112:
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or notch, forming a groove through the ridge above each eye, although there were exceptions, such as Skhul 2 in which the ridge was unbroken, unlike other members of her tribe. This splits the ridge into central parts and distal parts. In current humans, almost always only the central sections of the
366:
breadth, and discontinuities in food preparation such as those observed between different age groups. Finding strong support for the first two criteria, she concluded that the supraorbital complex is formed as a result of increased tension due to the widening of the maxilla, thought to be positively
303:
The most composed articulation of the spatial model was presented by Moss and Young (1960), who stated that "the presence… of supraorbital ridges is only the reflection of the spatial relationship between two functionally unrelated cephalic components, the orbit and the brain" (Moss and Young, 1960,
357:
were used as evidence for supraorbital enlargement. Oyen et al.’s data suggested that more prognathic individuals experienced a decrease in load/lever efficiency. This transmits tension via the frontal process of the maxilla to the supraorbital region, resulting in a contemporary reinforcement of
2548:
332:. elaborated on this idea, suggesting that amplified facial projection necessitates the application of enhanced force to the anterior dentition in order to generate the same bite power that individuals with a dorsal deflection of the facial skull exert. In more
361:
In a later series of papers, Russell developed aspects of this mode further. Employing an adult
Australian sample, she tested the association between brow ridge formation and anterior dental loading, via the craniofacial angle (prosthion-nasion-metopion),
297:(after age 4) the growth of the orbit would outpace that of the eye. Consequently, he proposed that facial size is the most influential factor in orbital development, with orbital growth being only secondarily affected by size and ocular position.
316:
The bio-mechanical model predicts that morphological variation in torus size is the direct product of differential tension caused by mastication, as indicated by an increase in load/lever ratio and broad craniofacial angle.
167:). Normally, in humans, the ridges arch over each eye, offering mechanical protection. In other primates, the ridge is usually continuous and often straight rather than arched. The ridges are separated from the
308:. As the splanchnocranium grows, however, the orbits begin to advance, thus causing the anterior displacement of the face relative to the brain. Brow ridges then form as a result of this separation.
290:
The
Spatial model proposes that supraorbital torus development can be best explained in terms of the disparity between the anterior position of the orbital component relative to the neurocranium.
300:
Weindenreich (1941) and
Biegert (1957, 1963) argued that the supraorbital region can best be understood as a product of the orientation of its two components, the face and the neurocranium.
353:
in order to ascertain the relationship between palate length, incisor load and
Masseter lever efficiency, relative to torus enlargement. Indications found of osteoblastic deposition in the
385:
Some researchers have suggested that brow ridges function to protect the eyes and orbital bones during hand-to-hand combat, given that they are an incredibly dimorphic trait.
982:
304:
p282). They proposed (as first articulated by
Biegert in 1957) that during infancy the neurocranium extensively overlaps the orbit, a condition that prohibits
87:
328:. His findings indicated that the face acts as a pillar that carries and disperses tension caused by the forces produced during mastication. Russell and Oyen
178:
Typically, the arches are more prominent in men than in women, and vary between different human populations. Behind the ridges, deeper in the bone, are the
422:
ridge are preserved (if preserved at all). This contrasts with many archaic and early modern humans, where the brow ridge is pronounced and unbroken.
380:
222:
to refer to the plural, as the ridge is usually seen as a pair) are often found in anthropological or archaeological studies. In medicine, the term
1513:
465:, it is relatively reduced. The fossil record indicates that the supraorbital ridge in early hominins was reduced as the cranial vault grew;
63:
1458:
Oyen, Ordean J.; Rice, Robert W.; Cannon, M. Samuel (July 1970). "Browridge structure and function in extant primates and
Neanderthals".
2558:
2436:
2320:
115:
The brow ridges are often not well expressed in human females, as pictured above in a female skull, and are most easily seen in profile.
996:
Oyen OJ, Walker AC, Rice RW (September 1979). "Craniofacial growth in olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis): browridge formation".
2119:
1958:
111:
441:
The size of these ridges varies also between different species of primates, either living or fossil. The closest living relatives of
320:
Research done on this model has largely been based on earlier work of Endo. By applying pressure similar to the type associated with
2039:
2021:
1968:
1852:
690:
574:
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1067:
1636:
1614:
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1485:
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401:
Pronounced brow ridges were a common feature among paleolithic humans. Early modern people such as those from the finds from
388:
171:
by a shallow groove. The ridges are most prominent medially, and are joined to one another by a smooth elevation named the
2237:
2083:
614:
596:
336:
individuals, this increased pressure triggers bone deposition to reinforce the brow ridges, until equilibrium is reached.
