455:, temperature has been shown to affect the circadian oscillators within the SCN. This reflects a potential evolutionary relationship among endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates as ectotherms rely on environmental temperature to affect their circadian rhythms and behavior while endotherms have an evolved SCN that is resistant to external temperature fluctuations and uses photoreception as a means for entraining the circadian oscillators within their SCN. In addition, the differences of the SCN between endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates suggest that the neuronal organization of the temperature-resistant SCN in endotherms is responsible for driving thermoregulatory behaviors in those animals differently from those of ectotherms, since they rely on external temperature for engaging in certain behaviors.
447:) in mammals are sensitive to temperature pulses and will experience resetting of the circadian clock phase and associated genetic expression, suggesting how peripheral circadian oscillators may be separate entities from one another despite having a master oscillator within the SCN. Furthermore, when individual neurons of the SCN from a mouse were treated with heat pulses, a similar resetting of oscillators was observed, but when an intact SCN was treated with the same heat pulse treatment the SCN was resistant to temperature change by exhibiting an unaltered circadian oscillating phase. In ectothermic animals, particularly the
337:
aspects of mammalian behavior and physiology show circadian rhythmicity, including sleep, physical activity, alertness, hormone levels, body temperature, immune function, and digestive activity. Early experiments on the function of the SCN involved lesioning the SCN in hamsters. SCN lesioned hamsters lost their daily activity rhythms. Further, when the SCN of a hamster was transplanted into an SCN lesioned hamster, the hamster adopted the rhythms of the hamster from which the SCN was transplanted. Together, these experiments suggest that the SCN is sufficient for generating circadian rhythms in hamsters.
42:
517:: Several studies have been conducted on the genes expressed in circadian oscillating cells of the SCN during various light and dark conditions, as well as effects from inducing mild hypothermia in reptiles. In terms of structure, the SCNs of lizards have a closer resemblance to those of mice, possessing a dorsomedial portion and a ventrolateral core. However, genetic expression of the circadian-related
394:
618:, suggesting that each individual neuron of the SCN can function as an independent circadian oscillator at the cellular level. Each cell of the SCN synchronizes its oscillations to the cells around it, resulting in a network of mutually reinforced and precise oscillations constituting the SCN master clock.
737:
at a rate that determines the length of the transcription-translation feedback loop (TTFL) and then translocate back into the nucleus where the phosphorylated PER-CRY heterodimers act on CLOCK and/or BMAL1 to inhibit their activity. Although the role of phosphorylation in the TTFL mechanism is known,
505:
mice is more sensitive to the amount of light in their environment. Even while fasted, mice in darkened conditions and experiencing hypothermia maintained a stable internal body temperature. In light conditions, mice showed a drop in body temperature under the same fasting and hypothermic conditions.
340:
Later studies have shown that skeletal, muscle, liver, and lung tissues in rats generate 24-hour rhythms, which dampen over time when isolated in a dish, where the SCN maintains its rhythms. Together, these data suggest a model whereby the SCN maintains control across the body by synchronizing "slave
822:
is thought to be caused by structural damage to the SCN, decreased responsiveness of the circadian clock to light and other stimuli, and decreased exposure to light. People who tend to stay indoors and limit their exposure to light experience decreased nocturnal melatonin production. The decrease in
510:
genes in wild-type and knockout strains, as well as analyzing the activity of neurons within the SCN and connections to proximate nuclei of the hypothalamus in the aforementioned conditions, it has been shown that the SCN is the center of control for circadian body temperature rhythm. This circadian
801:
Many SCN neurons are sensitive to light stimulation via the retina. The photic response is likely linked to effects of light on circadian rhythms. In addition, application of melatonin in live rats and isolated SCN cells can decrease the firing rate of these neurons. Variances in light input due to
521:
gene in lizards is similar to that in reptiles and birds, despite the fact that birds have been known to have a distinct SCN structure consisting of a lateral and medial portion. Studying the lizard SCN because of the lizard's small body size and ectothermy is invaluable to understanding how this
428:
as well as regulating locomotion and other behavioral outputs of the circadian clock within ectothermic vertebrates. The behavioral differences between both classes of vertebrates when compared to the respective structures and properties of the SCN as well as various other nuclei proximate to the
336:
Different organisms such as bacteria, plants, fungi, and animals, show genetically based near-24-hour rhythms. Although all of these clocks appear to be based on a similar type of genetic feedback loop, the specific genes involved are thought to have evolved independently in each kingdom. Many
750:. Over time, the PER-CRY heterodimers degrade and the cycle begins again with a period of about 24.5 hours. The integral genes involved, termed “clock genes," are highly conserved throughout both SCN-bearing vertebrates like mice, rats, and birds as well as in non-SCN bearing animals such as
522:
class of vertebrates modifies its behavior within the dynamics of circadian rhythm, but it has not yet been determined whether the systems of cold-blooded vertebrates were slowed as a result of decreased activity in the SCN or showed decreases in metabolic activity as a result of hypothermia.
493:
and mice have informed some connections between the neural and genetic components of both vertebrates when experiencing induced hypothermic conditions. Certain findings have reflected how evolution of SCN both structurally and genetically has resulted in the engagement of characteristic and
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has been associated with altered circadian rhythms. Patients with MDD have weaker rhythms that express clock genes in the brain. When SCN rhythms were disturbed, anxiety-like behavior, weight gain, helplessness, and despair were reported in a study conducted with mice. Abnormal
532:
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provide insight into how these behaviors are the consequence of differing circadian regulation. Ultimately, many neuroethological studies must be done to completely ascertain the direct and indirect roles of the SCN on circadian-regulated behaviors of vertebrates.
