31:
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1334:, a compound consisting of three parts niobium and one part tin, was capable of supporting a current density of more than 100,000 amperes per square centimeter in a magnetic field of 8.8 tesla. Despite being brittle and difficult to fabricate, niobiumâtin has since proved extremely useful in supermagnets generating magnetic fields as high as 20 tesla. In 1962, T. G. Berlincourt and R. R. Hake discovered that more ductile alloys of niobium and titanium are suitable for applications up to 10 tesla. Promptly thereafter, commercial production of
979:
1058:. It was put forward by the brothers Fritz and Heinz London in 1935, shortly after the discovery that magnetic fields are expelled from superconductors. A major triumph of the equations of this theory is their ability to explain the Meissner effect, wherein a material exponentially expels all internal magnetic fields as it crosses the superconducting threshold. By using the London equation, one can obtain the dependence of the magnetic field inside the superconductor on the distance to the surface.
59:
2126:. However, in the presence of an external magnetic field there is latent heat, because the superconducting phase has a lower entropy below the critical temperature than the normal phase. It has been experimentally demonstrated that, as a consequence, when the magnetic field is increased beyond the critical field, the resulting phase transition leads to a decrease in the temperature of the superconducting material.
1774:
1857:
lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature. In practice, currents injected in superconducting coils persisted for 28 years, 7 months, 27 days in a superconducting gravimeter in
Belgium, from August 4, 1995 until March 31, 2024. In such instruments, the measurement is based on the monitoring of the levitation of a superconducting niobium sphere with a mass of four grams.
7219:
2083:
phase and so for some finite value of the magnetic field (proportional to the square root of the difference of the free energies at zero magnetic field) the two free energies will be equal and a phase transition to the normal phase will occur. More generally, a higher temperature and a stronger magnetic field lead to a smaller fraction of electrons that are superconducting and consequently to a longer
1645:
2027:, one of the first cuprate superconductors to be discovered, has a critical temperature above 90 K, and mercury-based cuprates have been found with critical temperatures in excess of 130 K. The basic physical mechanism responsible for the high critical temperature is not yet clear. However, it is clear that a two-electron pairing is involved, although the nature of the pairing (
1967:
1958:
taken into account in sensitive experiments. However, as the temperature decreases far enough below the nominal superconducting transition, these vortices can become frozen into a disordered but stationary phase known as a "vortex glass". Below this vortex glass transition temperature, the resistance of the material becomes truly zero.
1183:
2316:. Depending on the geometry of the sample, one may obtain an intermediate state consisting of a baroque pattern of regions of normal material carrying a magnetic field mixed with regions of superconducting material containing no field. In Type II superconductors, raising the applied field past a critical value
2970:(1973), "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively" and "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects".
1325:
Soon after discovering superconductivity in 1911, Kamerlingh Onnes attempted to make an electromagnet with superconducting windings but found that relatively low magnetic fields destroyed superconductivity in the materials he investigated. Much later, in 1955, G. B. Yntema succeeded in constructing a
1233:
showed that
GinzburgâLandau theory predicts the division of superconductors into the two categories now referred to as Type I and Type II. Abrikosov and Ginzburg were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize for their work (Landau had received the 1962 Nobel Prize for other work, and died in 1968). The
2922:
are more efficient and require only a fraction of the space, which would not only lead to a better environmental performance but could also improve public acceptance for expansion of the electric grid. Another attractive industrial aspect is the ability for high power transmission at lower voltages.
2216:
The
Meissner effect is distinct from this – it is the spontaneous expulsion that occurs during transition to superconductivity. Suppose we have a material in its normal state, containing a constant internal magnetic field. When the material is cooled below the critical temperature, we
2672:
of approximately 1.1 degrees with cooling and applying a small electric charge. Even if the experiments were not carried out in a high-temperature environment, the results are correlated less to classical but high temperature superconductors, given that no foreign atoms need to be introduced.
2529:
This temperature jump is of particular engineering significance, since it allows liquid nitrogen as a refrigerant, replacing liquid helium. Liquid nitrogen can be produced relatively cheaply, even on-site. The higher temperatures additionally help to avoid some of the problems that arise at liquid
1957:
in the electronic superfluid, which dissipates some of the energy carried by the current. If the current is sufficiently small, the vortices are stationary, and the resistivity vanishes. The resistance due to this effect is minuscule compared with that of non-superconducting materials, but must be
2082:
of the superconducting phase increases quadratically with the magnetic field while the free energy of the normal phase is roughly independent of the magnetic field. If the material superconducts in the absence of a field, then the superconducting phase free energy is lower than that of the normal
1350:
and ease of fabrication. However, both niobiumâtin and niobiumâtitanium find wide application in MRI medical imagers, bending and focusing magnets for enormous high-energy-particle accelerators, and a host of other applications. Conectus, a
European superconductivity consortium, estimated that in
6074:
Design and in-field testing of the world's first ReBCO rotor for a 3.6 MW wind generator" by Anne Bergen, Rasmus
Andersen, Markus Bauer, Hermann Boy, Marcel ter Brake, Patrick Brutsaert, Carsten BĂŒhrer, Marc DhallĂ©, Jesper Hansen and Herman ten Kate, 25 October 2019, Superconductor Science and
1856:
machines. Experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a lifetime of at least 100,000 years. Theoretical estimates for the lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated
5660:
Drozdov, A. P.; Kong, P. P.; Minkov, V. S.; Besedin, S. P.; Kuzovnikov, M. A.; Mozaffari, S.; Balicas, L.; Balakirev, F. F.; Graf, D. E.; Prakapenka, V. B.; Greenberg, E.; Knyazev, D. A.; Tkacz, M.; Eremets, M. I. (2019). "Superconductivity at 250 K in
Lanthanum Hydride under High Pressures".
2727:
Superconductors are promising candidate materials for devising fundamental circuit elements of electronic, spintronic, and quantum technologies. One such example is a superconducting diode, in which supercurrent flows along one direction only, that promise dissipationless superconducting and
1014:
transition of helium at 2.2 K, without recognizing its significance. The precise date and circumstances of the discovery were only reconstructed a century later, when Onnes's notebook was found. In subsequent decades, superconductivity was observed in several other materials. In 1913,
2308:
A superconductor with little or no magnetic field within it is said to be in the
Meissner state. The Meissner state breaks down when the applied magnetic field is too large. Superconductors can be divided into two classes according to how this breakdown occurs. In Type I superconductors,
1953:, an extremely low but non-zero resistivity appears at temperatures not too far below the nominal superconducting transition when an electric current is applied in conjunction with a strong magnetic field, which may be caused by the electric current. This is due to the motion of
2212:
magnetic field is applied to a conductor, it will induce an electric current in the conductor that creates an opposing magnetic field. In a perfect conductor, an arbitrarily large current can be induced, and the resulting magnetic field exactly cancels the applied field.
2189:, and cooled below its transition temperature, the magnetic field is ejected. The Meissner effect does not cause the field to be completely ejected but instead, the field penetrates the superconductor but only to a very small distance, characterized by a parameter
2715:
1066:
2376:. This experiment measured the magnetic fields of four superconducting gyroscopes to determine their spin axes. This was critical to the experiment since it is one of the few ways to accurately determine the spin axis of an otherwise featureless sphere.
1346:. Although niobiumâtitanium boasts less-impressive superconducting properties than those of niobiumâtin, niobiumâtitanium has, nevertheless, become the most widely used "workhorse" supermagnet material, in large measure a consequence of its very high
1745:, the critical magnetic field, and the critical current density at which superconductivity is destroyed. On the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. The Meissner effect, the quantization of the
923:, the complete cancelation of the magnetic field in the interior of the superconductor during its transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be understood simply as the
2169:
1538: > 77 K, although this is generally used only to emphasize that liquid nitrogen coolant is sufficient. Low temperature superconductors refer to materials with a critical temperature below 30 K, and are cooled mainly by
2762:
industries. They can also be used in large wind turbines to overcome the restrictions imposed by high electrical currents, with an industrial grade 3.6 megawatt superconducting windmill generator having been tested successfully in
Denmark.
5725:; Fatemi, Valla; Demir, Ahmet; Fang, Shiang; Tomarken, Spencer L.; Luo, Jason Y.; Sanchez-Yamagishi, J. D.; Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T. (2018-03-05). "Correlated insulator behaviour at half-filling in magic-angle graphene superlattices".
4597:
2197:, decaying exponentially to zero within the bulk of the material. The Meissner effect is a defining characteristic of superconductivity. For most superconductors, the London penetration depth is on the order of 100 nm.
2098:
is proportional to the temperature in the normal (non-superconducting) regime. At the superconducting transition, it suffers a discontinuous jump and thereafter ceases to be linear. At low temperatures, it varies instead as
4119:
Hashimoto, Takahiro; Ota, Yuichi; Tsuzuki, Akihiro; Nagashima, Tsubaki; Fukushima, Akiko; Kasahara, Shigeru; Matsuda, Yuji; Matsuura, Kohei; Mizukami, Yuta; Shibauchi, Takasada; Shin, Shik; Okazaki, Kozo (1 November 2020).
2695:
On 31 December 2023 "Global Room-Temperature
Superconductivity in Graphite" was published in the journal "Advanced Quantum Technologies" claiming to demonstrate superconductivity at room temperature and ambient pressure in
2641:) at extremely high pressures (around 150 gigapascals) was first predicted and then confirmed to be a high-temperature superconductor with a transition temperature of 80 K. Additionally, in 2019 it was discovered that
1864:
moving across a heavy ionic lattice. The electrons are constantly colliding with the ions in the lattice, and during each collision some of the energy carried by the current is absorbed by the lattice and converted into
1276:. This BCS theory explained the superconducting current as a superfluid of Cooper pairs, pairs of electrons interacting through the exchange of phonons. For this work, the authors were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1972.
2541:, and spin fluctuation which has the most support in the research community. The second hypothesis proposed that electron pairing in high-temperature superconductors is mediated by short-range spin waves known as
2129:
Calculations in the 1970s suggested that it may actually be weakly first-order due to the effect of long-range fluctuations in the electromagnetic field. In the 1980s it was shown theoretically with the help of a
2284:
963:
boils at 77 K (â196 °C) and thus the existence of superconductivity at higher temperatures than this facilitates many experiments and applications that are less practical at lower temperatures.
2692:
by the editors because the validity of background subtraction procedures had been called into question. All nine authors maintain that the raw data strongly support the main claims of the paper.
2716:
2717:
5920:
Snider, Elliot; Dasenbrock-Gammon, Nathan; McBride, Raymond; Debessai, Mathew; Vindana, Hiranya; Vencatasamy, Kevin; Lawler, Keith V.; Salamat, Ashkan; Dias, Ranga P. (26 September 2022).
2172:
34:
A high-temperature superconductor levitating above a magnet. Persistent electric current flows on the surface of the superconductor, acting to exclude the magnetic field of the magnet (
3374:"Further experiments with liquid helium. C. On the change of electric resistance of pure metals at very low temperatures etc. IV. The resistance of pure mercury at helium temperatures"
2176:
2175:
2171:
2170:
3789:
Combescot, M.; Pogosov, W. V.; Betbeder-Matibet, O. (2013). "BCS ansatz for superconductivity in the light of the
Bogoliubov approach and the RichardsonâGaudin exact wave function".
2859:
the lower weight and volume of superconducting generators could lead to savings in construction and tower costs, offsetting the higher costs for the generator and lowering the total
2177:
5563:
Drozdov, A. P.; Eremets, M. I.; Troyan, I. A.; Ksenofontov, V.; Shylin, S. I. (2015). "Conventional superconductivity at 203 kelvin at high pressures in the sulfur hydride system".
616:
1761:, and thus possesses certain distinguishing properties which are largely independent of microscopic details. Off diagonal long range order is closely connected to the formation of
1358:
made the important theoretical prediction that a supercurrent can flow between two pieces of superconductor separated by a thin layer of insulator. This phenomenon, now called the
1880:
The situation is different in a superconductor. In a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons. Instead, it consists of bound
4299:
Superconductors come broadly in two types: conventional, in which the activity can be explained by the mainstream theory of superconductivity, and unconventional, where it can't.