82:
293:
Much of the groundwork for the spatial model was laid down by
Schultz (1940). He was the first to document that at later
2292:
1879:
1845:
589:
164:
2516:
2260:
2179:
1624:
1116:
955:
Oyen, OJ, Rice, RW, and Cannon, MS (1979). "Brow ridge structure and function in extant primates and
Neanderthals".
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1506:
1179:
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406:
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2010:
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294:
94:
904:
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324:, he carried out an analysis of the structural function of the supraorbital region on dry human and gorilla
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261:
70:
58:
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1953:
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1250:
976:
541:
1272:
1023:
Shea, Brian T.; Russell, Mary D. (July 1986). "On skull form and the supraorbital torus in primates".
682:
The Origin of
Humankind: Conference Proceedings of the International Symposium, Venice, 14-15 May 1998
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2468:
2100:
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1943:
1835:
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305:
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The brow ridges, being a prominent part of the face in some human populations and a trait linked to
2483:
2277:
2088:
1818:
1696:
1348:"Distribution of Stress and Strain Produced in the Human Facial Skeleton by the Masticatory Force"
1347:
717:"Distribution of Stress and Strain Produced in the Human Facial Skeleton by the Masticatory Force"
2429:
2390:
2219:
1938:
1609:
1543:
1446:
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1098:
1048:
1040:
885:
847:
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661:
514:
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1996:
1948:
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1701:
1676:
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1438:
1429:
Russell, Mary Doria (June 1985). "The
Supraorbital Torus: 'A Most Remarkable Peculiarity'".
1409:
1386:
1359:
1284:
1221:
1082:
1032:
964:
927:
919:
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is a projecting shelf of bone that unlike a ridge is rectilinear, unbroken and goes through
160:
1375:"Analysis of Stresses around the Orbit Due to Masseter and Temporalis Muscles Respectively"
750:"Analysis of Stresses around the Orbit Due to Masseter and Temporalis Muscles Respectively"
2549:
Knowledge (XXG) articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
2478:
2364:
2335:
2186:
1981:
1976:
1897:
1887:
1862:
1766:
1671:
1649:
1592:
618:
600:
368:
818:"A biomechanical study of the human facial skeleton by means of strain-sensitive lacquer"
1150:
649:
2340:
2214:
2006:
2001:
1803:
1776:
1717:
1654:
1534:
1310:"First Report of the Herb Field Mouse, Apodemus uralensis (Pallas, 1811) from Mongolia"
1225:
1210:"The supraorbital ridge as an indicator of age in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)"
501:
410:
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became positioned above rather than behind the eyes, giving a more vertical forehead.
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2141:
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1991:
1985:
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1450:
1309:
1052:
889:
537:
519:
179:
1421:
1288:
1102:
851:
802:
194:, have a number of names in different disciplines. In vernacular English, the terms
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2404:
2034:
1786:
1597:
1575:
1522:
665:
473:
466:
430:
414:
402:
371:, as well as with the improper orientation of bone in the superior orbital region.
349:
152:
44:
17:
2310:
1526:
868:
Russell, MD (1985). "The supraorbital torus: "A most remarkable peculiarity."".
333:
834:
817:
611:
593:
491:
454:
1321:
47:. Outer surface. Brow ridge labelled as "superciliary arch" at center right).
1727:
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446:
75:
1391:
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and certain species of sharks. The presence of a supraorbital ridge in the
941:
843:
457:, have a very pronounced supraorbital ridge, which has also been called a
339:
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1823:
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932:
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172:
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this structure. This was also correlated to periods of tooth eruption.
321:
270:
140:
132:
1086:
100:
1722:
657:
477:
472:
Supraorbital ridges are also present in some other animals, such as
343:
Native American man with pronounced brow ridge and sloping forehead.
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1036:
881:
159:. It forms the separation between the forehead portion itself (the
39:
1556:
442:
429:
387:
338:
325:
229:
156:
136:
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in medicine, is a bony ridge located above the eye sockets of all
110:
1125:(Anatomically Modern Humans - AMH) are the species we belong to"
1495:
392:
Image of a rugby player with a pronounced supraorbital ridge.
409:
had thick, large brow ridges, but they differ from those of
151:
The brow ridge is a nodule or crest of bone situated on the
27:
Bony ridge located above the eye sockets of all primates
1400:
Endo, B (1973). "Stress analysis of the gorilla face".
