. Society of Sisters
505:Hirabayashi v. United States
234:2nd Circuit Court of Appeals
89:Hirabayashi v. United States
2674:United States v. Cruikshank
1844:Brown v. Board of Education
1145:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
996:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
384:Supreme Court of California
3141:
3125:American legal terminology
3105:Civil rights and liberties
1796:Korematsu v. United States
521:Korematsu v. United States
308:Korematsu v. United States
181:has the power to regulate
95:Korematsu v. United States
3064:
3053:
2999:United States v. Morrison
2937:
2924:
2406:United States v. Skrmetti
2398:United States v. Virginia
2011:Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson
1727:
1714:
1432:Jacobson v. Massachusetts
1365:Gonzaga University v. Doe
830:
817:
741:
728:
474:U.S. v. Carolene Products
345:, 121 S.Ct. 2053 (2001).
341:, 102 S.Ct. 3331 (1982),
264:Levels of judicial review
193:. State acts that affect
3031:United States v. Georgia
2975:City of Boerne v. Flores
2139:United States v. Fordice
1696:Williams v. Pennsylvania
1664:Washington v. Glucksberg
624:Windsor v. United States
491:411 U.S. 677, 686 (1973)
229:Windsor v. United States
66:or highly visible trait.
3039:Shelby County v. Holder
2604:Cabell v. Chavez-Salido
2460:Patsone v. Pennsylvania
1721:Equal Protection Clause
1648:Michael H. v. Gerald D.
1041:United States v. Vuitch
956:Griswold v. Connecticut
537:Perry v. Schwarzenegger
489:Frontiero v. Richardson
419:Tyranny of the majority
246:Rational basis scrutiny
226:as unconstitutional in
203:, 457 U.S. 202 (1982).
191:rational basis scrutiny
120:Perry v. Schwarzenegger
2906:Armour v. Indianapolis
2270:Moritz v. Commissioner
1326:Procunier v. Navarette
1244:Civil rights liability
1032:Abortion jurisprudence
601:, 458 U.S. 718 (1982).
179:United States Congress
28:suspect classification
2959:Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer
2802:Richardson v. Ramirez
2770:Boddie v. Connecticut
2358:Kirchberg v. Feenstra
2187:Johnson v. California
1907:McLaughlin v. Florida
1295:O'Connor v. Donaldson
855:Allgeyer v. Louisiana
747:Slaughter-House Cases
355:rational basis review
334:intermediate scrutiny
328:Intermediate scrutiny
212:Intermediate scrutiny
171:are a suspect class (
2951:Katzenbach v. Morgan
2698:Breedlove v. Suttles
2548:Graham v. Richardson
2441:Obergefell v. Hodges
2246:Breedlove v. Suttles
2179:Grutter v. Bollinger
2019:Jefferson v. Hackney
1688:Obergefell v. Hodges
1624:Edwards v. Aguillard
1504:Epperson v. Arkansas
1341:Harlow v. Fitzgerald
1276:Jenkins v. McKeithen
1169:Mazurek v. Armstrong
1129:Hodgson v. Minnesota
1089:Bellotti v. Baird II
1081:Colautti v. Franklin
836:Economic substantive
314:Grutter v. Bollinger
174:Graham v. Richardson
2882:Gregory v. Ashcroft
2850:Mills v. Habluetzel
2834:Zablocki v. Redhail
2778:Eisenstadt v. Baird
2714:Oyama v. California
2706:Skinner v. Oklahoma
2639:Shapiro v. Thompson
2556:Sugarman v. Dougall
2500:Porterfield v. Webb
2492:Terrace v. Thompson
2155:Missouri v. Jenkins
2099:Hunter v. Underwood
2043:Milliken v. Bradley
2035:Norwood v. Harrison
1987:McDaniel v. Barresi
1672:Troxel v. Granville
1552:Mathews v. Eldridge
1536:Taylor v. Louisiana
1413:Connick v. Thompson
1193:Gonzales v. Carhart
1177:Stenberg v. Carhart
1161:Lambert v. Wicklund
1073:Bellotti v. Baird I
871:Lochner v. New York
755:Minor v. Happersett
439:Wintemute, Robert,
216:legitimacy of birth
207:Quasi-suspect class
195:unlawful immigrants
92:, 320 U.S. 81 and
2943:Civil Rights Cases
2931:Enforcement Clause
2762:Oregon v. Mitchell
2754:Williams v. Rhodes
2580:Nyquist v. Mauclet
2540:Hernandez v. Texas
2425:Bowers v. Hardwick
2417:Sexual orientation
2294:Stanton v. Stanton
2286:Geduldig v. Aiello
2254:Goesaert v. Cleary
2171:Gratz v. Bollinger
1995:Palmer v. Thompson
1947:Hunter v. Erickson
1923:Loving v. Virginia
1891:Anderson v. Martin
1812:Shelley v. Kraemer
1756:Plessy v. Ferguson
1748:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
1600:Kolender v. Lawson
1496:Loving v. Virginia
1311:Imbler v. Pachtman
1288:Wood v. Strickland
1153:Leavitt v. Jane L.