485:, two of the many genes responsible for regulating circadian rhythm within the individual cells of the SCN, has allowed for a greater understanding of how genetic expression influences the regulation of circadian rhythm-controlled behaviors. Studies on
442:
In general, external temperature does not influence endothermic animal circadian rhythm because of the ability of these animals to keep their internal body temperature constant through homeostatic thermoregulation; however, peripheral oscillators (see
385:(dmSCN) are believed to have an endogenous 24-hour rhythm that can persist under constant darkness (in humans averaging about 24 hours 11 min). A GABAergic mechanism is involved in the coupling of the ventral and dorsal regions of the SCN.
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in a 24-hour rhythm, even under constant conditions. At mid-day, the firing rate reaches a maximum, and, during the night, it falls again. Rhythmic expression of circadian regulatory genes in the SCN requires depolarization in the SCN neurons via
1967:
Abraham U, Albrecht U, Gwinner E, Brandstätter R (August 2002). "Spatial and temporal variation of passer Per2 gene expression in two distinct cell groups of the suprachiasmatic hypothalamus in the house sparrow (Passer domesticus)".
2383:
Shearman, Lauren P.; Sriram, Sathyanarayanan; Weaver, David R.; Maywood, Elizabeth S.; Chaves, Inẽs; Zheng, Binhai; Kume, Kazuhiko; Lee, Cheng Chi; Der, Gijsbertus T. J. van; Horst; Hastings, Michael H.; Reppert, Steven M. (2000).
501:: Among vertebrates, it is known that mammals are endotherms that are capable of homeostatic thermoregulation. It has been shown that mice display thermosensitivity within the SCN. However, the regulation of body temperature in
374:, synchronization, of the person's or animal's daily rhythms to the 24-hour cycle in nature. The importance of entraining organisms, including humans, to exogenous cues such as the light/dark cycle, is reflected by several
291:
portions, also known as the core and shell, respectively. These regions differ in their expression of the clock genes, the core expresses them in response to stimuli whereas the shell expresses them constitutively.
1896:
Tokizawa K, Uchida Y, Nagashima K (December 2009). "Thermoregulation in the cold changes depending on the time of day and feeding condition: physiological and anatomical analyses of involved circadian mechanisms".
416:, although extensive research has been done on the SCN in model animals such as the mammalian mouse and ectothermic reptiles, particularly lizards. The SCN is known to be involved not only in
280:
of the SCN is species dependent. Distribution of different cell phenotypes across specific SCN regions, such as the concentration of VP-IR neurons, can cause the shape of the SCN to change.
798:
in the body cells, thus resetting the circadian cycle of cells in the body. Without the SCN, rhythms in body cells dampen over time, which may be due to lack of synchrony between cells.
322:(PHI). Each of these peptides are localized in different regions. Neurons with AVP are found dorsomedially, whereas VIP-containing and PHI-containing neurons are found ventrolaterally.
857:. Changes in the SCN and melatonin secretion are major factors that cause circadian rhythm disturbances. These disturbances cause the normal physiology of sleep to change, such as the
368:
have a direct connection to the ventrolateral SCN via the retinohypothalamic tract. When the retina receives light, the vlSCN relays this information throughout the SCN allowing
1431:
Yamazaki, Shin; Numano, Rika; Abe, Michikazu; Hida, Akiko; Takahashi, Ri-ichi; Ueda, Masatsugu; Block, Gene D.; Sakaki, Yoshiyuki; Menaker, Michael; Tei, Hajime (2000-04-28).
626:
The SCN functions as a circadian biological clock in vertebrates including teleosts, reptiles, birds, and mammals. In mammals, the rhythms produced by the SCN are driven by a
612:. Neurons in an intact SCN show coordinated circadian rhythms in electrical activity. Neurons isolated from the SCN have been shown to produce and sustain circadian rhythms
211:
occurs in rodents. Early lesioning experiments in mouse, guinea pig, cat, and opossum established how removal of the SCN results in ablation of circadian rhythm in mammals.
806:, seasonal changes, and constant light conditions all change the firing rhythm in SCN neurons demonstrating the relationship between light and SCN neuronal functioning.
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Significant research has been conducted on the genes responsible for controlling circadian rhythm, in particular within the SCN. Knowledge of the gene expression of
2170:
140:
303:. The dorsomedial SCN is mainly innervated by the core and also by other hypothalamic areas. Lastly, its output is mainly to the subparaventricular zone and
3622:
2729:"The mammalian circadian clock protein period counteracts cryptochrome in phosphorylation dynamics of circadian locomotor output cycles kaput (CLOCK)"
1940:
Casini G, Petrini P, Foà A, Bagnoli P (1993). "Pattern of organization of primary visual pathways in the
European lizard Podarcis sicula Rafinesque".
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control, thus, includes both direct and indirect influence of many of the thermoregulatory behaviors that mammals engage in to maintain homeostasis.
3166:"Genetic Disruption of Circadian Rhythms in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Causes Helplessness, Behavioral Despair, and Anxiety-like Behavior in Mice"
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to the environment. The neuronal and hormonal activities it generates regulate many different body functions in an approximately 24-hour cycle.