781:
Endo, B (1973). "Stress analysis of the gorilla face".
566:
Anthony's Textbook of Anatomy & Physiology - E-Book
484:
has been used to distinguish it among related species.
1273:"Description of a new shark from the Tasmanian coast"
277:, but almost all modern humans only have the ridge.
2497:
2445:
2412:
2403:
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2319:
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2236:
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2020:
1967:
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32:
1379:The Journal of Anthropological Society of Nippon
1352:The Journal of Anthropological Society of Nippon
754:The Journal of Anthropological Society of Nippon
721:The Journal of Anthropological Society of Nippon
2110:in petrous part, but not part of temporal bone)
347:Oyen et al. conducted a cross-section study of
863:
861:
1507:
563:Patton, Kevin T.; Thibodeau, Gary A. (2018).
8:
1488:, California State University at Chico site.
1068:"Protective buttressing of the hominin face"
981:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1066:Carrier, David; Morgan, Michael H. (2015).
2409:
2146:
1926:
1791:
1539:
1514:
1500:
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38:
1460:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1390:
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957:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
931:
833:
765:
732:
569:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 276.
1314:Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences
905:"Tooth eruption and browridge formation"
628:
626:
381:Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism
705:Oyen and Russell, 1984, p. 368-369
555:
163:) and the roof of the eye sockets (the
974:
536:This article incorporates text in the
236:. This feature is different from the
98:
29:
202:are common. The more technical terms
7:
273:, in this use of the word, have the
143:are located on their lower margin.
1226:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1992.tb04830.x
25:
822:Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica
1277:Records of the Australian Museum
1247:"Learn About Eagles from A to Z"
530:
494:
467:the frontal portion of the brain
367:correlated with the size of the
1615:Internal occipital protuberance
1561:External occipital protuberance
1289:10.3853/j.0067-1975.2.1893.1194
1188:Natural History Museum, London
1:
679:Aloisi, Massimiliano (2000).
232:) or the English translation
636:(1925). "The Taungs Skull".
590:American Heritage Dictionary
2180:Posterior clinoid processes
1625:Groove for transverse sinus
1180:"How to ID a modern human?"
544:of the 20th edition of
461:while in modern humans and
135:and some other animals. In
2580:
2559:Bones of the head and neck
1271:J. Douglas Ogilby (1893).
378:
835:10.2535/ofaj1936.42.4_205
93:
37:
2306:Anterior clinoid process
2301:Superior orbital fissure
2047:Internal auditory meatus
1893:Fossa for lacrimal gland
1620:Internal occipital crest
1571:External occipital crest
1208:H. H. Kolb (June 1992).
510:Occipitofrontalis muscle
95:Anatomical terms of bone
2283:Sulcus of auditory tube
1472:10.1002/ajpa.1330510111
969:10.1002/ajpa.1330510111
924:10.1002/ajpa.1330580107
903:Russell MD (May 1982).
242:the margin of the orbit
2197:Middle clinoid process
1392:10.1537/ase1911.78.251
1365:10.1537/ase1911.73.123
767:10.1537/ase1911.78.251
734:10.1537/ase1911.73.123
438:
393:
344:
306:brow ridge development
116:
2474:Superior nasal concha
1954:Petrotympanic fissure
1251:National Eagle Center
433:
391:
342:
295:stages of development
114:
2469:Supreme nasal concha
2101:Petrosquamous suture
2057:Stylomastoid foramen
1944:Suprameatal triangle
1836:Supraorbital foramen
1431:Current Anthropology
1025:Current Anthropology
870:Current Anthropology
816:Endo B (July 1966).