2923:
Advancements in the efficiency of cooling systems and use of cheap coolants such as liquid nitrogen have also significantly decreased cooling costs needed for superconductivity.
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Many other cuprate superconductors have since been discovered, and the theory of superconductivity in these materials is one of the major outstanding challenges of theoretical
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group of superconductors which display behaviour and properties typical of high-temperature superconductors, yet some of the group have critical temperatures below 30 K.
2718:
589:
1351:
2014, global economic activity for which superconductivity was indispensable amounted to about five billion euros, with MRI systems accounting for about 80% of that total.
7701:
1178:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {j} }{\partial t}}={\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {E} ,\qquad \mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {j} =-{\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {B} .}
6091:
601:
4681:
Drozdov, A.; Eremets, M.; Troyan, I.; Ksenofontov, V. (17 August 2015). "Conventional superconductivity at 203 kelvin at high pressures in the sulfur hydride system".
2817:
1996:. The value of this critical temperature varies from material to material. Conventional superconductors usually have critical temperatures ranging from around 20
1749:
or permanent currents, i.e. the state of zero resistance are the most important examples. The existence of these "universal" properties is rooted in the nature of the
2327:
penetrates the material, but there remains no resistance to the flow of electric current as long as the current is not too large. At a second critical field strength
1283:
showed that the BCS wavefunction, which had originally been derived from a variational argument, could be obtained using a canonical transformation of the electronic
2530:
helium temperatures, such as the formation of plugs of frozen air that can block cryogenic lines and cause unanticipated and potentially hazardous pressure buildup.
7021:
6567:
2841:
2709:
2174:
30:
5439:
Ren, Zhi-An; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity and phase diagram in iron-based arsenic-oxides ReFeAsO1-d (Re = rare-earth metal) without fluorine doping".
2065:
2045:
4428:
Flores-Livas, José A.; et al. (29 April 2020). "A perspective on conventional high-temperature superconductors at high pressure: Methods and materials".
2758:. They can also be used for magnetic separation, where weakly magnetic particles are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the
2372:
Conversely, a spinning superconductor generates a magnetic field, precisely aligned with the spin axis. The effect, the London moment, was put to good use in
5358:
Takahashi, Hiroki; Igawa, Kazumi; Arii, Kazunobu; Kamihara, Yoichi; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity at 43 K in an iron-based layered compound LaO
3495:
2004:, for example, has a critical temperature of 4.2 K. As of 2015, the highest critical temperature found for a conventional superconductor is 203 K for H
6754:
6691:
3940:
Berlincourt, T. G. & Hake, R. R. (1962). "Pulsed-Magnetic-Field Studies of Superconducting Transition Metal Alloys at High and Low Current Densities".
3905:
Kunzler, J. E.; Buehler, E.; Hsu, F. L. S.; Wernick, J. H. (1961). "Superconductivity in Nb3Sn at High Current Density in a Magnetic Field of 88 kgauss".
7156:
2235:
1453:, meaning it has two critical fields, between which it allows partial penetration of the magnetic field through isolated points. These points are called
852:
1873:
of the lattice ions. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated. This is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and
1322:. Two superconductors with greatly different values of the critical magnetic field are combined to produce a fast, simple switch for computer elements.
621:
6411:
2552:
theory, was proposed by Gubser, Hartnoll, Herzog, and Horowitz, as a possible explanation of high-temperature superconductivity in certain materials.
1203:
physicists arrived at an understanding of "conventional" superconductivity, through a pair of remarkable and important theories: the phenomenological
1567:
Bottom: Periodic table of superconducting binary hydrides (0â300 GPa). Theoretical predictions indicated in blue and experimental results in red
631:
6326:
6227:
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Dai, P.; Chakoumakos, B. C.; Sun, G. F.; Wong, K. W.; et al. (1995). "Synthesis and neutron powder diffraction study of the superconductor HgBa
3538:
2719:
1457:. Furthermore, in multicomponent superconductors it is possible to have a combination of the two behaviours. In that case the superconductor is of
3021:
2677:". These act as a single particle and can pair up across the graphene's layers, leading to the basic conditions required for superconductivity.
5977:
Kopelevich, Yakov; Torres, José; Da Silva, Robson; Oliveira, Felipe; Diamantini, Maria Cristina; Trugenberger, Carlo; Vinokur, Valerii (2024).
5494:
Li, Yinwei; Hao, Jian; Liu, Hanyu; Li, Yanling; Ma, Yanming (2014-05-07). "The metallization and superconductivity of dense hydrogen sulfide".
2173:
456:
6418:
2684:(critical temperature 288 K) made from hydrogen, carbon and sulfur under pressures of around 270 gigapascals was described in a paper in
2522:
material, which had a transition temperature of 35 K (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1987). It was soon found that replacing the lanthanum with
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2942:(1913), "for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium".
2816:. Superconducting photon detectors can be realised in a variety of device configurations. Depending on the particular mode of operation, a
1034:
discovered that superconductors expelled applied magnetic fields, a phenomenon which has come to be known as the Meissner effect. In 1935,
951:
materials have a critical temperature above 90 K (â183 °C). Such a high transition temperature is theoretically impossible for a
2828:. The large resistance change at the transition from the normal to the superconducting state is used to build thermometers in cryogenic
6644:
Video about Type I Superconductors: R=0/transition temperatures/ B is a state variable/ Meissner effect/ Energy gap(Giaever)/ BCS model
1010:. At the temperature of 4.2 K, he observed that the resistance abruptly disappeared. In the same experiment, he also observed the
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Until 1986, physicists had believed that BCS theory forbade superconductivity at temperatures above about 30 K. In that year,
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Similarly, at a fixed temperature below the critical temperature, superconducting materials cease to superconduct when an external
5795:
1741:
Several physical properties of superconductors vary from material to material, such as the critical temperature, the value of the
1447:, above which all superconductivity is lost and below which the magnetic field is completely expelled from the superconductor; or
998:
Superconductivity was discovered on April 8, 1911, by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was studying the resistance of solid mercury at
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6630:
1211:
956:
2334:, superconductivity is destroyed. The mixed state is actually caused by vortices in the electronic superfluid, sometimes called
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1950:
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Great efforts have been devoted to finding out how and why superconductivity works; the important step occurred in 1933, when
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The superconductivity effect came about as a result of electrons twisted into a vortex between the graphene layers, called "
3097:
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The onset of superconductivity is accompanied by abrupt changes in various physical properties, which is the hallmark of a
1396:, this leads to a precise measurement of the Planck constant. Josephson was awarded the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973.
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Hirsch, J. E.; Maple, M. B.; Marsiglio, F. (2015-07-15). "Superconducting materials classes: Introduction and overview".
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if it reaches a superconducting state above a temperature of 30 K (â243.15 °C); as in the initial discovery by
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Generalizations of BCS theory for conventional superconductors form the basis for the understanding of the phenomenon of
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La supraconductivité non-conventionnelle du ruthénate de strontium: corrélations électroniques et couplage spin-orbite
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1804:
1471:
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659:
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Gor'kov, L. P. (1959). "Microscopic derivation of the GinzburgâLandau equations in the theory of superconductivity".
1214:
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Reynolds, C. A.; Serin, B.; Wright, W. H. & Nesbitt, L. B. (1950). "Superconductivity of Isotopes of Mercury".
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1853:
1754:
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1229:-like wave equation, had great success in explaining the macroscopic properties of superconductors. In particular,
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The theoretical model that was first conceived for superconductivity was completely classical: it is summarized by
284:
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would observe the abrupt expulsion of the internal magnetic field, which we would not expect based on Lenz's law.
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The Schrödinger Equation in a Classical Context: A Seminar on Superconductivity â The Feynman Lectures on Physics
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Van Camp, Michel; de Viron, Olivier; Watlet, Arnaud; Meurers, Bruno; Francis, Olivier; Caudron, Corentin (2017).
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2229:
1627:; though perhaps these examples should be included among the chemical elements, as they are composed entirely of
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Also in 1950, Maxwell and Reynolds et al. found that the critical temperature of a superconductor depends on the
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In February 2008, an iron-based family of high-temperature superconductors was discovered. Hideo Hosono, of the
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Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, a property exploited in
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Pines, D. (2002), "The Spin Fluctuation Model for High Temperature Superconductivity: Progress and Prospects",
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5200:"Toward a theory of high-temperature superconductivity in the antiferromagnetically correlated cuprate oxides"
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Other early markets are arising where the relative efficiency, size and weight advantages of devices based on
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superconductivity is abruptly destroyed when the strength of the applied field rises above a critical value
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was long a matter of debate. Experiments indicate that the transition is second-order, meaning there is no
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6319:"Superconducting transmission lines â Sustainable electric energy transfer with higher public acceptance?"
4393:(7358). Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.: 37â39.
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of external magnetic fields and currents. The penetration depth becomes infinite at the phase transition.
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6223:"A review of offshore wind turbine nacelle: Technical challenges, and research and developmental trends"
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Callaway, David J. E. (1990). "On the remarkable structure of the superconducting intermediate state".
2980:(1987), "for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials".
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Top: Periodic table of superconducting elemental solids and their experimental critical temperature (T)
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showed that the BCS theory reduced to the GinzburgâLandau theory close to the critical temperature.
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4806:"Disorder Version of the Abelian Higgs Model and the Order of the Superconductive Phase Transition"
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From about 1993, the highest-temperature superconductor known was a ceramic material consisting of
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In superconducting materials, the characteristics of superconductivity appear when the temperature
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small 0.7-tesla iron-core electromagnet with superconducting niobium wire windings. Then, in 1961,
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Meissner, W. & Ochsenfeld, R. (1933). "Ein neuer Effekt bei Eintritt der SupraleitfÀhigkeit".
2181:
Meissner effect in a high-temperature superconductor (black pellet) with a NdFeB magnet (metallic)
7600:
7529:
7363:
7095:
6846:
6806:
6576:
6509:
6372:
6299:
6273:
6203:
6177:
6146:
6057:
5990:
5959:
5864:
5776:
5734:
5704:
5670:
5614:
5572:
5545:
5503:
5476:
5450:
5406:
5287:
5148:
4892:
4866:
4830:
4724:
4690:
4638:
4524:
4490:
4463:
4437:
4410:
4324:
4069:
3824:
3798:
3520:
3475:
3303:
3139:
2991:
2987:
2967:
2956:(1972), "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory".
2790:
1927:
1820:
1608:
1399:
In 2008, it was proposed that the same mechanism that produces superconductivity could produce a
654:
394:
196:
156:
5260:
Schilling, A.; et al. (1993). "Superconductivity above 130 K in the HgâBaâCaâCuâO system".
