St. Bartholomew's Day massacre

1029: 1052:(1572) was not only "a Protestant of sorts, and thus, apparently, writing with inside knowledge", but also "an extreme apologist for the massacre ... in his view ... a well-merited punishment for years of civil disobedience secret sedition..." A strand of Catholic writing, especially by Italian authors, broke from the official French line to applaud the massacre as precisely a brilliant stratagem, deliberately planned from various points beforehand. The most extreme of these writers was Camilo Capilupi, a papal secretary, whose work insisted that the whole series of events since 1570 had been a masterly plan conceived by Charles IX, and carried through by frequently misleading his mother and ministers as to his true intentions. The Venetian government refused to allow the work to be printed there, and it was eventually published in Rome in 1574, and in the same year quickly reprinted in Geneva in the original Italian and a French translation. 1198:, the member of the royal family with the most responsibility in this affair is Henry, Duke of Anjou, the king's ambitious younger brother. Following the failed assassination attack against the Admiral de Coligny (which Wanegffelen attributes to the Guise family and Spain), the Italian advisers of Catherine de' Medici undoubtedly recommended in the royal council the execution of about fifty Protestant leaders. These Italians stood to benefit from the occasion by eliminating the Huguenot danger. Despite the firm opposition of the Queen Mother and the King, Anjou, Lieutenant General of the Kingdom, present at this meeting of the council, could see a good occasion to make a name for himself with the government. He contacted the Parisian authorities and another ambitious young man, running out of authority and power, Duke Henri de Guise (whose uncle, the clear-sighted Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, was then detained in Rome). 1299:, who was in Paris for the 12th World Youth Day, issued a statement on the Massacre. He stayed in Paris for three days and made eleven speeches. According to Reuters and the Associated Press, at a late-night vigil, with the hundreds of thousands of young people who were in Paris for the celebrations, he made the following comments: "On the eve of Aug. 24, we cannot forget the sad massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, an event of very obscure causes in the political and religious history of France. ... Christians did things which the Gospel condemns. I am convinced that only forgiveness, offered and received, leads little by little to a fruitful dialogue, which will in turn ensure a fully Christian reconciliation. ... Belonging to different religious traditions must not constitute today a source of opposition and tension. On the contrary, our common love for Christ impels us to seek tirelessly the path of full unity." 244: 361: 919: 1562: 507: 1071:'s "books held most dear and precious by our Italian and Italionized courtiers" (in the words of his first English translation), and so (in Anglo's paraphrase) "at the root of France's present degradation, which has culminated not only in the St Bartholemew massacre but the glee of its perverted admirers". In fact there is little trace of Machiavelli in French writings before the massacre, and not very much after, until Gentillet's own book, but this concept was seized upon by many contemporaries, and played a crucial part in setting the long-lasting popular concept of Machiavellianism. It also gave added impetus to the strong anti-Italian feelings already present in Huguenot polemic. 612:, Comte de Retz. On the evening of 23 August, Catherine went to see the king to discuss the crisis. Though no details of the meeting survive, Charles IX and his mother apparently made the decision to eliminate the Protestant leaders. Holt speculated this entailed "between two and three dozen noblemen" who were still in Paris. Other historians are reluctant to speculate on the composition or size of the group of leaders targeted at this point, beyond the few obvious heads. Like Coligny, most potential candidates for elimination were accompanied by groups of gentlemen who served as staff and bodyguards, so murdering them would also have involved killing their retainers as a necessity. 822: 50: 766: 1263:

inflicted on many of the corpses "was not random at all, but patterned after the rites of the Catholic culture that had given birth to it". "Many Protestant houses were burned, invoking the traditional purification by fire of all heretics. Many victims were also thrown into the Seine, invoking the purification by water of Catholic baptism". Viewed as a threat to the social and political order, Holt argues that "Huguenots not only had to be exterminated – that is, killed – they also had to be humiliated, dishonoured, and shamed as the inhuman beasts they were perceived to be."