437:with a frontal torus
419:supraorbital foramen
312:Bio-mechanical model
251:distinguish between
249:paleoanthropologists
2484:Middle nasal concha
2437:Perpendicular plate
2278:Infratemporal crest
1819:Superciliary arches
1697:Pharyngeal tubercle
1155:Medscape references
912:Am J Phys Anthropol
650:1925Natur.115..908S
238:supraorbital margin
225:arcus superciliaris
2512:ethmoidal foramina
2430:Olfactory foramina
2391:Sphenoidal conchae
2228:Sphenoidal sinuses
2220:Sphenoidal lingula
1939:Articular tubercle
1610:Cruciform eminence
1414:10.1007/bf01730514
1214:Journal of Zoology
1151:"Forehead Anatomy"
1075:Biological Reviews
795:10.1007/bf01730514
617:2007-12-15 at the
599:2007-12-14 at the
515:Supraciliary scale
482:Korean field mouse
439:
397:Paleolithic humans
394:
345:
257:supraorbital ridge
125:supraorbital ridge
117:
18:Supraorbital ridge
2536:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2399:
2398:
2225:Anterior surface:
2192:Chiasmatic groove
2175:Hypophysial fossa
2170:Tuberculum sellae
2157:Superior surface:
2136:
2135:
2128:Suprameatal spine
2084:Inferior tympanic
2052:Cochlear aqueduct
1959:Zygomatic process
1916:
1915:
1853:Zygomatic process
1752:Parietal eminence
1738:
1737:
1662:Hypoglossal canal
1087:10.1111/brv.12112
234:superciliary arch
208:supraorbital arch
192:sexual dimorphism
169:frontal eminences
129:superciliary arch
109:
108:
104:
16:(Redirected from
2571:
2461:Uncinate process
2420:Cribriform plate
2410:
2348:pterygoid plates
2212:Lateral surface:
2202:Petrosal process
2147:
2067:Subarcuate fossa
1997:Occipital groove
1949:Mandibular fossa
1927:
1908:Frontonasal duct
1809:Frontal eminence
1792:
1762:Parietal foramen
1677:Jugular tubercle
1581:Suprainiac fossa
1540:
1516:
1509:
1502:
1493:
1486:The Frontal Bone
1475:
1454:
1425:
1396:
1394:
1373:Endo, B (1970).
1369:
1367:
1346:Endo, B (1965).
1333:
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1136:
1127:. Archived from
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778:
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748:Endo, B (1970).
745:
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715:Endo, B (1965).
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703:
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696:
676:
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658:10.1038/115908a0
630:
621:
609:
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581:
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534:
533:
504:
499:
498:
407:Skhul and Qafzeh
259:. In anatomy, a
161:squama frontalis
101:edit on Wikidata
42:
30:
21:
2579:
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2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2564:Facial features
2554:Primate anatomy
2539:
2538:
2537:
2528:
2493:
2479:Superior meatus
2453:Lateral surface
2441:
2395:
2374:
2365:Pterygoid canal
2322:
2315:
2287:
2232:
2187:Ethmoidal spine
2132:
2114:
2096:Styloid process
2016:
1982:Mastoid process
1977:Mastoid foramen
1963:
1912:
1898:Trochlear fovea
1888:Ethmoidal notch
1874:
1863:Sagittal sulcus
1781:
1767:Sagittal sulcus
1734:
1706:
1683:
1672:Jugular process
1650:Condyloid fossa
1631:
1529:
1520:
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1457:
1428:
1399:
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1342:
1340:Further reading
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644:(2902): 908–9.
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619:Wayback Machine
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601:Wayback Machine
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449:and especially
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369:masseter muscle
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180:frontal sinuses
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2466:Medial surface
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2456:Orbital lamina
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2215:Carotid groove
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2018:
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2007:Mastoid antrum
2004:
2002:Sigmoid sulcus
1999:
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1849:
1848:
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1838:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1811:
1806:
1804:Frontal suture
1800:
1798:
1789:
1783:
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1780:
1779:
1777:Sagittal crest
1774:
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1657:
1655:Condylar canal
1652:
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1481:
1480:External links
1478:
1477:
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1455:
1443:10.1086/203279
1437:(3): 337–360.
1426:
1397:
1370:
1341:
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1301:
1263:
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1220:(2): 334–338.
1200:
1171:
1149:Bhupendra, P.
1141:
1108:
1081:(1): 330–346.
1058:
1037:10.1086/203427
1031:(3): 257–260.
1015:
988:
947:
895:
882:10.1086/203279
857:
808:
773:
760:(4): 251–266.
740:
727:(4): 123–136.
707:
698:
691:
671:
622:
604:
582:
575:
554:
553:
547:Gray's Anatomy
527:
524:
523:
522:
517:
512:
506:
505:
502:Anatomy portal
489:
486:
459:frontal torus,
427:
424:
411:archaic humans
398:
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313:
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287:
284:
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279:
269:. Some fossil
187:
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165:pars orbitalis
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2513:
2510:
2508:
2507:Ethmoid sinus
2505:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2490:
2489:Middle meatus
2487:
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2178:
2176:
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2168:
2166:
2165:Dorsum sellae
2163:
2162:
2161:
2160:Sella turcica
2158:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2120:Tympanic part
2117:
2111:
2109:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2072:Jugular fossa
2070:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2030:Carotid canal
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1992:Mastoid notch
1990:
1987:
1986:Mastoid cells
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1931:Squamous part
1928:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1903:Frontal sinus
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1869:
1868:Frontal crest
1866:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1846:Foramen cecum
1844:
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1837:
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1817:
1816:
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1799:
1797:
1796:Squamous part
1793:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1772:Sagittal keel
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1757:Temporal line
1755:
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1749:
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1638:
1637:Lateral parts
1634:
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1618:
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1608:
1607:
1606:
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1569:
1567:
1566:Occipital bun
1564:
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1555:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1544:Squamous part
1541:
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1432:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1385:(4): 251–66.