2766:
In the 1950s and 1960s, superconductors were used to build experimental digital computers using
1330:, E. Buehler, F. S. L. Hsu, and J. H. Wernick made the startling discovery that, at 4.2 kelvin,
6658:
6653:
5425:
1702:
7630:
7595:
7554:
7443:
7395:
7380:
7273:
7243:
6871:
6614:
6547:
6528:
6495:
6476:
6457:
6438:
6138:
6049:
5951:
5883:
5856:
5848:
5768:
5760:
5696:
5606:
5598:
5537:
5529:
5398:
5229:
5179:
5140:
5012:
4981:"Superconductivity at 93 K in a New Mixed-Phase YâBaâCuâO Compound System at Ambient Pressure"
4941:
4919:
4857:
4850:"Vortex interactions and thermally induced crossover from type-I to type-II superconductivity"
4747:
4716:
4661:
4630:
4516:
4402:
4365:
4342:
4290:
4167:
4149:
3354:
3249:
3222:
3188:
3182:
3164:
3129:
3076:
3049:
2977:
2910:. However, superconductivity is sensitive to moving magnetic fields, so applications that use
2844:
offer high speed, low noise single-photon detection and have been employed widely in advanced
2747:
2642:
2302:
2151:
2079:
2001:
1893:
1750:
1576:
1524:
1315:
1299:
1031:
934:
929:
916:
714:
6416:
60050-815:2000, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) â Part 815: Superconductivity
6390:
3159:
3070:
1042:
showed that the Meissner effect was a consequence of the minimization of the electromagnetic
7585:
7208:
7080:
7054:
6826:
6801:
6734:
6604:
6594:
6364:
6335:
6291:
6244:
6236:
6195:
6130:
6041:
6000:
5941:
5875:
5840:
5752:
5688:
5590:
5521:
5468:
5390:
5373:
5340:
5279:
5262:
5219:
5171:
5132:
5030:
5002:
4958:
4884:
4822:
4786:
4708:
4622:
4576:
4508:
4455:
4394:
4334:
4280:
4256:
4157:
4141:
4122:"BoseâEinstein condensation superconductivity induced by disappearance of the nematic state"
4043:
4020:
3983:
3922:
3887:
3816:
3729:
3692:
3632:
3586:
3512:
3467:
3427:
3344:
3295:
3119:
3043:
2825:
2665:
2625:
2347:
2339:
2119:
2091:
1954:
1572:
1359:
1280:
1269:
1055:
1027:
893:
889:
814:
729:
689:
679:
566:
521:
504:
421:
356:
126:
50:
7103:
6649:
Lectures on Superconductivity (series of videos, including interviews with leading experts)
5115:
Mann, Adam (July 20, 2011). "High-temperature superconductivity at 25: Still in suspense".
5098:
3493:
London, F. & London, H. (1935). "The Electromagnetic Equations of the Supraconductor".
2138:
of the superconductor play a major role, that the transition is of second order within the
1331:
7575:
7428:
7165:
6836:
6626:
6422:
4769:
4210:
4185:
4038:
4003:
3870:
3712:
3675:
3615:
3569:
3322:
2845:
2771:
2373:
2355:
2298:
2163:
1897:
1624:
1596:
1528:
1490:
1389:
1222:
1020:
987:
960:
920:
749:
674:
669:
536:
411:
376:
271:
236:
136:
35:
2323:
leads to a mixed state (also known as the vortex state) in which an increasing amount of
1527:. It may also reference materials that transition to superconductivity when cooled using
789:
6590:
6287:
6199:
6191:
6037:
5937:
5836:
5748:
5684:
5586:
5517:
5464:
5386:
5336:
5275:
5215:
5128:
4998:
4954:
4880:
4782:
4704:
4618:
4504:
4451:
4276:
4137:
4016:
3979:
3918:
3883:
3812:
3725:
3688:
3628:
3582:
3508:
3463:
3423:
3389:
3340:
3291:
3114:
2994:(2003), "for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids".
2394:
Timeline of superconducting materials. Colors represent different classes of materials:
1892:. This pairing is very weak, and small thermal vibrations can fracture the bond. Due to
884:, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered, even down to near
7373:
7368:
7325:
7258:
7253:
6841:
6785:
6775:
6739:
6609:
6562:
4162:
4121:
3404:
2949:
2915:
2887:
2071:
2050:
2030:
1915:
1888:. This pairing is caused by an attractive force between electrons from the exchange of
1870:
1824:
1758:
1454:
1444:
1400:
1288:
1225:. This theory, which combined Landau's theory of second-order phase transitions with a
983:
908:
877:
709:
704:
526:
416:
341:
291:
241:
214:
171:
146:
116:
109:
6563:"On the electron pairing mechanism of copper-oxide high temperature superconductivity"
5922:"Retraction Note: Room-temperature superconductivity in a carbonaceous sulfur hydride"
5170:, NATO Science Series: B, vol. 371, New York: Kluwer Academic, pp. 111â142,
2107:. This exponential behavior is one of the pieces of evidence for the existence of the
1429:
There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified. The most common are:
7655:
7610:
7590:
7513:
7473:
7408:
7340:
7263:
6150:
6061:
6020:
5963:
5868:
5708:
5441:
5344:
5152:
4962:
4834:
4805:
4642:
4467:
4024:
3987:
3828:
3327:
3307:
2973:
2735:
2367:
2358:, are Type I, while almost all impure and compound superconductors are Type II.
2324:
2205:
2095:
1874:
1539:
1520:
1295:
1264:
The complete microscopic theory of superconductivity was finally proposed in 1957 by
1003:
885:
824:
809:
794:
734:
446:
361:
346:
261:
246:
151:
6376:
6303:
6264:
Linder, Jacob; Robinson, Jason W. A. (2 April 2015). "Superconducting spintronics".
5549:
5480:
4896:
4528:
4414:
3479:
3144:
1773:
7635:
7508:
7503:
7498:
7463:
7413:
7330:
6876:
6866:
6821:
6816:
6514:
6207:
5780:
5618:
5472:
5291:
4728:
2963:
2945:
2906:, enhancing spintronic devices with superconducting materials, and superconducting
2895:
2883:
2856:
2798:
2783:
2225:
2221:
2201:
1265:
1039:
1035:
804:
699:
664:
606:
541:
426:
306:
181:
6663:
6355:
Ren, Li; et al. (2009). "Technical and Economical Assessment of HTS Cables".
6134:
5410:
5056:
4459:
4070:"Newly discovered fundamental state of matter, a superinsulator, has been created"
3652:
Ginzburg, V. L. & Landau, L. D. (1950). "On the theory of superconductivity".
1938:, the fluid will not be scattered by the lattice. The Cooper pair fluid is thus a
1838:
1489:. Alternatively, a superconductor is called unconventional if the superconducting
461:
3212:
7544:
7438:
7350:
7218:
7002:
6811:
6113:
5224:
5199:
4512:
4338:
3820:
2914:(e.g. transformers) will be more difficult to develop than those that rely upon
2875:
2829:
2669:
2601:
2143:
2135:
2123:
1935:
1885:
1762:
1644:
1502:
1498:
1314:
The first practical application of superconductivity was developed in 1954 with
1007:
724:
576:
406:
68:
6340:
6240:
6045:
5946:
5921:
5879:
5007:
4980:
4888:
4285:
4260:
4001:
Josephson, B. D. (1962). "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling".
1302:
universality class. The extent to which such generalizations can be applied to
17:
7483:
7458:
7385:
7355:
7289:
7268:
6714:
6368:
5844:
5692:
4767:
Dolecek, R. L. (1954). "Adiabatic Magnetization of a Superconducting Sphere".
2867:
2657:) becomes a superconductor at 250 K under a pressure of 170 gigapascals.
2542:
2403:
2108:
1939:
1902:
1742:
1476:
1412:
1218:
1011:
991:
441:
6142:
6053:
5764:
5602:
5533:
4634:
4520:
4346:
4153:
3926:
3747:
Bogoliubov, N. N. (1958). "A new method in the theory of superconductivity".
3637:
3610:
3358:
3124:
2220:
The Meissner effect was given a phenomenological explanation by the brothers
6599:
6166:"Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors: physics and applications"
6112:
Morozov, Dmitry V.; Casaburi, Alessandro; Hadfield, Robert H. (2022-03-11).
5323:
5175:
4485:. Superconducting Materials: Conventional, Unconventional and Undetermined.
4319:. Superconducting Materials: Conventional, Unconventional and Undetermined.
3891:
3591:
3564:
3218:
2959:
2837:
2515:
2471:
2455:
1620:
1347:
1261:
interaction as the microscopic mechanism responsible for superconductivity.
1243:
999:
764:
739:
551:
476:
73:
6618:
6004:
5955:
5887:
5860:
5772:
5700:
5610:
5541:
5402:
5233:
5144:
5016:
4720:
4406:
4294:
4171:
4145:
3733:
3696:
3516:
2154:. The results were strongly supported by Monte Carlo computer simulations.
1860:
In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of
1411:(BEC) in 2020 suggests that there is a "smooth transition between" BEC and
903:
The superconductivity phenomenon was discovered in 1911 by Dutch physicist
7134:
4790:
3673:
Maxwell, E. (1950). "Isotope Effect in the Superconductivity of Mercury".
2548:
In 2008, holographic superconductivity, which uses holographic duality or
2526:(i.e., making YBCO) raised the critical temperature above 90 K.
2008:
S, although high pressures of approximately 90 gigapascals were required.
1475:
if it is driven by electronâphonon interaction and explained by the usual
38:). This current effectively forms an electromagnet that repels the magnet.
7620:
7448:
7029:
5722:
4871:
4626:
4581:
4564:
2891:
2833:
2821:
2767:
2755:
2674:
2618:
1861:
1319:
1254:
516:
511:
131:
5756:
5594:
5394:
4712:
4095:"Researchers demonstrate a superconductor previously thought impossible"
1966:
7580:
7468:
7403:
7320:
7315:
6249:
4826:
4261:"Surprise graphene discovery could unlock secrets of superconductivity"
3471:
3299:
2759:
2523:
2351:
2343:
1831:
1782:
1669: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1600:
1250:
948:
486:
6295:
5852:
5820:
5525:
3431:
3349:
7189:
5821:"Room-temperature superconductivity in a carbonaceous sulfur hydride"
5283:
3524:
3010:
2495:
2451:
2335:
1997:
1889:
1628:
1258:
982:
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (right), the discoverer of superconductivity.
571:
78:
6669:
5136:
4398:
1253:
of the constituent element. This important discovery pointed to the
6581:
6278:
5995:
5739:
5675:
5577:
4695:
4495:
4442:
4329:
3868:
Yntema, G. B. (1955). "Superconducting Winding for Electromagnet".
3096:
Bardeen, John; Cooper, Leon; Schrieffer, J. R. (December 1, 1957).
2797:(superconducting quantum interference devices), the most sensitive
2592:, and colleagues found lanthanum oxygen fluorine iron arsenide (LaO
2279:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {H} =\lambda ^{-2}\mathbf {H} \,}
1910:
that must be supplied in order to excite the fluid. Therefore, if Î
1808:
Cross section of a preformed superconductor rod from the abandoned
1061:
The two constitutive equations for a superconductor by London are:
915:, superconductivity is a phenomenon which can only be explained by
7198:
7184:
7085:
7059:
6182:
5508:
5455:
3803:
2794:
2713:
2604:
that superconducts below 26 K. Replacing the lanthanum in LaO
2389:
2185:
When a superconductor is placed in a weak external magnetic field
2167:
1965:
1845:. If the voltage is zero, this means that the resistance is zero.
1803:
1772:
1584:
1560:
1363:
977:
29:
3007: â Use of cryogenic liquid hydrogen to cool an electromagnet
2204:
one would expect in a perfect electrical conductor: according to
7118:
5637:"Room-Temperature Superconductivity Achieved for the First Time"
4598:"Geophysics From Terrestrial Time-Variable Gravity Measurements"
2879:
2813:
2770:
switches. More recently, superconductors have been used to make
2467:
2013:
1866:
1778:
1604:
1580:
1366:. It is used in the most accurate available measurements of the
1016:
7138:
6673:
6490:
Matricon, Jean; Waysand, Georges; Glashausser, Charles (2003).
1549: > 4.2 K). One exception to this rule is the
7194:
5426:"Second Family of High-Temperature Superconductors Discovered"
4313:"Superconducting materials classes: Introduction and overview"
2743:
1638:
1234:
four-dimensional extension of the GinzburgâLandau theory, the
3214:
SQUIDS, the Josephson Effects and Superconducting Electronics
6659:
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package â "Superconductivity"
6643:
6018:
Nadeem, Muhammad; Fuhrer, Michael S.; Wang, Xiaolin (2023).
5168:
The Gap Symmetry and Fluctuations in High-Tc Superconductors
1837:
across the sample. The resistance of the sample is given by
880:
are expelled from the material. Unlike an ordinary metallic
4563:
Van Camp, Michel; Francis, Olivier; Lecocq, Thomas (2017).
4385:
Grant, Paul Michael (2011). "The great quantum conundrum".
3849:. Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
3609:
Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N. & Schrieffer, J. R. (1957).