980:Bowers v. Hardwick
895:Buchanan v. Warley
824:Due Process Clause
735:Citizenship Clause
584:2011-12-13 at the
563:2011-07-14 at the
303:affirmative action
129:sexual orientation
24:constitutional law
3092:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3078:Trump v. Anderson
3070:Gold Clause Cases
3049:
3048:
3023:Tennessee v. Lane
2920:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2826:Trimble v. Gordon
2746:Levy v. Louisiana
2738:Rinaldi v. Yeager
2620:Bernal v. Fainter
2596:Ambach v. Norwick
2588:Foley v. Connelie
2484:Crane v. New York
2382:Lehr v. Robertson
2334:Caban v. Mohammed
2091:Palmore v. Sidoti
1931:Lee v. Washington
1915:Reitman v. Mulkey
1866:Gebhart v. Belton
1852:Briggs v. Elliott
1828:Sweatt v. Painter
1710:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1584:Parratt v. Taylor
1568:Duren v. Missouri
1528:Arnett v. Kennedy
1456:Powell v. Alabama
1397:Ashcroft v. Iqbal
1282:Scheuer v. Rhodes
1097:H. L. v. Matheson
1004:Lawrence v. Texas
940:Meyer v. Nebraska
887:Coppage v. Kansas
813:
812:
779:Perez v. Brownell
322:fundamental right
299:national security
139:held the same in
3132:
3055:
2967:Dellmuth v. Muth
2926:
2326:Parham v. Hughes
2302:Edwards v. Healy
2131:Freeman v. Pitts
1886:(M.D. Ala. 1956)
1883:Browder v. Gayle
1729:
1716:
1632:Turner v. Safley
1608:Hudson v. Palmer
1472:NAACP v. Alabama
931:Right to privacy
879:Muller v. Oregon
847:Mugler v. Kansas
832:
819:
795:Rogers v. Bellei
730:
714:
707:
700:
691:
685:
678:Stewart, Chuck,
676:
670:
669:
657:
651:
650:
648:
646:
634:
628:
620:
614:
608:
602:
594:
588:
573:
567:
552:
546:
540:
532:
526:
524:
516:
510:
508:
500:
494:
484:
478:
469:
463:
459:Lyng v. Castillo
455:
446:
437:
62:They possess an
36:unconstitutional
32:Equal Protection
3140:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3084:
3060:
3045:
2933:
2912:
2661:
2626:
2564:In re Griffiths
2508:Webb v. O'Brien
2447:
2412:
2233:
2163:Texas v. Lesage
1955:Hadnott v. Amos
1740:Pace v. Alabama
1723:
1702:
1480:Hoyt v. Florida
1419:
1349:Felder v. Casey
1245:
1239:
1026:
925:
903:Adams v. Tanner
863:Holden v. Hardy
837:
826:
809:
787:Afroyim v. Rusk
737:
724:
718:
688:
677:
673:
659:
658:
654:
644:
642:
636:
635:
631:
621:
617:
609:
605:
595:
591:
586:Wayback Machine
574:
570:
565:Wayback Machine
553:
549:
534:
533:
529:
518:
517:
513:
502:
501:
497:
485:
481:
470:
466:
456:
449:
438:
431:
427:
414:Protected group
410:
368:Supreme Court's
364:
351:
330:
271:
269:Strict scrutiny
266:
243:
209:
158:
112:strict scrutiny
104:national origin
84:
79:
49:
41:strict scrutiny
34:claim alleging
17:
12:
11:
5:
3138:
3136:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3097:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3082:
3074:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3058:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3043:
3035:
3027:
3019:
3011:
3003:
2995:
2987:
2979:
2971:
2963:
2955:
2947:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2929:
2922:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2902:
2894:
2890:Vacco v. Quill
2886:
2878:
2870:
2866:Clark v. Jeter
2862:
2854:
2846:
2838:
2830:
2822:
2814:
2806:
2798:
2790:
2782:
2774:
2766:
2758:
2750:
2742:
2734:
2726:
2722:Oyler v. Boles
2718:
2710:
2702:
2694:
2686:
2678:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2651:
2643:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2616:
2608:
2600:
2592:
2584:
2576:
2568:
2560:
2552:
2544:
2536:
2528:
2520:
2512:
2504:
2496:
2488:
2480:
2476:Heim v. McCall
2472:
2468:Truax v. Raich
2464:
2455:
2453:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2445:
2437:
2433:Romer v. Evans
2429:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2402:
2394:
2386:
2378:
2370:
2362:
2354:
2346:
2338:
2330:
2322:
2314:
2310:Craig v. Boren
2306:
2298:
2290:
2282:
2278:Kahn v. Shevin
2274:
2266:
2258:
2250:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2231:
2223:
2215:
2207:
2199:
2191:
2183:
2175:
2167:
2159:
2151:
2143:
2135:
2127:
2119:
2111:
2103:
2095:
2087:
2079:
2071:
2063:
2055:
2047:
2039:
2031:
2023:
2015:
2007:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1975:
1967:
1959:
1951:
1943:
1935:
1927:
1919:
1911:
1903:
1895:
1887:
1879:
1871:
1870:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1840:
1832:
1824:
1820:Perez v. Sharp
1816:
1808:
1800:
1792:
1784:
1780:Smith v. Texas
1776:
1768:
1760:
1752:
1744:
1735:
1733:
1725:
1724:
1719:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1692:
1684:
1676:
1668:
1660:
1652:
1644:
1636:
1628:
1620:
1612:
1604:
1596:
1588:
1580:
1576:Parham v. J.R.
1572:
1564:
1556:
1548:
1540:
1532:
1524:
1516:
1508:
1500:
1492:
1488:Oyler v. Boles
1484:
1476:
1468:
1460:
1452:
1444:
1436:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1409:
1401:
1393:
1385:
1377:
1369:
1361:
1353:
1345:
1337:
1329:
1323:
1315:
1307:
1299:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1270:Pierson v. Ray
1267:
1261:
1257:Monroe v. Pape
1252:
1250:
1241:
1240:
1238:
1237:
1229:
1221:
1213:
1205:
1197:
1189:
1181:
1173:
1165:
1157:
1149:
1141:
1133:
1125:
1117:
1109:
1101:
1093:
1085:
1077:
1069:
1061:
1053:
1045:
1036:
1034:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1016:
1008:
1000:
992:
984:
976:
968:
960:
952:
944:
935:
933:
927:
926:
924:
923:
915:
907:
899:
891:
883:
875:
867:
859:
851:
842:
840:
828:
827:
822:
815:
814:
811:
810:
808:
807:
799:
791:
783:
775:
767:
763:Elk v. Wilkins
759:
751:
742:
739:
738:
733:
726:
725:
719:
717:
716:
709:
702:
694:
687:
686:
671:
652:
629:
615:
603:
589:
568:
547:
527:
511:
495:
479:
464:
447:
428:
426:
423:
422:
421:
416:
409:
406:
376:federal courts
363:
360:
350:
349:Rational basis
347:
329:
326:
301:, defense, or
270:
267:
265:
262:
242:
239:
208:
205:
157:
154:
133:rational basis
83:
80:
78:
77:Classification
75:
74:
73:
70:
67:
60:
48:
45:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3137:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3080:
3079:
3075:
3072:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3063:
3056:
3052:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3033:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2612:Plyler v. Doe
2609:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2598:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2516:Frick v. Webb
2513:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2003:Coit v. Green
2000:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1875:Lucy v. Adams
1872:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1578:
1577:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1565:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1544:Goss v. Lopez
1541:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1512:In re Winship
1509:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1440:Zucht v. King
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1303:Paul v. Davis
1300:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1242:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1209:Azar v. Garza
1206:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1057:Doe v. Bolton
1054:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1001:
998:
997:
993:
990:
989:
985:
982:
981:
977:
974:
973:
972:Doe v. Bolton
969:
966:
965:
961:
958:
957:
953:
950:
949:
945:
942:
941:
937:
936:
934:
932:
928:
921:
920:
916:
913:
912:
908:
905:
904:
900:
897:
896:
892:
889:
888:
884:
881:
880:
876:
873:
872:
868:
865:
864:
860:
857:
856:
852:
849:
848:
844:
843:
841:
839:
833:
829:
825:
820:
816:
805:
804:
800:
797:
796:
792:
789:
788:
784:
781:
780:
776:
773:
772:
768:
765:
764:
760:
757:
756:
752:
749:
748:
744:
743:
740:
736:
731:
727:
722:
715:
710:
708:
703:
701:
696:
695:
692:
683:
682:
675:
672:
667:
663:
656:
653:
640:
633:
630:
626:
625:
619:
616:
612:
607:
604:
600:
599:
593:
590:
587:
583:
580:
578:
572:
569:
566:
562:
559:
557:
551:
548:
544:
539:
538:
531:
528:
523:
522:
515:
512:
507:
506:
499:
496:
492:
490:
483:
480:
476:
475:
468:
465:
461:
460:
454:
452:
448:
444:
443:
436:
434:
430:
424:
420:
417:
415:
412:
411:
407:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
361:
359:
356:
348:
346:
344:
343:Nguyen v. INS
340:
335:
327:
325:
323:
318:
316:
315:
310:
309:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
268:
263:
261:
259:
255:
251:
247:
240:
238:
235:
231:
230:
225:
221:
217:
213:
206:
204:
202:
201:
200:Plyler v. Doe
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
175:
170:
166:
162:
155:
153:
150:
148:
144:
143:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
121:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
96:
91:
90:
82:Suspect class
81:
76:
71:
68:
65:
61:
58:
57:
56:
53:
46:
44:
42:
37:
33:
29:
25:
22:
21:United States
16:US legal term
3076:
3068:
3037:
3029:
3021:
3013:
3005:
2997:
2989:
2981:
2973:
2965:
2957:
2949:
2941:
2904:
2898:Bush v. Gore
2896:
2888:
2880:
2872:
2864:
2856:
2848:
2840:
2832:
2824:
2816:
2808:
2800:
2792:
2784:
2776:
2768:
2760:
2752:
2744:
2736:
2728:
2720:
2712:
2704:
2696:
2688:
2680:
2672:
2653:
2645:
2637:
2618:
2610:
2602:
2594:
2586:
2578:
2570:
2562:
2554:
2546:
2538:
2530:
2522:
2514:
2506:
2498:
2490:
2482:
2474:
2466:
2458:
2439:
2431:
2423:
2404:
2396:
2388:
2380:
2372:
2364:
2356:
2348:
2340:
2332:
2324:
2316:
2308:
2300:
2292:
2284:
2276:
2268:
2262:Reed v. Reed
2260:
2252:
2244:
2225:
2217:
2209:
2201:
2193:
2185:
2177:
2169:
2161:
2153:
2145:
2137:
2129:
2121:
2113:
2105:
2097:
2089:
2081:
2073:
2065:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2033:
2025:
2017:
2009:
2001:
1993:
1985:
1977:
1969:
1961:
1953:
1945:
1937:
1929:
1921:
1913:
1905:
1897:
1889:
1881:
1873:
1864:
1857:
1850:
1842:
1834:
1826:
1818:
1810:
1802:
1794:
1786:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1754:
1746:
1738:
1694:
1686:
1678:
1670:
1662:
1654:
1646:
1638:
1630:
1622:
1614:
1606:
1598:
1590:
1582:
1574:
1566:
1558:
1550:
1542:
1534:
1526:
1518:
1510:
1502:
1494:
1486:
1478:
1470:
1462:
1454:
1448:Buck v. Bell
1446:
1438:
1430:
1411:
1403:
1395:
1387:
1379:
1371:
1363:
1355:
1347:
1339:
1331:
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838:due process
645:October 27,
398:Connecticut
183:immigration
3099:Categories
2318:Orr v. Orr
666:Justia.com
425:References
394:California
388:California
258:disability
241:All others
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287:ethnicity
64:immutable
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723:case law
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471:See:
372:State
353:When
332:When
293:, or
283:color
167:law,
165:state
1732:Race
647:2012
543:Text
402:Iowa
400:and
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254:age
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