1384:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1358:(4): 123–36.
1357:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1290:
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1201:
1189:
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1172:
1160:
1156:
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1145:
1142:
1131:on 2011-09-08
1130:
1126:
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1120:
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1109:
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1096:
1092:
1088:
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1080:
1076:
1069:
1062:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1007:
1004:(3): 174–87.
1003:
999:
992:
989:
984:
978:
970:
966:
962:
958:
951:
948:
943:
939:
934:
933:2027.42/37614
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
906:
899:
896:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
864:
862:
858:
853:
849:
845:
841:
836:
831:
828:(4): 205–17.
827:
823:
819:
812:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
777:
774:
768:
763:
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741:
735:
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726:
722:
718:
711:
708:
702:
699:
694:
692:9781586030308
688:
685:. IOS Press.
684:
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675:
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576:9780323709309
572:
568:
567:
559:
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543:
539:
538:public domain
525:
521:
520:Frontal sinus
518:
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479:
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436:
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426:Other animals
425:
423:
420:
416:
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396:
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374:
372:
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365:
359:
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341:
337:
335:
331:
327:
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318:
311:
309:
307:
301:
298:
296:
291:
286:Spatial model
285:
280:
278:
276:
275:frontal torus
272:
268:
264:
263:
258:
254:
253:frontal torus
250:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
226:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
200:eyebrow ridge
197:
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185:
183:
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176:
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162:
158:
154:
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144:
142:
138:
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130:
126:
122:
113:
102:
96:
92:
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80:
77:
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72:
68:
65:
62:
60:
56:
51:
46:
41:
36:
31:
19:
2511:
2465:
2452:
2425:Crista galli
2347:
2330:
2245:
2224:
2211:
2156:
2105:
2078:
2061:
2035:Facial canal
2022:Petrous part
1969:Mastoid part
1880:Orbital part
1857:
1840:
1830:
1813:
1689:Basilar part
1666:
1604:
1587:
1576:Nuchal lines
1551:
1523:Neurocranium
1466:(1): 83–95.
1463:
1459:
1434:
1430:
1405:
1401:
1382:
1378:
1355:
1351:
1325:. Retrieved
1313:
1304:
1292:. Retrieved
1283:(5): 62–63.
1280:
1276:
1266:
1254:. Retrieved
1241:
1229:. Retrieved
1217:
1213:
1203:
1191:. Retrieved
1183:
1174:
1162:. Retrieved
1154:
1144:
1133:. Retrieved
1129:the original
1122:
1119:Homo sapiens
1118:
1111:
1078:
1074:
1061:
1028:
1024:
1018:
1001:
997:
991:
977:cite journal
960:
956:
950:
918:(1): 59–65.
915:
911:
898:
873:
869:
825:
821:
811:
786:
782:
776:
757:
753:
743:
724:
720:
710:
701:
681:
674:
641:
637:
634:Sollas, W.J.
607:
594:supraorbital
585:
565:
558:
549:
535:
529:
474:wild rabbits
471:
458:
440:
417:by having a
415:Neanderthals
403:Jebel Irhoud
400:
384:
360:
350:Papio anubis
348:
346:
329:
319:
315:
302:
299:
292:
289:
274:
260:
256:
252:
246:
241:
237:
233:
224:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
196:eyebrow bone
195:
189:
177:
153:frontal bone
150:
128:
124:
120:
118:
64:A02.1.03.005
45:Frontal bone
2311:Optic canal
2293:Small wings
2238:Great wings
1327:16 February
1294:16 February
1256:16 February
1231:16 February
1193:11 December
1164:11 December
455:chimpanzees
281:Development
186:Terminology
53:Identifiers
2543:Categories
2079:canaliculi
1841:Brow ridge
1184:News, 2012
1135:2019-01-29
1123:H. sapiens
526:References
463:orangutans
447:great apes
379:See also:
334:prognathic
121:brow ridge
33:Brow ridge
2517:Posterior
2499:Labyrinth
2336:Pterygoid
2323:processes
2321:Pterygoid
1728:Opisthion
1593:Occipital
1535:Occipital
1451:146857927
1408:: 37–45.