3563:
Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N. & Schrieffer, J. R. (1957).
3274:
Bednorz, J. G. & MĂŒller, K. A. (1986). "Possible high T
2200:
The Meissner effect is sometimes confused with the kind of
4746:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 16.
3604:
3602:
5053:
Superconducting Rock Magnetometer Cryogenic System Manual
4660:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 8.
4311:
Hirsch, J. E.; Maple, M. B.; Marsiglio, F. (2015-07-15).
2660:
In 2018, a research team from the Department of Physics,
1279:
The BCS theory was set on a firmer footing in 1958, when
2855:
outweigh the additional costs involved. For example, in
1781:. Both the massive and slim cables are rated for 12,500
6631:"High-Temperature Superconductivity Understood at Last"
5979:"Global Room-Temperature Superconductivity in Graphite"
4918:. Vol. 8. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann.
2866:
Promising future applications include high-performance
2301:, predicts that the magnetic field in a superconductor
5198:
Monthoux, P.; Balatsky, A. V. & Pines, D. (1991).
2809:. Series of Josephson devices are used to realize the
892:
below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An
6473:
The Physics of Organic Superconductors and Conductors
3844:"The Cryotron â A Superconductive Computer Component"
3443:
3441:
2238:
2053:
2033:
1407:. The first development and study of superconducting
1069:
5903:"Finally, the First Room-Temperature Superconductor"
3013: â Class of two-dimensional inorganic compounds
2728:
semiconducting-superconducting hybrid technologies.
2150:
regime, and that the two regions are separated by a
27:
Electrical conductivity with exactly zero resistance
7568:
7522:
7394:
7308:
7282:
7226:
7177:
7073:
7020:
6975:
6951:
6930:
6894:
6885:
6794:
6763:
6707:
3157:Reprinted in NikolaÄ Nikolaevich Bogoliubov (1963)
2700:with dense arrays of nearly parallel line defects.
1019:was found to superconduct at 7 K, and in 1941
6019:
3187:(4th ed.). Infobase Publishing. p. 238.
2278:
2059:
2039:
1942:, meaning it can flow without energy dissipation.
1819:of a sample of some material is to place it in an
1362:, is exploited by superconducting devices such as
1177:
6561:O'Mahony, Shane M.; University of Oxford (2022).
6092:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
5796:"A New Twist Reveals Superconductivity's Secrets"
4483:Physica C: Superconductivity and Its Applications
4317:Physica C: Superconductivity and Its Applications
3771:Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki
3750:Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki
3655:Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki
2621:leads to superconductors that work at 55 K.
2557:mercury, barium, calcium, copper and oxygen (HgBa
2305:from whatever value it possesses at the surface.
5080:"type II Superconductors and the Vortex Lattice"
4362:Introduction to Unconventional Superconductivity
2842:Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors
2537:. There are currently two main hypotheses â the
1981:, green) at the superconducting phase transition
6568:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5248:Holographic Duality in Condensed Matter Physics
2710:Technological applications of superconductivity
1906:, meaning there is a minimum amount of energy Î
900:can persist indefinitely with no power source.
6510:"Physicist Discovers Exotic Superconductivity"
6357:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity
1403:state in some materials, with almost infinite
1207:(1950) and the microscopic BCS theory (1957).
7150:
6685:
6492:The Cold Wars: A History of Superconductivity
5246:Jan Zaanen, Yan Liu, Ya Sun K.Schalm (2015).
4910:Landau, Lev D.; Lifschitz, Evgeny M. (1984).
3403:vanDelft, Dirk; Kes, Peter (September 2010).
3278:superconductivity in the BaâLaâCuâO system".
846:
8:
3961:"Emergence of Nb-Ti as Supermagnet Material"
3496:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A
3048:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1â2.
2836:. The same effect is used in ultrasensitive
2012:can have much higher critical temperatures:
868:is a set of physical properties observed in
6087:"Dudley Buck's Forgotten Cryotron Computer"
5819:Snider, Eliot; et al. (Oct 14, 2020).
4565:"Recording Belgium's Gravitational History"
4232:"Type-1.5 superconductor shows its stripes"
3072:Superconductivity: Physics and Applications
2820:Josephson junction can be used as a photon
2723:Video of superconducting levitation of YBCO
2510:and MĂŒller discovered superconductivity in
1753:of the superconductor and the emergence of
7157:
7143:
7135:
6891:
6692:
6678:
6670:
6475:. Vol. 110 (1st ed.). Springer.
6452:Larkin, Anatoly; Varlamov, Andrei (2005).
4364:. Amsterdam: CRC Press. pp. vii, 20.
3321:van Delft, Dirk; Kes, Peter (2010-09-01).
2232:in a superconductor is minimized provided
1810:Texas Superconducting Super Collider (SSC)
853:
839:
57:
41:
7702:Science and technology in the Netherlands
6608:
6598:
6580:
6454:Theory of Fluctuations in Superconductors
6339:
6277:
6248:
6181:
5994:
5945:
5738:
5674:
5576:
5507:
5454:
5223:
5049:"Section 4.1 'Air plug in the fill line'"
5006:
4870:
4694:
4580:
4494:
4441:
4328:
4284:
4161:
3942:Bulletin of the American Physical Society
3802:
3636:
3590:
3565:"Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity"
3348:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3143:
3123:
3113:
3069:Fossheim, Kristian; Sudboe, Asle (2005).
2275:
2270:
2261:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2052:
2032:
1945:In the class of superconductors known as
1729:Learn how and when to remove this message
1513:A superconductor is generally considered
1167:
1155:
1145:
1134:
1126:
1117:
1105:
1095:
1076:
1070:
1068:
1002:temperatures using the recently produced
6327:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
6228:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
5250:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
5078:Abrikosov, Alexei A. (8 December 2003).
4360:Mineev, V.P.; Samokhin, K (1999-09-21).
3206:
3204:
2935:for superconductivity related subjects:
1989:is lowered below a critical temperature
1571:Superconductor material classes include
1023:was found to superconduct at 16 K.
888:, a superconductor has a characteristic
6542:Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002).
3184:The Facts on File Dictionary of Physics
3160:The Theory of Superconductivity, Vol. 4
3034:
3022:Superconducting magnetic energy storage
2918:. Compared to traditional power lines,
2818:superconductorâinsulatorâsuperconductor
1900:of this Cooper pair fluid possesses an
1869:, which is essentially the vibrational
602:Electromagnetism and special relativity
49:
3378:Proceedings of the Section of Sciences
2228:, who showed that the electromagnetic
1493:transforms according to a non-trivial
6170:Superconductor Science and Technology
5630:
5628:
4974:
4972:
3541:. The Open University. Archived from
2840:made from superconducting materials.
2754:and plasma confining magnets in some
2666:superconductivity in bilayer graphene
2662:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2297:This equation, which is known as the
2074:is applied which is greater than the
955:, leading the materials to be termed
940:In 1986, it was discovered that some
622:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
7:
5037:. Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA.
4848:Hove, J.; Mo, S.; Sudbo, A. (2002).
3405:"The Discovery of Superconductivity"
3323:"The discovery of superconductivity"
2890:(e.g. for vehicle propulsion, as in
2750:, the beam-steering magnets used in
1797:superconductor-based cables for the
1777:Electric cables for accelerators at
1667:adding citations to reliable sources
1217:of superconductivity was devised by
1046:carried by superconducting current.
5901:Chang, Kenneth (October 14, 2020).
4912:Electrodynamics of Continuous Media
4543:"Classification of Superconductors"
2688:. However, in 2022 the article was
1815:The simplest method to measure the
6114:"Superconducting photon detectors"
6021:"The superconducting diode effect"
3075:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 7.
3017:Potential applications of graphene
2920:superconducting transmission lines
2853:high-temperature superconductivity
2789:Superconductors are used to build
2698:Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite
2386:High-temperature superconductivity
2380:High-temperature superconductivity
2338:because the flux carried by these
2240:
1127:
1083:
1073:
25:
6525:Introduction to Superconductivity
6437:. Vol. 1. World Scientific.
5635:Wood, Charlie (14 October 2020).
4744:Introduction to Superconductivity
4658:Introduction to Superconductivity
4051:from the original on Mar 25, 2021
4039:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1973"
2931:As of 2022, there have been five
2793:which are the building blocks of
2442:-based (purple inverted triangle)
2294:is the London penetration depth.
2142:regime and of first order (i.e.,
1615:(like fluorine-doped LaOFeAs) or
1340:Westinghouse Electric Corporation
7217:
6435:Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter
5055:. 2G Enterprises. Archived from
3372:Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike (1911).
3024: â Energy storage technique
2271:
2250:
1951:high-temperature superconductors
1643:
1187:The first equation follows from
1168:
1135:
1118:
1077:
959:. The cheaply available coolant
957:high-temperature superconductors
6654:YouTube Video Levitating magnet
6546:(4th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
6164:Natarajan, C. M. (April 2012).
5794:Wood, Charlie (16 March 2021).
5496:The Journal of Chemical Physics
5031:"Introduction to Liquid Helium"
4979:Wu, M. K.; et al. (1987).
3248:. CRC Press. pp. 102â103.
2682:room-temperature superconductor
1654:needs additional citations for
1191:for superconducting electrons.
1125:
6085:Brock, David C. (2014-03-19).
2734:are some of the most powerful
2539:resonating-valence-bond theory
2094:. For example, the electronic
1850:superconducting electromagnets
1338:supermagnet wire commenced at
1304:unconventional superconductors
1199:During the 1950s, theoretical
1:
7606:Macroscopic quantum phenomena
6527:(2nd ed.). Dover Books.
6391:"All Nobel Prizes in Physics"
6200:10.1088/0953-2048/25/6/063001
6135:10.1080/00107514.2022.2043596
5983:Advanced Quantum Technologies
5097:Gingras, Olivier (Sep 2021).
4916:Course of Theoretical Physics
4460:10.1016/j.physrep.2020.02.003
3611:"Theory of Superconductivity"
3098:"Theory of Superconductivity"
2861:levelized cost of electricity
2590:Tokyo Institute of Technology
2512:lanthanum barium copper oxide
2067:wave) remains controversial.
2000:to less than 1 K. Solid
1843:R = V / I
1769:Zero electrical DC resistance
1755:off-diagonal long range order
1425:Superconductor classification
1298:, because they fall into the
1195:Conventional theories (1950s)
1056:London constitutive equations
1050:London constitutive equations
919:. It is characterized by the
627:Relativistic electromagnetism
7677:Unsolved problems in physics
7616:Order and disorder (physics)
6494:. Rutgers University Press.
6431:"Superflow and Vortex Lines"
6317:Thomas; et al. (2016).
5345:10.1016/0921-4534(94)02461-8
4963:10.1016/0550-3213(90)90672-Z
4218:Technical University of Graz
4025:10.1016/0031-9163(62)91369-0
3988:10.1016/0011-2275(87)90057-9
3791:Physica C: Superconductivity
2884:compact fusion power devices
2498:-based (pink six-point star)
1433:Response to a magnetic field
974:History of superconductivity
6456:. Oxford University Press.
6221:Islam; et al. (2014).
6210:– via IOP Publishing.
5225:10.1103/PhysRevLett.67.3448
5035:Cryogenics and Fluid Branch
4513:10.1016/j.physc.2015.03.002
4339:10.1016/j.physc.2015.03.002
3959:Berlincourt, T. G. (1987).
3821:10.1016/j.physc.2012.10.011
2900:magnetic levitation devices
2872:electric power transmission
1970:Behavior of heat capacity (
953:conventional superconductor
7728:
7022:Technological applications
6341:10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.041
6241:10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.085
6046:10.1038/s42254-023-00632-w
5947:10.1038/s41586-022-05294-9
5880:10.1038/s41586-022-05294-9
5473:10.1209/0295-5075/83/17002
5424:Cho, Adrian (2014-10-30).
5008:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.908
4889:10.1103/PhysRevB.66.064524
4286:10.1038/d41586-018-02773-w
4186:"Superconductivity | CERN"
3042:Combescot, Roland (2022).