3314:
2727:
Matsumura, Ritsuko; Tsuchiya, Yoshiki; Tokuda, Isao; Matsuo, Takahiro; Sato, Miho; Node, Koichi; Nishida, Eisuke; Akashi, Makoto (2014-11-14).
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melatonin production at night corresponds with greater expression of SCN-generated wakefulness during night, causing irregular sleep patterns.
3503:
2341:
1079:
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116:
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Kume, K.; Zylka, M. J.; Sriram, S.; Shearman, L. P.; Weaver, D. R.; Jin, X.; Maywood, E. S.; Hastings, M. H.; Reppert, S. M. (1999-07-23).
2061:"In vitro circadian rhythms of the mammalian suprachiasmatic nuclei: comparison of multi-unit and single-unit neuronal activity recordings"
903:
3010:"Melatonin generates an outward potassium current in rat suprachiasmatic nucleus neurones in vitro independent of their circadian rhythm"
3498:
2668:
Gao, Peng; Yoo, Seung-Hee; Lee, Kyung-Jong; Rosensweig, Clark; Takahashi, Joseph S.; Chen, Benjamin P.; Green, Carla B. (2013-12-06).
733:
are transcribed and translated into PER and CRY, the proteins accumulate and form heterodimers in the cytoplasm. The heterodimers are
775:. Thus, depolarization of SCN neurons via cAMP and calcium contributes to the magnitude of the rhythmic gene expression in the SCN.
3787:
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3753:
2035:
1836:
Gekakis, N.; Staknis, D.; Nguyen, H. B.; Davis, F. C.; Wilsbacher, L. D.; King, D. P.; Takahashi, J. S.; Weitz, C. J. (1998-06-05).
2621:
Okamura, H.; Miyake, S.; Sumi, Y.; Yamaguchi, S.; Yasui, A.; Muijtjens, M.; Hoeijmakers, J. H.; van der Horst, G. T. (1999-12-24).
2509:"Regulating the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) Circadian Clockwork: Interplay between Cell-Autonomous and Circuit-Level Mechanisms"
3853:
3670:
375:
304:
147:
869:, and other sleep disorders as a result of the degeneration of the SCN and changes in critical neurotransmitter concentrations.
819:
3559:
643:
3907:
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779:
772:
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315:
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135:
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3423:
883:
345:
319:
254:
1031:
Weaver, David R.; Emery, Patrick (2013-01-01), Squire, Larry R.; Berg, Darwin; Bloom, Floyd E.; du Lac, Sascha (eds.),
214:
Moreover, the SCN interacts with many other regions of the brain. It contains several cell types and several different
3459:
1785:"Circadian expression of the clock gene Per2 is altered in the ruin lizard (Podarcis sicula) when temperature changes"
370:
193:
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2013:"The accessory optic system: basic organization with an update on connectivity, neurochemistry, and function"
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oscillators," which exhibit their own near-24-hour rhythms and control circadian phenomena in local tissue.
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3057:
Yang, Jing; Jin, Hui Juan; Mocaër, Elisabeth; Seguin, Laure; Zhao, Hua; Rusak, Benjamin (2016-06-15).
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2012:
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1734:
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277:
2566:"mCRY1 and mCRY2 are essential components of the negative limb of the circadian clock feedback loop"
91:
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1993:
1922:
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962:
768:
3059:"Agomelatine affects rat suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons via melatonin and serotonin receptors"
3008:
van den Top, M; Buijs, R.M; Ruijter, J.M; Delagrange, P; Spanswick, D; Hermes, M.L.H.J (2001).
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Azzi, A; Evans, JA; Leise, T; Myung, J; Takumi, T; Davidson, AJ; Brown, SA (18 January 2017).
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the specific kinetics are yet to be elucidated. As a result, PER and CRY function as negative
689:
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A thermographic image of an ectothermic snake wrapping around the hand of an endothermic human
2507:
Herzog, Erik D.; Hermanstyne, Tracey; Smyllie, Nicola J.; Hastings, Michael H. (2017-01-03).
1480:"Synchronization-induced rhythmicity of circadian oscillators in the suprachiasmatic nucleus"
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Circadian rhythms of endothermic (warm-blooded) and ectothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates
331:
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200:
2670:"Phosphorylation of the cryptochrome 1 C-terminal tail regulates circadian period length"
2461:
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1495:
982:"The Mammalian Circadian Timing System and the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus as Its Pacemaker"
41:
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238:
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2623:"Photic induction of mPer1 and mPer2 in cry-deficient mice lacking a biological clock"
2582:
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2027:
1803:
1542:
Miller, Joseph D.; Morin, Lawrence P.; Schwartz, William J.; Moore, Robert Y. (1996).
17:
3984:
3820:
1981:
1926:
1384:
Ralph, Martin R.; Foster, Russell G.; Davis, Fred C.; Menaker, Michael (1990-02-23).
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571:
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1997:
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926:
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In terms of projections, the core receives innervation via three main pathways, the
3959:
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3351:
3324:
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2100:
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The SCN is one of many nuclei that receive nerve signals directly from the retina.
536:
430:
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which both mediate the influence SCN exerts over circadian regulation of the body.