1322:2225-4994
1053:145273372
963:: 88–96.
890:146857927
789:: 37–45.
147:Structure
127:known as
2522:Anterior
2446:Surfaces
2341:Scaphoid
2266:Spinosum
2251:Rotundum
2246:foramina
2150:Surfaces
2142:Sphenoid
2108:ossicles
1922:Temporal
1858:internal
1831:foramina
1824:Glabella
1814:external
1744:Parietal
1605:internal
1552:external
1422:23751360
1402:Primates
1159:Medscape
1103:14777701
1095:24909544
852:16122254
803:23751360
783:Primates
615:Archived
597:Archived
542:page 135
488:See also
451:gorillas
375:Function
355:glabella
271:hominins
267:glabella
173:glabella
141:eyebrows
133:primates
2405:Ethmoid
2370:Hamulus
2353:Lateral
2261:Vesalii
2106:(note:
2089:Mastoid
1787:Frontal
1667:jugular
1645:Condyle
1525:of the
1045:2742880
942:7124915
876:: 337.
844:6013426
666:4125405
646:Bibcode
435:Gorilla
364:maxilla
322:chewing
204:frontal
155:of the
2413:Plates
2358:Medial
2331:fossae
2207:Clivus
2062:fossae
2040:Hiatus
2011:Aditus
1723:Basion
1702:Clivus
1598:Nuchal
1588:planes
1449:
1420:
1320:
1316:: 36.
1101:
1093:
1051:
1043:
1010:116911
1008:
998:Growth
940:
888:
850:
842:
801:
689:
664:
638:Nature
573:
550:(1918)
478:eagles
445:, the
443:humans
326:skulls
139:, the
137:humans
2379:Other
2273:Spine
2256:Ovale
1711:Other
1557:Inion
1527:skull
1447:S2CID
1418:S2CID
1099:S2CID
1071:(PDF)
1049:S2CID
1041:JSTOR
908:(PDF)
886:S2CID
848:S2CID
799:S2CID
662:S2CID
612:torus
540:from
413:like
330:et al
262:torus
247:Some
230:Latin
216:torus
212:ridge
157:skull
123:, or
99:[
88:52850
2386:Body
1329:2023
1318:ISSN
1296:2023
1258:2023
1233:2023
1195:2013
1166:2013
1091:PMID
1006:PMID
983:link
938:PMID
840:PMID
687:ISBN
571:ISBN
405:and
255:and
240:and
220:tori
218:(or
119:The
59:TA98
1468:doi
1439:doi
1410:doi
1387:doi
1360:doi
1285:doi
1222:doi
1218:227
1083:doi
1033:doi
965:doi
928:hdl
920:doi
878:doi
830:doi
791:doi
762:doi
729:doi
654:doi
642:115
453:or
214:or
206:or
198:or
83:FMA
76:524
71:TA2
2545::
1464:51
1462:.
1445:.
1435:26
1433:.
1416:.
1406:14
1404:.
1383:78
1381:.
1377:.
1356:73
1354:.
1350:.
1312:.
1279:.
1275:.
1249:.
1216:.
1212:.
1186:.
1182:.
1157:.
1153:.
1121:-
1097:.
1089:.
1079:90
1077:.
1073:.
1047:.
1039:.
1029:27
1027:.
1002:43
1000:.
979:}}
975:{{
961:51
959:.
936:.
926:.
916:58
914:.
910:.
884:.
874:26
872:.
860:^
846:.
838:.
826:42
824:.
820:.
797:.
787:14
785:.
758:78
756:.
752:.
725:73
723:.
719:.
660:.
652:.
640:.
625:^
592:.
476:,
244:.
210:,
182:.
175:.
2013:)
2009:(
1988:)
1984:(
1559:/
1515:e
1508:t
1501:v
1474:.
1470::
1453:.
1441::
1424:.
1412::
1395:.
1389::
1368:.
1362::
1331:.
1298:.
1287::
1281:2
1260:.
1235:.
1224::
1197:.
1168:.
1138:.
1117:"
1105:.
1085::
1055:.
1035::
1012:.
985:)
971:.
967::
944:.
930::
922::
892:.
880::
854:.
832::
805:.
793::
770:.
764::
737:.
731::
695:.
668:.
656::
648::
579:.
228:(
103:]
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