2803:scanning SQUID microscopes
2801:known. SQUIDs are used in
2707:
2383:
2365:
2290:is the magnetic field and
2161:
1830:and measure the resulting
1495:irreducible representation
1443:, meaning it has a single
1422:
971:
352:LiĂ©nardâWiechert potential
7215:
6764:Characteristic parameters
6523:Tinkham, Michael (2004).
6369:10.1109/TASC.2009.2019058
5845:10.1038/s41586-020-2801-z
5693:10.1038/s41586-019-1201-8
4742:Tinkham, Michael (1996).
4656:Tinkham, Michael (1996).
3245:Quantum Physics of Matter
2776:rapid single flux quantum
1977:, blue) and resistivity (
1918:of the lattice, given by
1757:. Superconductivity is a
1613:superconducting pnictides
617:Mathematical descriptions
327:Electromagnetic radiation
317:Electromagnetic induction
257:Magnetic vector potential
252:Magnetic scalar potential
7641:Thermo-dielectric effect
7540:Enthalpy of vaporization
7234:BoseâEinstein condensate
6781:London penetration depth
6429:Kleinert, Hagen (1989).
5428:. ScienceNOW Daily News.
4814:Lettere al Nuovo Cimento
3927:10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.89
3638:10.1103/PhysRev.108.1175
3211:Gallop, John C. (1990).
3125:10.1103/physrev.108.1175
2780:RF and microwave filters
2738:known. They are used in
2535:condensed matter physics
2350:superconductors, except
2195:London penetration depth
2085:London penetration depth
1437:A superconductor can be
1413:Bardeen-Cooper-Shrieffer
1409:BoseâEinstein condensate
1394:quantum Hall resistivity
1306:is still controversial.
7535:Enthalpy of sublimation
7074:List of superconductors
6952:By critical temperature
6600:10.1073/pnas.2207449119
5204:Physical Review Letters
5176:10.1007/0-306-47081-0_7
4986:Physical Review Letters
3907:Physical Review Letters
3892:10.1103/PhysRev.98.1144
3592:10.1103/PhysRev.106.162
3181:Daintith, John (2009).
2933:Nobel Prizes in Physics
2732:Superconducting magnets
2118:of the superconducting
2076:critical magnetic field
2010:Cuprate superconductors
1947:type II superconductors
1852:such as those found in
1617:organic superconductors
1509:By critical temperature
167:Electrostatic induction
162:Electrostatic discharge
7550:Latent internal energy
7300:Color-glass condensate
6397:. Nobel Media AB 2014.
6026:Nature Reviews Physics
6005:10.1002/qute.202300230
4146:10.1126/sciadv.abb9052
3734:10.1103/PhysRev.78.487
3697:10.1103/PhysRev.78.477
3539:"The London equations"
3517:10.1098/rspa.1935.0048
3242:Durrant, Alan (2000).
3005:Hydrogen cryomagnetics
2940:Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
2908:magnetic refrigeration
2904:fault current limiters
2807:magnetoencephalography
2724:
2550:AdS/CFT correspondence
2503:
2474:-based (orange square)
2280:
2182:
2078:. This is because the
2061:
2041:
1982:
1949:, including all known
1884:of electrons known as
1812:
1801:
1568:
1479:or its extension, the
1465:By theory of operation
1236:Coleman-Weinberg model
1215:GinzburgâLandau theory
1205:GinzburgâLandau theory
1179:
995:
905:Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
597:Electromagnetic tensor
39:
7360:Magnetically ordered
6720:Bean's critical state
6471:Lebed, A. G. (2008).
5874:(Retracted, see
5321:by Tl substitution".
4804:Kleinert, H. (1982).
4791:10.1103/PhysRev.96.25
4606:Reviews of Geophysics
4209:Orthacker, Angelina.
2880:power storage devices
2752:particle accelerators
2722:
2393:
2281:
2180:
2132:disorder field theory
2062:
2042:
1969:
1817:electrical resistance
1807:
1776:
1635:Elementary properties
1564:
1405:electrical resistance
1368:magnetic flux quantum
1344:Wah Chang Corporation
1180:
981:
913:atomic spectral lines
874:electrical resistance
590:Covariant formulation
382:Synchrotron radiation
322:Electromagnetic pulse
312:Electromagnetic field
33:
7239:Fermionic condensate
6895:By magnetic response
6122:Contemporary Physics
4627:10.1002/2017rg000566
4582:10.1029/2017eo089743
3545:on December 23, 2012
2954:J. Robert Schrieffer
2440:Buckminsterfullerene
2303:decays exponentially
2236:
2051:
2031:
1663:improve this article
1469:A superconductor is
1318:'s invention of the
1240:quantum field theory
1067:
930:perfect conductivity
898:superconducting wire
890:critical temperature
632:Stressâenergy tensor
557:Reluctance (complex)
302:Displacement current
7682:Magnetic levitation
7454:Chemical ionization
7346:Programmable matter
7336:Quantum spin liquid
7204:Supercritical fluid
6847:persistent currents
6832:LittleâParks effect
6591:2022PNAS..11907449O
6575:(37): e2207449119.
6288:2015NatPh..11..307L
6192:2012SuScT..25f3001N
6038:2023NatRP...5..558N
5938:2022Natur.610..804S
5837:2020Natur.586..373S
5757:10.1038/nature26154
5749:2018Natur.556...80C
5685:2019Natur.569..528D
5595:10.1038/nature14964
5587:2015Natur.525...73D
5518:2014JChPh.140q4712L
5465:2008EL.....8317002R
5395:10.1038/nature06972
5387:2008Natur.453..376T
5337:1995PhyC..243..201D
5276:1993Natur.363...56S
5216:1991PhRvL..67.3448M
5129:2011Natur.475..280M
4999:1987PhRvL..58..908W
4955:1990NuPhB.344..627C
4881:2002PhRvB..66f4524H
4783:1954PhRv...96...25D
4713:10.1038/nature14964
4705:2015Natur.525...73D
4619:2017RvGeo..55..938V
4613:(4): 2017RG000566.
4505:2015PhyC..514....1H
4452:2020PhR...856....1F
4277:2018Natur.555..151G
4211:"Superconductivity"
4138:2020SciA....6.9052H
4017:1962PhL.....1..251J
3980:1987Cryo...27..283B
3919:1961PhRvL...6...89K
3884:1955PhRv...98.1144.
3813:2013PhyC..485...47C
3726:1950PhRv...78..487R
3689:1950PhRv...78..477M
3629:1957PhRv..108.1175B
3583:1957PhRv..106..162B
3509:1935RSPSA.149...71L
3464:1933NW.....21..787M
3451:Naturwissenschaften
3424:2010PhT....63i..38V
3390:1910KNAB...13.1274K
3341:2010PhT....63i..38V
3292:1986ZPhyB..64..189B
3115:1957PhRv..108.1175B
2984:Alexei A. Abrikosov
2912:alternating current
2791:Josephson junctions
2670:twisted at an angle
2484:Strontium ruthenate
2416:Heavy fermion-based
2406:(dark green circle)
2103:for some constant,
1914:is larger than the
1789:regular cables for
1759:thermodynamic phase
1743:superconducting gap
1678:"Superconductivity"
1531:â that is, at only
1483:. Otherwise, it is
1392:. Coupled with the
1189:Newton's second law
547:Magnetomotive force
432:Electromotive force
402:Alternating current
337:Jefimenko equations
297:Cyclotron radiation
7687:Physical phenomena
7601:Leidenfrost effect
7530:Enthalpy of fusion
7295:Quarkâgluon plasma
6807:Andreev reflection
6802:Abrikosov vortices
6421:2020-03-07 at the
5907:The New York Times
4827:10.1007/BF02754760
3472:10.1007/BF01504252
3300:10.1007/BF01303701
3221:. pp. 1, 20.
2992:Anthony J. Leggett
2988:Vitaly L. Ginzburg
2968:Brian D. Josephson
2748:mass spectrometers
2725:
2624:In 2014 and 2015,
2504:
2418:(light green star)
2276:
2183:
2057:
2037:
1983:
1928:Boltzmann constant
1821:electrical circuit
1813:
1802:
1609:magnesium diboride
1569:
1238:, is important in
1175:
996:
994:stand to his left.
896:through a loop of
872:: materials where
395:Electrical network
232:Gauss magnetic law
197:Static electricity
157:Electric potential
40:
7697:Phase transitions
7662:Superconductivity
7649:
7648:
7631:Superheated vapor
7626:Superconductivity
7596:Equation of state
7444:Flash evaporation
7396:Phase transitions
7381:String-net liquid
7274:Photonic molecule
7244:Degenerate matter
7132:
7131:
7050:quantum computing
7016:
7015:
6872:superdiamagnetism
6701:Superconductivity
6553:978-0-7167-4345-3
6534:978-0-486-43503-9
6518:. 17 August 2006.
6501:978-0-8135-3295-0
6482:978-3-540-76667-4
6463:978-0-19-852815-9
6444:978-9971-5-0210-2
6296:10.1038/nphys3242
5831:(7829): 373â377.
5669:(7757): 528â531.
5526:10.1063/1.4874158
5381:(7193): 376â378.
5210:(24): 3448â3451.
5185:978-0-306-45934-4
4942:Nuclear Physics B
4925:978-0-7506-2634-7
4858:Physical Review B
4371:978-90-5699-209-5
4271:(7695): 151â152.
4257:Gibney, Elizabeth
3432:10.1063/1.3490499
3350:10.1063/1.3490499
3255:978-0-7503-0721-5
3228:978-0-7503-0051-3
3194:978-1-4381-0949-7
3135:978-0-677-00080-0
3045:Superconductivity
2830:micro-calorimeter
2720:
2643:lanthanum hydride
2178:
2152:tricritical point
2080:Gibbs free energy
2060:{\displaystyle d}
2040:{\displaystyle s}
1962:Phase transition
1955:magnetic vortices
1894:quantum mechanics
1823:in series with a
1739:
1738:
1731:
1713:
1593:germaniumâniobium
1573:chemical elements
1481:Eliashberg theory
1316:Dudley Allen Buck
1300:lambda transition
1165:
1115:
1090:
935:classical physics
917:quantum mechanics
866:Superconductivity
863:
862:
562:Reluctance (real)
532:Gyratorâcapacitor
477:Resonant cavities
367:Maxwell equations
16:(Redirected from
7719:
7707:Dutch inventions
7667:Phases of matter
7586:Compressed fluid
7221:
7166:States of matter
7159:
7152:
7145:
7136:
7081:bilayer graphene
7055:Rutherford cable
6967:room temperature
6962:high temperature
6892:
6852:proximity effect
6827:Josephson effect
6771:coherence length
6694:
6687:
6680:
6671:
6622:
6612:
6602:
6584:
6557:
6538:
6519:
6505:
6486:
6467:
6448:
6399:
6398:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6363:(3): 1774â1777.
6352:
6346:
6345:
6343:
6323:
6314:
6308:
6307:
6281:
6261:
6255:
6254:
6252:
6218:
6212:
6211:
6185:
6161:
6155:
6154:
6118:
6109:
6103:
6102:
6100:
6099:
6082:
6076:
6072:
6066:
6065:
6023:
6015:
6009:
6008:
5998:
5974:
5968:
5967:
5949:
5917:
5911:
5910:
5898:
5892:
5891:
5872:
5816:
5810:
5809:
5807:
5806:
5791:
5785:
5784:
5742:
5719:
5713:
5712:
5678:
5657:
5651:
5650:
5648:
5647:
5632:
5623:
5622:
5580:
5560:
5554:
5553:
5511:
5491:
5485:
5484:
5458:
5436:
5430:
5429:
5421:
5415:
5414:
5355:
5349:
5348:
5331:(3â4): 201â206.