300:
288:
266:
181:
177:
2638:
2409:
1861:
1432:
393:
1682:
1504:
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199:
The idea that the SCN is the main circadian pacemaker in mammals was proposed by
184:. It is the principal circadian pacemaker in mammals, responsible for generating
104:
79:
3946:
3803:
3730:
3443:
3376:
3336:
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2803:
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866:
502:
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448:
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406:
219:
3121:
2076:
1608:
1330:
Clodong S, Dühring U, Kronk L, Wilde A, Axmann I, Herzel H, Kollmann M (2007).
1180:
1145:
3228:"Circadian Rhythm Disturbances in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease: A Review"
3074:
2285:
2268:
1723:"Temperature as a universal resetting cue for mammalian circadian oscillators"
942:
925:
Hastings, Michael H.; Maywood, Elizabeth S.; Brancaccio, Marco (August 2018).
700:
647:
540:
464:
357:
204:
86:
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3129:
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2591:
2532:
2477:
2417:
2351:
2294:
2235:
2188:
2139:
2116:"Clock controls circadian period in isolated suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons"
2084:
1869:
1569:
1560:
1543:
1456:
1409:
1385:
1300:
1243:
950:
539:
showing the influence of light and darkness on circadian rhythms and related
128:
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2913:
2745:
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2622:
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1746:
1401:
739:
559:
401:
Information about the direct neuronal regulation of metabolic processes and
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2829:
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2713:
2654:
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2425:
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2253:
2196:
2147:
2060:
2045:
1989:
1918:
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1819:
1783:
Magnone MC, Jacobmeier B, Bertolucci C, Foà A, Albrecht U (February 2005).
1764:
1700:
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1523:
1464:
1433:"Resetting Central and Peripheral Circadian Oscillators in Transgenic Rats"
1365:
1261:
1192:
1157:
1120:
1097:"Chapter One - The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus and the Circadian Timing System"
1017:
998:
958:
3244:
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1811:
862:
631:
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250:
98:
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853:
The functional disruption of the SCN can be observed in early stages of
570:
passes information about color, contrast, shape, and movement on to the
241:, suggesting the significance of the SCN in regulating circadian timing
153:
3835:
2328:. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 217. pp. 3–27.
1347:
803:
215:
192:
allow it to coordinate the subordinate cellular clocks of the body and
2914:"Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Clock Time in the Mammalian Circadian System"
1277:"Components and connections of the circadian timing system in mammals"
494:
stereotyped thermoregulatory behavior in both classes of vertebrates.
273:. It consists of two nuclei composed of approximately 10,000 neurons.
778:
Further, the SCN synchronizes nerve impulses which spread to various
605:
365:
3112:. Basics of Circadian Biology and Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders.
2385:
233:
Disruptions or damage to the SCN has been associated with different
2852:
Welsh, David K.; Takahashi, Joseph S.; Kay, Steve A. (2010-03-17).
1386:"Transplanted Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Determines Circadian Period"
841:
669:
657:
653:
592:
392:
62:
2131:
1838:"Role of the CLOCK protein in the mammalian circadian mechanism"
1478:
Bernard S, Gonze D, Cajavec B, Herzel H, Kramer A (April 2007).
927:"Generation of circadian rhythms in the suprachiasmatic nucleus"
795:
718:
712:
706:
475:
3296:
2854:"Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Cell Autonomy and Network Properties"
2212:"Suprachiasmatic nucleus: cell autonomy and network properties"
2175:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 199. pp. 129–141.
2114:
Herzog, E. D.; Takahashi, J. S.; Block, G. D. (December 1998).
3106:"Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder: Irregular Sleep Wake Rhythm"
2386:"Interacting Molecular Loops in the Mammalian Circadian Clock"
2022:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 151. pp. 407–40.
1068:
Klein, David C.; Moore, Robert Y.; Reppert, Steven M. (1991).
861:
and body temperature during rest. Patients with AD experience
630:
composed of interacting positive and negative transcriptional
2210:
Welsh, David K.; Takahashi, Joseph S.; Kay, Steve A. (2010).
356:(vlSCN) have the ability for light-induced gene expression.
3226:
Weldemichael, Dawit A.; Grossberg, George T. (2010-09-02).
1332:"Functioning and robustness of a bacterial circadian clock"
1103:, Chronobiology: Biological Timing in Health and Disease,
1095:
Moore, Robert Y. (2013-01-01), Gillette, Martha U. (ed.),
980:
Hastings, MH; Maywood, ES; Brancaccio, M (11 March 2019).
424:, but also in thermoregulation of vertebrates capable of
299:, geniculohypothalamic tract, and projections from some
1101:
Progress in
Molecular Biology and Translational Science
628:
transcription-translation negative feedback loop (TTFL)
2267:
Patton, Andrew P.; Hastings, Michael H. (2018-08-06).
1220:"Neuroanatomy of the extended circadian rhythm system"
2172:
Suprachiasmatic nucleus: cellular clocks and networks
1667:"Network Dynamics Mediate Circadian Clock Plasticity"
405:-controlled behaviors is not well known among either
3104:
Zee, Phyllis C.; Vitiello, Michael V. (2009-06-01).
310:
The most abundant peptides found within the SCN are
3945:
3918:
3866:
3834:
3762:
3738:
3729:
3699:
3690:
3585:
3442:
3416:
3407:
3375:
3344:
3335:
2918:
Cold Spring Harbor
Symposia on Quantitative Biology
2444:Reppert, Steven M.; Weaver, David R. (2002-08-29).
584:
The basal optic system also controls eye movements.