5302:
5296:
5295:
5284:10.1038/363056a0
5257:
5251:
5244:
5238:
5237:
5227:
5195:
5189:
5188:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5112:
5106:
5104:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5075:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5045:
5039:
5038:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5010:
4976:
4967:
4966:
4936:
4930:
4929:
4907:
4901:
4900:
4874:
4872:cond-mat/0202215
4854:
4845:
4839:
4838:
4810:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4764:
4758:
4757:
4739:
4733:
4732:
4698:
4678:
4672:
4671:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4602:
4593:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4547:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4498:
4478:
4472:
4471:
4445:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4332:
4308:
4302:
4301:
4288:
4259:(5 March 2018).
4253:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4243:
4228:
4222:
4221:
4215:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4165:
4132:(45): eabb9052.
4126:Science Advances
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4091:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4056:
4035:
4029:
4028:
3998:
3992:
3991:
3965:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3937:
3931:
3930:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3848:
3842:Buck, Dudley A.
3839:
3833:
3832:
3806:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3765:
3759:
3758:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3707:
3701:
3700:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3623:(5): 1175â1205.
3606:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3445:
3436:
3435:
3409:
3400:
3394:
3393:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3352:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3271:
3260:
3259:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3208:
3199:
3198:
3178:
3172:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3147:
3127:
3117:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3039:
2772:digital circuits
2721:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2626:hydrogen sulfide
2584:
2583:= 133â138 K
2493:
2481:
2465:
2449:
2437:
2425:
2413:
2401:
2356:carbon nanotubes
2285:
2283:
2282:
2277:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2253:
2248:
2247:
2179:
2120:phase transition
2092:phase transition
2066:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2038:
1734:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1671:
1647:
1639:
1625:carbon nanotubes
1589:niobiumâtitanium
1516:high-temperature
1360:Josephson effect
1336:niobiumâtitanium
1281:N. N. Bogolyubov
1212:phenomenological
1201:condensed matter
1184:
1182:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1146:
1138:
1130:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1081:
1080:
1071:
894:electric current
855:
848:
841:
522:Electric machine
505:Magnetic circuit
467:Parallel circuit
457:Network analysis
422:Electric current
357:London equations
202:Triboelectricity
192:Potential energy
61:
51:Electromagnetism
42:
21:
7727:
7726:
7722:
7721:
7720:
7718:
7717:
7716:
7712:1911 in science
7652:
7651:
7650:
7645:
7576:Baryonic matter
7564:
7518:
7489:Saturated fluid
7429:Crystallization
7390:
7364:Antiferromagnet
7304:
7278:
7222:
7213:
7173:
7163:
7133:
7128:
7099:
7069:
7012:
6971:
6958:low temperature
6947:
6926:
6881:
6837:Meissner effect
6790:
6786:Silsbee current
6759:
6725:GinzburgâLandau
6703:
6698:
6640:
6627:Quanta Magazine
6560:
6554:
6541:
6535:
6522:
6508:
6502:
6489:
6483:
6470:
6464:
6451:
6445:
6428:
6423:Wayback Machine
6408:
6406:Further reading
6403:
6402:
6389:
6388:
6384:
6354:
6353:
6349:
6321:
6316:
6315:
6311:
6263:
6262:
6258:
6220:
6219:
6215:
6163:
6162:
6158:
6116:
6111:
6110:
6106:
6097:
6095:
6084:
6083:
6079:
6073:
6069:
6032:(10): 558â577.
6017:
6016:
6012:
5976:
5975:
5971:
5919:
5918:
5914:
5900:
5899:
5895:
5873:
5818:
5817:
5813:
5804:
5802:
5800:Quanta Magazine
5793:
5792:
5788:
5733:(7699): 80â84.
5721:
5720:
5716:
5659:
5658:
5654:
5645:
5643:
5641:Quanta Magazine
5634:
5633:
5626:
5562:
5561:
5557:
5493:
5492:
5488:
5438:
5437:
5433:
5423:
5422:
5418:
5370:
5364:
5357:
5356:
5352:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5270:(6424): 56â58.
5259:
5258:
5254:
5245:
5241:
5197:
5196:
5192:
5186:
5165:
5164:
5160:
5137:10.1038/475280a
5123:(7356): 280â2.
5114:
5113:
5109:
5096:
5095:
5091:
5077:
5076:
5072:
5062:
5060:
5047:
5046:
5042:
5029:
5028:
5024:
4978:
4977:
4970:
4938:
4937:
4933:
4926:
4909:
4908:
4904:
4852:
4847:
4846:
4842:
4821:(13): 405â412.
4808:
4803:
4802:
4798:
4770:Physical Review
4766:
4765:
4761:
4754:
4741:
4740:
4736:
4680:
4679:
4675:
4668:
4655:
4654:
4650:
4600:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4545:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4480:
4479:
4475:
4430:Physics Reports
4427:
4426:
4422:
4399:10.1038/476037a
4384:
4383:
4379:
4372:
4359:
4358:
4354:
4310:
4309:
4305:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4241:
4239:
4230:
4229:
4225:
4213:
4208:
4207:
4203:
4194:
4192:
4184:
4183:
4179:
4118:
4117:
4113:
4103:
4101:
4093:
4092:
4088:
4079:
4077:
4076:. April 9, 2008
4068:
4067:
4063:
4054:
4052:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4004:Physics Letters
4000:
3999:
3995:
3963:
3958:
3957:
3953:
3939:
3938:
3934:
3904:
3903:
3899:
3871:Physical Review
3867:
3866:
3862:
3852:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3840:
3836:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3767:
3766:
3762:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3713:Physical Review
3709:
3708:
3704:
3676:Physical Review
3672:
3671:
3667:
3651:
3650:
3646:
3616:Physical Review
3608:
3607:
3600:
3570:Physical Review
3562:
3561:
3557:
3548:
3546:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3458:(44): 787â788.
3447:
3446:
3439:
3407:
3402:
3401:
3397:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3320:
3319:
3315:
3277:
3273:
3272:
3263:
3256:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3229:
3210:
3209:
3202:
3195:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3150:
3148:
3136:
3102:Physical Review
3095:
3094:
3090:
3083:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3001:
2929:
2888:electric motors
2846:photon-counting
2786:base stations.
2778:technology and
2714:
2712:
2706:
2668:with one layer
2653:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2616:
2610:
2599:
2595:
2582:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2518:-based cuprate
2502:
2499:
2491:
2487:
2486:(grey pentagon)
2479:
2475:
2463:
2459:
2447:
2443:
2435:
2431:
2423:
2419:
2411:
2407:
2399:
2388:
2382:
2374:Gravity Probe B
2370:
2364:
2333:
2322:
2315:
2299:London equation
2257:
2239:
2234:
2233:
2168:
2166:
2164:Meissner effect
2160:
2158:Meissner effect
2134:, in which the
2049:
2048:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2007:
1995:
1976:
1964:
1898:energy spectrum
1771:
1751:broken symmetry
1735:
1724:
1718:
1715:
1672:
1670:
1660:
1648:
1637:
1597:niobium nitride
1566:
1559:
1548:
1537:
1529:liquid nitrogen
1511:
1505:of the system.
1491:order parameter
1467:
1435:
1427:
1421:
1390:Planck constant
1375:
1312:
1310:Further history
1197:
1151:
1147:
1101:
1097:
1082:
1072:
1065:
1064:
1052:
1021:niobium nitride
988:Hendrik Lorentz
976:
970:
961:liquid nitrogen
921:Meissner effect
878:magnetic fields
870:superconductors
859:
830:
829:
645:
637:
636:
592:
582:
581:
537:Induction motor
507:
497:
496:
412:Current density
397:
387:
386:
377:Poynting vector
287:
285:Electrodynamics
277:
276:
272:Right-hand rule
237:Magnetic dipole
227:BiotâSavart law
217:
207:
206:
142:Electric dipole
137:Electric charge
112:
36:Meissner effect
28:
23:
22:
18:Superconduction
15:
12:
11:
5:
7725:
7723:
7715:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7674:
7669:
7664:
7654:
7653:
7647:
7646:
7644:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7598:
7593:
7588:
7583:
7578:
7572:
7570:
7566:
7565:
7563:
7562:
7557:
7555:Trouton's rule
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7526:
7524:
7520:
7519:
7517:
7516:
7511:
7506:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7486:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7436:
7431:
7426:
7424:Critical point
7421:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7400:
7398:
7392:
7391:
7389:
7388:
7383:
7378:
7377:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7358:
7353:
7348:
7343:
7338:
7333:
7328:
7326:Liquid crystal
7323:
7318:
7312:
7310:
7306:
7305:
7303:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7286:
7284:
7280:
7279:
7277:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7261:
7259:Strange matter
7256:
7254:Rydberg matter
7251:
7246:
7241:
7236:
7230:
7228:
7224:
7223:
7216:
7214:
7212:
7211:
7206:
7201:
7192:
7187:
7181:
7179:
7175:
7174:
7164:
7162:
7161:
7154:
7147:
7139:
7130:
7129:
7127:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7077:
7075:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7035:electromagnets
7032:
7026:
7024:
7018:
7017:
7014:
7013:
7011:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6979:
6977:
6976:By composition
6973:
6972:
6970:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6955:
6953:
6949:
6948:
6946:
6945:
6943:unconventional
6940:
6934:
6932:
6931:By explanation
6928:
6927:
6925:
6924:
6919:
6918:
6917:
6912:
6907:
6898:
6896:
6889:
6887:Classification
6883:
6882:
6880:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6844:
6839:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6798:
6796:
6792:
6791:
6789:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6776:critical field
6773:
6767:
6765:
6761:
6760:
6758:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6745:MattisâBardeen
6742:
6737:
6732:
6730:KohnâLuttinger
6727:
6722:
6717:
6711:
6709:
6705:
6704:
6699:
6697:
6696:
6689:
6682:
6674:
6668:
6667:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6646:
6639:
6638:External links
6636:
6635:
6634:
6625:Charlie Wood,
6623:
6558:
6552:
6544:Modern Physics
6539:
6533:
6520:
6506:
6500:
6487:
6481:
6468:
6462:
6449:
6443:
6426:
6407:
6404:
6401:
6400:
6395:Nobelprize.org
6382:
6347:
6309:
6272:(4): 307â315.
6266:Nature Physics
6256:
6213:
6156:
6104:
6077:
6067:
6010:
5969:
5912:
5893:
5811:
5786:
5714:
5652:
5624:
5571:(7567): 73â6.
5555:
5502:(17): 174712.
5486:
5431:
5416:
5366:
5359:
5350:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5297:
5252:
5239:
5190:
5184:
5158:
5107:
5089:
5070:
5059:on May 6, 2009
5040:
5022:
4993:(9): 908â910.
4968:
4949:(3): 627â645.
4931:
4924:
4902:
4840:
4796:
4759:
4752:
4734:
4689:(2â3): 73â76.
4673:
4666:
4648:
4588:
4555:
4534:
4473:
4420:
4377:
4370:
4352:
4303:
4248:
4223:
4201:
4177:
4111:
4086:
4061:
4044:NobelPrize.org
4030:
4011:(7): 251â253.
3993:
3974:(6): 283â289.
3951:
3932:
3897:
3860:
3834:
3781:
3760:
3739:
3702:
3665:
3644:
3598:
3577:(1): 162â164.
3555:
3530:
3503:(866): 71â88.
3485:
3437:
3395:
3364:
3313:
3286:(1): 189â193.
3275:
3261:
3254:
3234:
3227:
3200:
3193:
3173:
3134:
3088:
3081:
3061:
3054:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3019:
3014:
3008:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2995:
2981:
2978:K. Alex MĂŒller
2971:
2957:
2950:Leon N. Cooper
2943:
2928:
2925:
2916:direct current
2848:applications.
2736:electromagnets
2708:Main article:
2705:
2702:
2651:
2634:
2612:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2580:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2501:
2500:
2490:
2488:
2478:
2476:
2462:
2460:
2458:(red triangle)
2446:
2444:
2434:
2432:
2430:(blue diamond)
2422:
2420:
2410:
2408:
2398:
2395:
2384:Main article:
2381:
2378:
2366:Main article:
2363:
2360:
2331:
2320:
2313:
2273:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2246:
2242:
2162:Main article:
2159:
2156:
2072:magnetic field
2056:
2036:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2005:
1993:
1974:
1963:
1960:
1916:thermal energy
1871:kinetic energy
1825:current source
1770:
1767:
1737:
1736:
1651:
1649:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1558:
1555:
1546:
1535:
1525:K. Alex MĂŒller
1510:
1507:
1486:unconventional
1466:
1463:
1445:critical field
1434:
1431:
1423:Main article:
1420:
1419:Classification
1417:
1401:superinsulator
1373:
1311:
1308:
1196:
1193:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1144:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1075:
1051:
1048:
984:Paul Ehrenfest
972:Main article:
969:
966:
909:ferromagnetism
861:
860:
858:
857:
850:
843:
835:
832:
831:
828:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
646:
643:
642:
639:
638:
635:
634:
629:
624:
619:
614:
612:Four-potential
609:
604:
599:
593:
588:
587:
584:
583:
580:
579:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
527:Electric motor
524:
519:
514:
508:
503:
502:
499:
498:
495:
494:
489:
484:
482:Series circuit
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
452:Kirchhoff laws
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
417:Direct current
414:
409:
404:
398:
393:
392:
389:
388:
385:
384:
379:
374:
372:Maxwell tensor
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
342:Larmor formula
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
292:Bremsstrahlung
288:
283:
282:
279:
278:
275:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
242:Magnetic field
239:
234:
229:
224:
218:
215:Magnetostatics
213:
212:
209:
208:
205:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
147:Electric field
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
117:Charge density
113:
110:Electrostatics
108:
107:
104:
103:
102:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
63:
62:
54:
53:
47:
46:
45:Articles about
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7724:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7672:Exotic matter
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7660:
7659:
7657:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7619:
7617:
7614:
7612:
7611:Mpemba effect
7609:
7607:
7604:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7592:
7591:Cooling curve
7589:
7587:
7584:
7582:
7579:
7577:
7574:
7573:
7571:
7567:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7527:
7525:
7521:
7515:
7514:Vitrification
7512:
7510:
7507:
7505:
7502:
7500:
7497:
7495:
7492:
7490:
7487:
7485:
7482:
7480:
7479:Recombination
7477:
7475:
7474:Melting point
7472:
7470:
7467:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7455:
7452:
7450:
7447:
7445:
7442:
7440:
7437:
7435:
7432:
7430:
7427:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7419:Critical line
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7409:Boiling point
7407:
7405:
7402:
7401:
7399:
7397:
7393:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7361:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7341:Exotic matter
7339:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7313:
7311:
7307:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7287:
7285:
7281:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7231:
7229:
7225:
7220:
7210:
7207:
7205:
7202:
7200:
7196:
7193:
7191:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7182:
7180:
7176:
7171:
7167:
7160:
7155:
7153:
7148:
7146:
7141:
7140:
7137:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7078:
7076:
7072:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7019:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6993:heavy fermion
6991:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6980:
6978:
6974:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6957:
6956:
6954:
6950:
6944:
6941:
6939:
6936:
6935:
6933:
6929:
6923:
6922:ferromagnetic
6920:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6902:
6900:
6899:
6897:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6884:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6867:supercurrents
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6797:
6793:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6766:
6762:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6712:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6695:
6690:
6688:
6683:
6681:
6676:
6675:
6672:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6641:
6637:
6632:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6569:
6564:
6559:
6555:
6549:
6545:
6540:
6536:
6530:
6526:
6521:
6517:
6516:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6497:
6493:
6488:
6484:
6478:
6474:
6469:
6465:
6459:
6455:
6450:
6446:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6427:
6424:
6420:
6417:
6413:
6410:
6409:
6405:
6396:
6392:
6386:
6383:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6351:
6348:
6342:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6328:
6320:
6313:
6310:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6260:
6257:
6251:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6229:
6224:
6217:
6214:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6176:(6): 063001.
6175:
6171:
6167:
6160:
6157:
6152:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6123:
6115:
6108:
6105:
6094:
6093:
6088:
6081:
6078:
6071:
6068:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6022:
6014:
6011:
6006:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5973:
5970:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5939:
5935:
5932:(7933): 804.
5931:
5927:
5923:
5916:
5913:
5908:
5904:
5897:
5894:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5812:
5801:
5797:
5790:
5787:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5715:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5668:
5664:
5656:
5653:
5642:
5638:
5631:
5629:
5625:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5559:
5556:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5490:
5487:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5443:
5435:
5432:
5427:
5420:
5417:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5375:
5369:
5363:
5354:
5351:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5325:
5301:
5298:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5264:
5256:
5253:
5249:
5243:
5240:
5235:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5194:
5191:
5187:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5162:
5159:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5111:
5108:
5102:
5101:
5093:
5090:
5085:
5084:Nobel Lecture
5081:
5074:
5071:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5044:
5041:
5036:
5032:
5026:
5023:
5018:
5014:
5009:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4987:
4982:
4975:
4973:
4969:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4943:
4935:
4932:
4927:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4906:
4903:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4865:(6): 064524.
4864:
4860:
4859:
4851:
4844:
4841:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4815:
4807:
4800:
4797:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4771:
4763:
4760:
4755:
4749:
4745:
4738:
4735:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4677:
4674:
4669:
4663:
4659:
4652:
4649:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4607:
4599:
4592:
4589:
4583:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4559:
4556:
4551:
4544:
4538:
4535:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4477:
4474:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4424:
4421:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4381:
4378:
4373:
4367:
4363:
4356:
4353:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4307:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4252:
4249:
4237:
4236:Physics World
4233:
4227:
4224:
4219:
4212:
4205:
4202:
4191:
4187:
4181:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4115:
4112:
4100:
4096:
4090:
4087:
4075:
4074:Science Daily
4071:
4065:
4062:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4040:
4034:
4031:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4005:
3997:
3994:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3962:
3955:
3952:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3933:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3901:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3872:
3864:
3861:
3845:
3838:
3835:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3785:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3772:
3764:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3751:
3743:
3740:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3714:
3706:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3677:
3669:
3666:
3661:
3657:
3656:
3648:
3645:
3639:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3605:
3603:
3599:
3593:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3571:
3566:
3559:
3556:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3497:
3489:
3486:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3452:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3412:Physics Today
3406:
3399:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3384:: 1274â1276.
3383:
3379:
3375:
3368:
3365:
3360:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3328:Physics Today
3324:
3317:
3314:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3251:
3247:
3246:
3238:
3235:
3230:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3190:
3186:
3185:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3163:, CRC Press,
3162:
3161:
3146:
3141:
3137:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3089:
3084:
3082:9780470026434
3078:
3074:
3073:
3065:
3062:
3057:
3055:9781108428415
3051:
3047:
3046:
3038:
3035:
3028:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2974:Georg Bednorz
2972:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2896:maglev trains
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2857:wind turbines
2854:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2799:magnetometers
2796:
2792:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2711:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2664:, discovered
2663:
2658:
2644:
2627:
2622:
2620:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2591:
2586:
2579:
2574:
2553:
2551:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2445:
2441:
2433:
2429:
2421:
2417:
2409:
2405:
2397:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2369:
2368:London moment
2362:London moment
2361:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2326:
2325:magnetic flux
2319:
2312:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2265:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2244:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2193:, called the
2192:
2188:
2165:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2146:) within the
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2096:heat capacity
2093:
2088:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2054:
2034:
2026:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1988:
1980:
1973:
1968:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1875:Joule heating
1872:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1829:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1806:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1747:magnetic flux
1744:
1733:
1730:
1722:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680: â
1679:
1675:
1674:Find sources:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1652:This section
1650:
1646:
1641:
1640:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1563:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1551:iron pnictide
1545:
1541:
1540:liquid helium
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1521:Georg Bednorz
1518:
1517:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1473:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1441:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1376: =
1372:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1328:J. E. Kunzler
1323:
1321:
1317:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1296:superfluidity
1292:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1251:isotopic mass
1247:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1213:
1210:In 1950, the
1208:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1185:
1172:
1162:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1139:
1131:
1122:
1112:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:liquid helium
1001:
993:
989:
985:
980:
975:
967:
965:
962:
958:
954:
950:
947:
943:
938:
936:
932:
931:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
901:
899:
895:
891:
887:
886:absolute zero
883:
879:
876:vanishes and
875:
871:
867:
856:
851:
849:
844:
842:
837:
836:
834:
833:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
647:
641:
640:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
594:
591:
586:
585:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
509:
506:
501:
500:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
447:Joule heating
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
399:
396:
391:
390:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
362:Lorentz force
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
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273:
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268:
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263:
262:Magnetization
260:
258:
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253:
250:
248:
247:Magnetic flux
245:
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152:Electric flux
150:
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125:
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97:
95:
92:
90:
89:Computational
87:
85:
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72:
70:
67:
66:
65:
64:
60:
56:
55:
52:
48:
44:
43:
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32:
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7636:Superheating
7625:
7509:Vaporization
7504:Triple point
7499:Supercooling
7464:Lambda point
7414:Condensation
7331:Time crystal
7309:Other states
7249:Quantum Hall
7003:oxypnictides
6938:conventional
6877:superstripes
6822:flux pumping
6817:flux pinning
6812:Cooper pairs
6700:
6572:
6566:
6543:
6524:
6515:ScienceDaily
6513:
6491:
6472:
6453:
6434:
6394:
6385:
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6325:
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6265:
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6232:
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6216:
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6169:
6159:
6129:(2): 69â91.
6126:
6120:
6107:
6096:. Retrieved
6090:
6080:
6070:
6029:
6025:
6013:
5986:
5982:
5972:
5929:
5925:
5915:
5906:
5896:
5828:
5824:
5814:
5803:. Retrieved
5799:
5789:
5730:
5726:
5717:
5666:
5662:
5655:
5644:. Retrieved
5640:
5568:
5564:
5558:
5499:
5495:
5489:
5449:(1): 17002.
5446:
5440:
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5242:
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5167:
5161:
5120:
5116:
5110:
5103:(in French).
5099:
5092:
5083:
5073:
5061:. Retrieved
5057:the original
5052:
5043:
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5025:
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4984:
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4940:
4934:
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4264:
4251:
4240:. Retrieved
4238:. 2009-02-17
4235:
4226:
4217:
4204:
4193:. Retrieved
4189:
4180:
4129:
4125:
4114:
4102:. Retrieved
4098:
4089:
4078:. Retrieved
4073:
4064:
4053:. Retrieved
4042:
4033:
4008:
4002:
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3971:
3967:
3954:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3913:(3): 89â91.
3910:
3906:
3900:
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3863:
3851:. Retrieved
3837:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3775:
3769:
3763:
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3748:
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3568:
3558:
3547:. Retrieved
3543:the original
3533:
3500:
3494:
3488:
3455:
3449:
3418:(9): 38â43.
3415:
3411:
3398:
3381:
3377:
3367:
3335:(9): 38â43.
3332:
3326:
3316:
3283:
3279:
3244:
3237:
3213:
3183:
3176:
3158:
3149:. Retrieved
3105:
3101:
3091:
3071:
3064:
3044:
3037:
2964:Ivar Giaever
2946:John Bardeen
2930:
2927:Nobel Prizes
2876:transformers
2865:
2850:
2788:
2784:mobile phone
2765:
2730:
2726:
2704:Applications
2694:
2685:
2679:
2659:
2623:
2613:
2607:
2587:
2577:
2554:
2547:
2532:
2528:
2505:
2371:
2346:. Most pure
2328:
2317:
2310:
2307:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2226:Heinz London
2219:
2215:
2209:
2202:diamagnetism
2199:
2190:
2186:
2184:
2136:vortex lines
2128:
2113:
2104:
2100:
2089:
2075:
2069:
1990:
1986:
1984:
1978:
1971:
1944:
1931:
1923:
1919:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1886:Cooper pairs
1881:
1879:
1859:
1847:
1842:
1834:
1827:
1814:
1794:
1786:
1763:Cooper pairs
1740:
1725:
1716:
1706:
1699:
1692:
1685:
1673:
1661:Please help
1656:verification
1653:
1570:
1543:
1532:
1514:
1512:
1484:
1472:conventional
1470:
1468:
1450:Type II
1448:
1438:
1436:
1428:
1398:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1353:
1324:
1313:
1293:
1278:
1263:
1248:
1209:
1198:
1186:
1063:
1060:
1053:
1040:Heinz London
1025:
997:
939:
928:
925:idealization
902:
869:
865:
864:
607:Four-current
542:Linear motor
427:Electrolysis
307:Eddy current
267:Permeability
187:Polarization
182:Permittivity
7692:Spintronics
7545:Latent heat
7494:Sublimation
7439:Evaporation
7374:Ferromagnet
7369:Ferrimagnet
7351:Dark matter
7283:High energy
6862:SU(2) color
6842:Homes's law
6250:10453/33256
6235:: 161â176.