134:
122:
110:
97:
85:
73:
61:
56:
51:
34:
2788:"Avian circadian organization: a chorus of clocks"
2439:
2437:
2435:
1544:"New Insights Into the Mammalian Circadian Clock"
581:controls the movement and orientation of the eye.
378:, where this process does not function normally.
188:. Reception of light inputs from photosensitive
1187:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
1179:Ma, Melinda A.; Morrison, Elizabeth H. (2023),
1152:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
1144:Ma, Melinda A.; Morrison, Elizabeth H. (2023),
1039:, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 819–845,
634:. Within the nucleus of an SCN cell, the genes
1721:Buhr ED, Yoo SH, Takahashi JS (October 2010).
604:The SCN is the central circadian pacemaker of
459:Behaviors controlled by the SCN of vertebrates
203:, who conducted experiments using radioactive
3308:
2446:"Coordination of circadian timing in mammals"
660:, respectively. CLOCK and BMAL1 are positive
8:
3232:International Journal of Alzheimer's Disease
3172:. Novel Signaling Mechanisms in Depression.
820:Irregular sleep-wake rhythm (ISWR) disorder
3735:
3696:
3413:
3341:
3315:
3301:
3293:
2513:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
920:
918:
608:, serving as the coordinator of mammalian
40:
3754:Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation)
3261:
3243:
3197:
3137:
2929:
2885:
2819:
2762:
2744:
2703:
2685:
2581:
2540:
2359:
2284:
2243:
1754:
1690:
1641:"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour"
1616:
1559:
1513:
1503:
1355:
1251:
1071:Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: The Mind's Clock
1037:Fundamental Neuroscience (Fourth Edition)
1007:
997:
1792:Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research
530:
506:Through analyzing genetic expression of
344:The SCN receives input from specialized
176:) is a small region of the brain in the
1891:
1889:
1887:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1181:"Neuroanatomy, Nucleus Suprachiasmatic"
1146:"Neuroanatomy, Nucleus Suprachiasmatic"
1063:
1061:
914:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3159:
3157:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1591:Reid KJ, Chang AM, Zee PC (May 2004).
672:upstream of multiple genes, including
543:and behavior through the SCN in humans
151:
31:
2907:
2905:
2870:10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135919
2847:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2228:10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135919
2020:Neuroanatomy of the Oculomotor System
1831:
1829:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
786:nuclei. The sympathetic nuclei drive
269:bilateral to (on either side of) the
253:part of the hypothalamus immediately
207:to find where the termination of the
7:
3749:Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss)
2786:Cassone, Vincent M. (January 2014).
2011:Giolli RA, Blanks RH, Lui F (2006).
1970:The European Journal of Neuroscience
1597:The Medical Clinics of North America
1174:
1172:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1033:"Chapter 39 - Circadian Timekeeping"
815:Irregular sleep-wake rhythm disorder
688:. In mammals, there are three known
438:The SCN of endotherms and ectotherms
2963:"The circadian visual system, 2005"
2733:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2674:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2181:10.1016/B978-0-444-59427-3.00029-0
1911:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.08.040
1593:"Circadian rhythm sleep disorders"
1113:10.1016/B978-0-12-396971-2.00001-4
668:. These heterodimers then bind to
558:, the basal optic system, and the
25:
3788:Parvocellular neurosecretory cell
3783:Magnocellular neurosecretory cell
2979:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.08.003
2961:Morin, L.P.; Allen, C.N. (2006).
1804:10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.10.014
742:and inhibit the transcription of
316:vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
3671:Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
2059:Prosser, R. A. (February 1998).
1982:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2002.02102.x
839:levels occurred in mice with no
376:circadian rhythm sleep disorders
305:dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus
283:The nucleus can be divided into
148:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
46:Suprachiasmatic nucleus in green
27:Part of the brain's hypothalamus
3182:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.03.1050
2792:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
1236:10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.06.026
1218:Morin, Lawrence P. (May 2013).
904:Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder
832:Major depressive disorder (MDD)
680:, to enhance and promote their
3908:Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus
574:and itself signals to the SCN.
180:, situated directly above the
1:
3288:Diagram at thebrain.mcgill.ca
3028:10.1016/S0306-4522(01)00346-3
2639:10.1126/science.286.5449.2531
2583:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81014-4
2410:10.1126/science.288.5468.1013
2269:"The suprachiasmatic nucleus"
2065:Journal of Biological Rhythms
2028:10.1016/S0079-6123(05)51013-6
1862:10.1126/science.280.5369.1564
600:Genetic Basis of SCN Function
527:Other signals from the retina
420:through innervation from the
346:photosensitive ganglion cells
224:vasoactive intestinal peptide
209:retinohypothalamic projection
3424:Stria medullaris of thalamus
1683:10.1016/j.neuron.2016.12.022
1505:10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030068
1449:10.1126/science.288.5466.682
1275:Reuss, Stefan (1996-08-01).
884:Photosensitive ganglion cell
320:peptide histidine-isoleucine
3826:Suprachiasmatic (melatonin)
2858:Annual Review of Physiology
2804:10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.10.002
2525:10.1101/cshperspect.a027706
2334:10.1007/978-3-642-25950-0_1
2216:Annual Review of Physiology
1074:. Oxford University Press.
931:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
550:Some of the others are the
249:The SCN is situated in the
4017:
3429:Thalamic reticular nucleus
3122:10.1016/j.jsmc.2009.01.009
2077:10.1177/074873098128999899
1609:10.1016/j.mcna.2004.01.010
1484:PLOS Computational Biology
552:lateral geniculate nucleus
329:
3075:10.1016/j.lfs.2016.04.035
2286:10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.052
1942:Journal für Hirnforschung
1336:Molecular Systems Biology
943:10.1038/s41583-018-0026-z
899:Shift work sleep disorder
827:Major depressive disorder
591:controls the size of the
146:
68:nucleus suprachiasmaticus
39:
3965:Nuclei campi perizonalis
3891:Retinohypothalamic tract
1281:Cell and Tissue Research
1107:, Academic Press: 1–28,
894:Retinohypothalamic tract
855:Alzheimer's disease (AD)
762:Neurons in the SCN fire
422:retinohypothalamic tract
350:retinohypothalamic tract
297:retinohypothalamic tract
3886:Medial forebrain bundle
3816:Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH)
2931:10.1101/sqb.2007.72.033
2746:10.1074/jbc.M114.578278
2687:10.1074/jbc.M113.509604
1747:10.1126/science.1195262
1402:10.1126/science.2305266
848:
845:expression in the SCN.
166:suprachiasmatic nucleus
35:Suprachiasmatic nucleus
3903:Mammillothalamic tract
3666:Subthalamic fasciculus
3600:Pallidothalamic tracts
3595:Mammillothalamic tract
3577:Interthalamic adhesion
3110:Sleep Medicine Clinics
2967:Brain Research Reviews
1561:10.1093/sleep/19.8.641
1224:Experimental Neurology
999:10.3390/biology8010013
664:that form CLOCK-BMAL1
544:
398:
348:in the retina via the
190:retinal ganglion cells
18:Suprachiasmatic nuclei
3930:is diencephalon, but
3651:Dentatothalamic tract
3610:Lenticular fasciculus
3572:Midline nuclear group
3170:Biological Psychiatry
1293:10.1007/s004410050652
810:Clinical significance
651:transcription factors
534:
396:
3634:Trigeminal lemniscus
3395:Subcommissural organ
3367:Habenular commissure
2912:Okamura, H. (2007).
312:arginine-vasopressin
3955:Subthalamic nucleus
3773:posterior pituitary
3641:Spinothalamic tract
3615:Thalamic fasciculus
3245:10.4061/2010/716453
2739:(46): 32064–32072.
2680:(49): 35277–35286.
2633:(5449): 2531–2534.
2470:10.1038/nature00965
2462:2002Natur.418..935R
2402:2000Sci...288.1013S
2396:(5468): 1013–1019.
2120:Nature Neuroscience
1854:1998Sci...280.1564G
1848:(5369): 1564–1569.
1739:2010Sci...330..379B
1603:(3): 631–51, viii.
1496:2007PLSCB...3...68B
849:Alzheimer's disease
579:superior colliculus
556:superior colliculus
3656:Acoustic radiation
1348:10.1038/msb4100128
545:
535:A variation of an
399:
3978:
3977:
3941:
3940:
3862:
3861:
3686:
3685:
3678:Medullary laminae
3646:Lateral lemniscus
3605:Ansa lenticularis
3403:
3402:
3362:Habenular trigone
2456:(6901): 935–941.
2343:978-3-642-25949-4
2279:(15): R816–R822.
1443:(5466): 682–685.
1396:(4945): 975–978.
1081:978-0-19-506250-2
1046:978-0-12-385870-2
764:action potentials
758:Electrophysiology
610:circadian rhythms
354:ventrolateral SCN
352:. Neurons in the
228:neurotransmitters
186:circadian rhythms
162:
161:
157:
16:(Redirected from
4008:
4001:Sleep physiology
3996:Circadian rhythm
3881:Stria terminalis
3736:
3697:
3629:Medial lemniscus
3414:
3390:Habenular nuclei
3342:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3294:
3276:
3275:
3265:
3247:
3223:
3212:
3211:
3201:
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2999:
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2849:
2834:
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2724:
2718:
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2544:
2504:
2498:
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2373:
2363:
2326:Circadian Clocks
2321:
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2001:
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1881:
1833:
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1758:
1733:(6002): 379–85.
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1637:
1631:
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1021:
1011:
1001:
977:
971:
970:
922:
859:biological clock
794:which activates
790:output from the
487:thermoregulation
453:Podarcis siculus
445:Circadian rhythm
403:circadian rhythm
154:edit on Wikidata
44:
32:
21:
4016:
4015:
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4005:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3969:Fields of Forel
3937:
3914:
3858:
3830:
3821:Preoptic (GnRH)
3778:Paraventricular
3758:
3725:
3716:Mammillary body
3707:Median eminence
3682:
3661:Optic radiation
3581:
3509:Pulvinar nuclei
3447:
3438:
3399:
3371:
3331:
3323:Anatomy of the
3321:
3284:
3279:
3225:
3224:
3215:
3176:(11): 827–835.
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2273:Current Biology
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1645:Harvard Gazette
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829:
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780:parasympathetic
760:
624:
602:
529:
461:
440:
391:
383:dorsomedial SCN
381:Neurons in the
334:
332:Circadian clock
328:
326:Circadian clock
271:third ventricle
247:
239:sleep disorders
158:
47:
28:
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632:feedback loops
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3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3514:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3318:
3313:
3311:
3306:
3304:
3299:
3298:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3063:Life Sciences
3060:
3053:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3022:(1): 99–108.