6075:Technology.
5105:PhD thesis.
3878:(4): 1197.
3108:(5): 1175.
2680:In 2020, a
2602:oxypnictide
2543:paramagnons
2230:free energy
2144:latent heat
2124:latent heat
1936:temperature
1557:By material
1503:space group
1499:point group
1440:Type I
1332:niobiumâtin
1289:Lev Gor'kov
1287:. In 1959,
1285:Hamiltonian
1227:Schrödinger
1044:free energy
1008:refrigerant
577:Transformer
407:Capacitance
332:Faraday law
127:Coulomb law
69:Electricity
7656:Categories
7560:Volatility
7523:Quantities
7484:Regelation
7459:Ionization
7434:Deposition
7386:Superglass
7356:Antimatter
7290:QCD matter
7269:Supersolid
7264:Superfluid
7227:Low energy
6998:iron-based
6857:reentrance
6582:2108.03655
6279:1510.00713
6098:2021-03-30
5996:2208.00854
5805:2021-03-23
5740:1802.00553
5676:1812.01561
5646:2020-10-29
5578:1506.08190
4753:0486435032
4696:1506.08190
4667:0486435032
4496:1504.03318
4443:1905.06693
4330:1504.03318
4242:2020-10-29
4195:2020-10-29
4104:8 December
4080:2008-10-23
4055:2021-03-30
3968:Cryogenics
3720:(4): 487.
3683:(4): 477.
3549:2011-10-16
3280:Z. Phys. B
3169:0677000804
3029:References
2868:smart grid
2838:bolometers
2746:machines,
2617:FeAs with
2600:FeAs), an
2520:perovskite
2514:(LBCO), a
2206:Lenz's law
2109:energy gap
1940:superfluid
1903:energy gap
1719:April 2018
1689:newspapers
1621:fullerenes
1477:BCS theory
1274:Schrieffer
1032:Ochsenfeld
1012:superfluid
992:Niels Bohr
946:perovskite
644:Scientists
492:Waveguides
472:Resistance
442:Inductance
222:AmpĂšre law
6795:Phenomena
6414:standard
6334:: 59â72.
6183:1204.5560
6151:247422273
6143:0010-7514
6062:261976918
6054:2522-5820
5964:252544156
5869:222823227
5765:1476-4687
5723:Cao, Yuan
5709:119231000
5603:0028-0836
5534:0021-9606
5509:1402.2721
5456:0804.2582
5324:Physica C
5153:205066154
5063:9 October
4835:121012850
4643:134876430
4635:1944-9208
4521:0921-4534
4468:155100283
4347:0921-4534
4190:home.cern
4154:2375-2548
3853:10 August
3829:119121639
3804:1111.4781
3797:: 47â57.
3359:0031-9228
3308:118314311
3219:CRC Press
2960:Leo Esaki
2892:vactrains
2834:detectors
2774:based on
2690:retracted
2675:skyrmions
2516:lanthanum
2472:pnictogen
2456:allotrope
2348:elemental
2344:quantized
2263:−
2259:λ
2241:∇
2208:, when a
2047:wave vs.
1862:electrons
1839:Ohm's law
1587:(such as
1415:regimes.
1384:), where
1356:Josephson
1354:In 1962,
1348:ductility
1244:cosmology
1231:Abrikosov
1143:−
1132:×
1128:∇
1084:∂
1074:∂
1000:cryogenic
882:conductor
800:Steinmetz
730:Kirchhoff
715:Jefimenko
710:Hopkinson
695:Helmholtz
690:Heaviside
552:Permeance
437:Impedance
177:Insulator
172:Gauss law
122:Conductor
99:Phenomena
94:Textbooks
74:Magnetism
7621:Spinodal
7569:Concepts
7449:Freezing
7030:cryotron
6988:cuprates
6983:covalent
6740:Matthias
6708:Theories
6629:(2022).
6619:36067325
6419:Archived
6377:46117301
6304:31028550
5956:36163290
5888:36163290
5861:33057222
5773:29512654
5701:31118520
5611:26280333
5550:15633660
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5481:96240327
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4295:29517044
4263:. News.
4172:33158862
4099:phys.org
4049:Archived
3480:37842752
3171:, p. 73.
3145:73661301
2999:See also
2863:(LCOE).
2824:or as a
2822:detector
2768:cryotron
2756:tokamaks
2619:samarium
2340:vortices
2210:changing
1922:, where
1601:ceramics
1459:Type-1.5
1455:vortices
1320:cryotron
1255:electron
1223:Ginzburg
1028:Meissner
825:Wiechert
780:Poynting
670:Einstein
517:DC motor
512:AC motor
347:Lenz law
132:Electret
7581:Binodal
7469:Melting
7404:Boiling
7321:Crystal
7316:Colloid
7124:more...
7008:organic
6610:9477408
6587:Bibcode
6284:Bibcode
6208:4893642
6188:Bibcode
6034:Bibcode
5934:Bibcode
5853:1673473
5833:Bibcode
5781:4601086
5745:Bibcode
5681:Bibcode
5619:4468914
5583:Bibcode
5514:Bibcode
5461:Bibcode
5383:Bibcode
5371:FeAs".
5333:Bibcode
5292:4328716
5272:Bibcode
5212:Bibcode
5125:Bibcode
4995:Bibcode
4951:Bibcode
4877:Bibcode
4779:Bibcode
4729:4468914
4701:Bibcode
4615:Bibcode
4501:Bibcode
4489:: 1â8.
4448:Bibcode
4323:: 1â8.
4273:Bibcode
4163:7673702
4134:Bibcode
4013:Bibcode
3976:Bibcode
3915:Bibcode
3880:Bibcode
3809:Bibcode
3778:: 1364.
3722:Bibcode
3685:Bibcode
3662:: 1064.
3625:Bibcode
3579:Bibcode
3505:Bibcode
3460:Bibcode
3420:Bibcode
3386:Bibcode
3337:Bibcode
3288:Bibcode
3151:June 6,
3110:Bibcode
2832:photon
2760:pigment
2524:yttrium
2508:Bednorz
2428:Cuprate
2352:niobium
2336:fluxons
2140:type II
2002:mercury
1934:is the
1926:is the
1890:phonons
1832:voltage
1795:bottom:
1703:scholar
1577:mercury
1497:of the
1388:is the
1342:and at
1266:Bardeen
968:History
949:ceramic
942:cuprate
907:. Like
810:Thomson
785:Ritchie
775:Poisson
760:Neumann
755:Maxwell
750:Lorentz
745:Liénard
675:Faraday
660:Coulomb
487:Voltage
462:Ohm law
84:History
7209:Plasma
7190:Liquid
6901:Types
6735:London
6617:
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6550:
6531:
6498:
6479:
6460:
6441:
6375:
6302:
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6149:
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5926:Nature
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5882:,
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5825:Nature
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5727:Nature
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5663:Nature
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5565:Nature
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5263:Nature
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2990:, and
2966:, and
2952:, and
2795:SQUIDs
2686:Nature
2496:Nickel
2494:
2492:
2482:
2480:
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2464:
2452:Carbon
2450:
2448:
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2436:
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2286:where
2148:type I
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1676:
1629:carbon
1595:, and
1585:alloys
1575:(e.g.
1364:SQUIDs
1270:Cooper
1259:phonon
1219:Landau
795:Singer
790:Savart
770:Ărsted
735:Larmor
725:Kelvin
680:Fizeau
650:AmpĂšre
572:Stator
79:Optics
7199:Vapor
7185:Solid
7178:State
7114:TBCCO
7086:BSCCO
7065:wires
7060:SQUID
6577:arXiv
6373:S2CID
6322:(PDF)
6300:S2CID
6274:arXiv
6204:S2CID
6178:arXiv
6147:S2CID
6117:(PDF)
6058:S2CID
5991:arXiv
5989:(2).
5960:S2CID
5865:S2CID
5777:S2CID
5735:arXiv
5705:S2CID
5671:arXiv
5615:S2CID
5573:arXiv
5546:S2CID
5504:arXiv
5477:S2CID
5451:arXiv
5407:S2CID
5288:S2CID
5149:S2CID
4893:S2CID
4867:arXiv
4853:(PDF)
4831:S2CID
4809:(PDF)
4725:S2CID
4691:arXiv
4639:S2CID
4601:(PDF)
4546:(PDF)
4525:S2CID
4491:arXiv
4464:S2CID
4438:arXiv
4411:S2CID
4325:arXiv
4214:(PDF)
3964:(PDF)
3847:(PDF)
3825:S2CID
3799:arXiv
3757:: 58.
3525:96265
3521:JSTOR
3476:S2CID
3408:(PDF)
3304:S2CID
3140:S2CID
2826:mixer
2575:with
2222:Fritz
2116:order
1882:pairs
1710:JSTOR
1696:books
1036:Fritz
1006:as a
820:Weber
815:Volta
805:Tesla
720:Joule
705:Hertz
700:Henry
685:Gauss
567:Rotor
7170:list
7119:YBCO
7109:NbTi
7104:NbSn
7091:LBCO
6615:PMID
6548:ISBN
6529:ISBN
6496:ISBN
6477:ISBN
6458:ISBN
6439:ISBN
6139:ISSN
6050:ISSN
5952:PMID
5884:PMID
5857:PMID
5849:OSTI
5769:PMID
5761:ISSN
5697:PMID
5607:PMID
5599:ISSN
5538:PMID
5530:ISSN
5399:PMID
5230:PMID
5180:ISBN
5141:PMID
5065:2012
5013:PMID
4920:ISBN
4748:ISBN
4717:PMID
4662:ISBN
4631:ISSN
4550:CERN
4517:ISSN
4403:PMID
4366:ISBN
4343:ISSN
4291:PMID
4168:PMID
4150:ISSN
4106:2020
3946:II-7
3855:2014
3355:ISSN
3250:ISBN
3223:ISBN
3189:ISBN
3165:ISBN
3153:2014
3130:ISBN
3077:ISBN
3050:ISBN
2976:and
2814:volt
2805:and
2782:for
2468:Iron
2354:and
2224:and
2114:The
1930:and
1867:heat
1787:Top:
1779:CERN
1682:news
1623:and
1607:and
1605:YBCO
1581:lead
1523:and
1272:and
1242:and
1221:and
1038:and
1030:and
1017:lead
911:and
740:Lenz
665:Davy
655:Biot
7195:Gas
7096:MgB
7045:NMR
7040:MRI
6915:1.5
6755:WHH
6750:RVB
6715:BCS
6605:PMC
6595:doi
6573:119
6412:IEC
6365:doi
6336:doi
6292:doi
6245:hdl
6237:doi
6196:doi
6131:doi
6042:doi
6001:doi
5942:doi
5930:610
5876:doi
5841:doi
5829:586
5753:doi
5731:556
5689:doi
5667:569
5591:doi
5569:525
5522:doi
5500:140
5469:doi
5442:EPL
5391:doi
5379:453
5341:doi
5329:243
5319:8+ÎŽ
5280:doi
5268:363
5220:doi
5172:doi
5133:doi
5121:475
5003:doi
4959:doi
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4823:doi
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4687:525
4623:doi
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4509:doi
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1854:MRI
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