3021:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3004:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2500:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2379:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2260:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2173:
2165:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2037:9780444516961
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2007:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1976:(3): 429–36.
1975:
1971:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1948:(3): 361–74.
1947:
1943:
1936:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1812:11392/1198011
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1661:
1658:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1471:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1323:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
991:
987:
983:
976:
973:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
921:
919:
915:
909:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
889:Sense of time
887:
885:
882:
880:
879:Chronobiology
877:
876:
872:
870:
868:
864:
860:
856:
846:
844:
843:
838:
833:
826:
824:
821:
814:
809:
807:
805:
799:
797:
793:
792:adrenal gland
789:
785:
781:
776:
774:
770:
765:
757:
755:
753:
749:
745:
741:
736:
732:
728:
723:
721:
720:
715:
714:
709:
708:
703:
702:
697:
696:
691:
687:
684:and eventual
683:
682:transcription
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
621:
619:
617:
616:
611:
607:
599:
594:
590:
586:
583:
580:
576:
573:
572:visual cortex
569:
565:
564:
563:
561:
557:
553:
548:
542:
538:
533:
526:
520:
516:
513:
509:
504:
500:
497:
496:
495:
492:
488:
484:
482:
478:
473:
471:
467:
458:
456:
454:
450:
446:
437:
435:
432:
427:
423:
419:
415:
412:
408:
404:
395:
388:
386:
384:
379:
377:
373:
372:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
342:
338:
333:
325:
323:
321:
317:
313:
308:
306:
302:
298:
293:
290:
286:
285:ventrolateral
281:
279:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
244:
242:
240:
236:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
212:
210:
206:
202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
155:
149:
145:
142:
139:
137:
133:
130:
127:
125:
121:
118:
115:
113:
109:
106:
103:
100:
96:
93:
90:
88:
84:
81:
78:
76:
72:
69:
66:
64:
60:
55:
50:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
3991:Hypothalamus
3960:Zona incerta
3934:is glandular
3897:
3875:
3868:White matter
3849:Ventromedial
3825:
3812:
3771:
3721:Infundibulum
3692:Hypothalamus
3621:
3587:White matter
3565:Centromedian
3560:Intralaminar
3551:
3516:Metathalamus
3456:
3352:Pineal gland
3325:diencephalon
3235:
3231:
3173:
3169:
3113:
3109:
3099:
3066:
3062:
3052:
3019:
3015:Neuroscience
3013:
3003:
2970:
2966:
2956:
2921:
2917:
2861:
2857:
2798:(1): 76–88.
2795:
2791:
2781:
2736:
2732:
2722:
2677:
2673:
2663:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2573:
2569:
2559:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2453:
2449:
2393:
2389:
2378:
2325:
2319:
2276:
2272:
2262:
2219:
2215:
2205:
2171:
2164:
2132:10.1038/3708
2123:
2119:
2109:
2071:(1): 30–38.
2068:
2064:
2054:
2019:
2006:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1945:
1941:
1935:
1902:
1899:Neuroscience
1898:
1845:
1841:
1798:(2): 281–5.
1795:
1791:
1730:
1726:
1674:
1670:
1660:
1649:. Retrieved
1647:. 1999-07-15
1644:
1635:
1600:
1596:
1586:
1551:
1547:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1393:
1389:
1339:
1335:
1325:
1284:
1280:
1270:
1227:
1223:
1196:, retrieved
1184:
1161:, retrieved
1149:
1124:, retrieved
1104:
1100:
1090:
1070:
1050:, retrieved
1036:
1026:
989:
985:
975:
934:
930:
852:
840:
830:
818:
800:
777:
761:
751:
747:
743:
730:
726:
724:
717:
711:
705:
699:
693:
677:
673:
666:heterodimers
658:BMAL1 (MOP3)
640:Bmal1 (mop3)
639:
635:
625:
613:
603:
588:
578:
567:
549:
546:
518:
515:Ruin lizards
514:
507:
498:
491:ruin lizards
480:
476:
469:
465:
462:
452:
441:
431:hypothalamus
400:
382:
380:
369:
360:-containing
353:
343:
339:
335:
309:
301:raphe nuclei
294:
289:dorsolateral
282:
275:
267:optic chiasm
258:
248:
245:Neuroanatomy
232:
213:
201:Robert Moore
198:
182:optic chiasm
178:hypothalamus
173:
169:
165:
163:
117:A14.1.08.911
105:birnlex_1325
67:
29:
3947:Subthalamus
3854:Dorsomedial
3804:vasopressin
3731:Grey matter
3444:Grey matter
3377:Grey matter
3337:Epithalamus
3329:human brain
3238:: e716453.
3069:: 147–154.
2973:(1): 1–60.
2222:: 551–577.
867:hypersomnia
784:sympathetic
686:translation
642:encode the
554:(LGN), the
503:hypothermic
449:ruin lizard
426:homeothermy
414:vertebrates
411:ectothermic
407:endothermic
371:entrainment
318:(VIP), and
220:vasopressin
218:(including
205:amino acids
57:Identifiers
3985:Categories
3795:Supraoptic
1651:2019-01-28
1490:(4): e68.
1198:2023-04-09
1185:StatPearls
1163:2023-04-25
1150:StatPearls
1126:2023-04-25
1052:2023-04-25
910:References
752:Drosophila
740:repressors
701:Drosophila
662:activators
541:physiology
537:eskinogram
358:Melanopsin
278:morphology
87:NeuroNames
3928:Posterior
3920:Pituitary
3764:Endocrine
3740:Autonomic
3254:2090-8024
3190:0006-3223
3130:1556-407X
3083:0024-3205
2940:0091-7451
2878:0066-4278
2812:1095-6808
2755:1083-351X
2696:1083-351X
2647:0036-8075
2592:0092-8674
2533:1943-0264
2478:0028-0836
2418:0036-8075
2352:0171-2004
2295:1879-0445
2236:1545-1585
2189:1875-7855
2140:1097-6256
2085:0748-7304
1927:207246725
1870:0036-8075
1570:1550-9109
1457:0036-8075
1410:0036-8075
1342:(1): 90.
1301:1432-0878
1244:1090-2430
967:256745076
951:1471-0048
704:, namely
589:pretectum
560:pretectum
265:) to the
3932:anterior
3898:efferent
3876:afferent
3800:oxytocin
3552:midline:
3409:Thalamus
3357:Habenula
3272:20862344
3208:27113500
3148:20160950
3091:27269050
3044:12064196
3036:11744250
2995:41579061
2987:16337005
2948:18419314
2896:20148688
2830:24157655
2773:25271155
2714:24158435
2655:10617474
2608:15846072
2600:10428031
2551:28049647
2486:12198538
2426:10807566
2370:23604473
2311:51933991
2303:30086310
2254:20148688
2197:22877663
2156:19112613
2148:10196587
2046:16221596
1998:15282323
1990:12193185
1919:19703527
1820:15710245
1765:20947768
1701:28065650
1627:15087208
1524:17432930
1465:10784453
1366:17353932
1317:17338595
1262:22766204
1230:: 4–20.
1193:31536270
1158:31536270
1121:23899592
1018:30862123
959:29934559
873:See also
863:insomnia
698:gene in
692:for the
690:homologs
615:in vitro
259:superior
251:anterior
216:peptides
99:NeuroLex
3844:Lateral
3836:Emotion
3700:Surface
3494:Lateral
3465:Ventral
3457:paired:
3417:Surface
3345:Surface
3327:of the
3263:2939436
3199:5102810
3139:2768129
2887:3758475
2821:3946898
2764:4231683
2705:3853276
2627:Science
2542:5204321
2494:4430366
2458:Bibcode
2398:Bibcode
2390:Science
2361:3762864
2245:3758475
2101:1498966
2093:9486841
1954:7505790
1878:9616112
1850:Bibcode
1842:Science
1756:3625727
1735:Bibcode
1727:Science
1692:5247339
1618:3523094
1578:8958635
1515:1851983
1492:Bibcode
1437:Science
1418:2305266
1390:Science
1357:1847943
1309:8772150
1253:3498572
1009:6466121
986:Biology
804:jet lag
769:calcium
670:E-boxes
622:Mammals
606:mammals
477:Period2
364:in the
314:(AVP),
261:(hence
194:entrain
80:D013493
52:Details
3813:other:
3541:K cell
3536:M cell
3531:P cell
3449:nuclei
3270:
3260:
3252:
3206:
3196:
3188:
3146:
3136:
3128:
3089:
3081:
3042:
3034:
2993:
2985:
2946:
2938:
2894:
2884:
2876:
2828:
2818:
2810:
2771:
2761:
2753:
2712:
2702:
2694:
2653:
2645:
2606:
2598:
2590:
2549:
2539:
2531:
2492:
2484:
2476:
2450:Nature
2424:
2416:
2368:
2358:
2350:
2340:
2309:
2301:
2293:
2252:
2242:
2234:
2195:
2187:
2154:
2146:
2138:
2099:
2091:
2083:
2044:
2034:
1996:
1988:
1952:
1925:
1917:
1876:
1868:
1818:
1763:
1753:
1699:
1689:
1671:Neuron
1625:
1615:
1576:
1568:
1522:
1512:
1463:
1455:
1416:
1408:
1364:
1354:
1315:
1307:
1299:
1260:
1250:
1242:
1191:
1156:
1119:
1078:
1043:
1016:
1006:
965:
957:
949:
716:, and
695:period
366:retina
255:dorsal
226:) and
170:nuclei
3742:zones
3040:S2CID
2991:S2CID
2604:S2CID
2490:S2CID
2307:S2CID
2152:S2CID
2097:S2CID
2016:(PDF)
1994:S2CID
1923:S2CID
1788:(PDF)
1548:Sleep
1313:S2CID
992:(1).
963:S2CID
842:Bmal1
654:CLOCK
636:Clock
593:pupil
508:Clock
466:Clock
263:supra
257:, or
152:[
141:67883
63:Latin
3623:PCML
3268:PMID
3250:ISSN
3236:2010
3204:PMID
3186:ISSN
3144:PMID
3126:ISSN
3087:PMID
3079:ISSN
3032:PMID
2983:PMID
2944:PMID
2936:ISSN
2892:PMID
2874:ISSN
2826:PMID
2808:ISSN
2769:PMID
2751:ISSN
2710:PMID
2692:ISSN
2651:PMID
2643:ISSN
2596:PMID
2588:ISSN
2570:Cell
2547:PMID
2529:ISSN
2482:PMID
2474:ISSN
2422:PMID
2414:ISSN
2366:PMID
2348:ISSN
2338:ISBN
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