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where some hundreds were killed, the Huguenot community shrank from 16,500 to fewer than 3,000 mainly as a result of conversions and emigration to safer cities or countries. Some cities unaffected by the violence nevertheless witnessed a sharp decline in their Huguenot population. It has been claimed that the Huguenot community represented as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, declining to 7–8% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again during the reign of

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the King. One can also understand why, the day after the start of the massacre, Catherine de' Medici, through royal declaration of Charles IX, condemned the crimes, and threatened the Guise family with royal justice. However, when Charles IX and his mother learned of the involvement of the duke of Anjou, and being so dependent on his support, they issued a second royal declaration, which, while asking for an end to the massacres, credited the initiative with the desire of Charles IX to prevent a Protestant plot. Initially the

3298:. This justification, written "in the entourage of the Gondi, in 1628, exonerate their ancestor" of the accusation of having instigated the massacre. Albert de Gondi is portrayed there as opposed to the bloody designs of Charles IX, whose tirade is allegedly reported in 1573 by Duke Henri d'Anjou, then reigning in Warsaw as the elected king of Poland. The apocryphal sentence of Charles IX thus participates in a "rewriting of facts" for the apologetic needs of the Gondi family. In Arlette Jouanna, p. 15 ; 333-334, n. 26. 1281:) wrote that the Massacre was deeply disturbing because "it was Christians massacring other Christians who were not foreign enemies but their neighbours with which they and their forebears had lived in a Christian community, and under the same ruler, for a thousand years". He concludes that the historical importance of the Massacre "lies not so much in the appalling tragedies involved as their demonstration of the power of sectarian passion to break down the barriers of civilisation, community and accepted morality". 659:, that had withered for months, began to green again near an image of the Virgin. That was interpreted by the Parisians as a sign of divine blessing and approval to these multiple murders, and that night, a group led by Guise in person dragged Admiral Coligny from his bed, killed him, and threw his body out of a window. The terrified Huguenot nobles in the building initially put up a fight, hoping to save the life of their leader, but Coligny himself seemed unperturbed. According to the contemporary French historian 443:" and others. "Huguenot writers, who had previously, for the most part, paraded their loyalty to the Crown, now called for the deposition or assassination of a Godless king who had either authorised or permitted the slaughter". Thus, the massacre "marked the beginning of a new form of French Protestantism: one that was openly at war with the crown. This was much more than a war against the policies of the crown, as in the first three civil wars; it was a campaign against the very existence of the 601:

king and his court visited Coligny on his sickbed and promised him that the culprits would be punished. While the Queen Mother was eating dinner, Protestants burst in to demand justice, some talking in menacing terms. Fears of Huguenot reprisals grew. Coligny's brother-in-law led a 4,000-strong army camped just outside Paris and, although there is no evidence it was planning to attack, Catholics in the city feared it might take revenge on the Guises or the city populace itself.

1292:. He describes how the religious divide, which gave the Huguenots different patterns of dress, eating and pastimes, as well as the obvious differences of religion and (very often) class, had become a social schism or cleavage. The rituals around the royal marriage had only intensified this cleavage, contrary to its intentions, and the "sentiments of estrangement – radical otherness – to prevail over sentiments of affinity between Catholics and Protestants". 235:. The Huguenot political movement was crippled by the loss of many of its prominent aristocratic leaders, and many rank-and-file members subsequently converted. Those who remained became increasingly radicalised. Though by no means unique, the bloodletting "was the worst of the century's religious massacres". Throughout Europe, it "printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody and treacherous religion". 633: 1151: 1240:, agrees that Vigor, "the best known preacher in Paris", preached sermons that were full of references to the evils that would befall the capital should the Protestants seize control. This view is also partly supported by Cunningham and Grell (2000) who explained that "militant sermons by priests such as Simon Vigor served to raise the religious and eschatological temperature on the eve of the Massacre". 671:. The massacre in Paris lasted three days despite the king's attempts to stop it. Holt concludes that "while the general massacre might have been prevented, there is no evidence that it was intended by any of the elites at court", listing a number of cases where Catholic courtiers intervened to save individual Protestants who were not in the leadership. Recent research by Jérémie Foa, investigating the 881: 2902: 1313: 228:, the military and political leader of the Huguenots. King Charles IX ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, and the slaughter spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks in all, the massacre expanded outward to the countryside and other urban centres. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, from 5,000 to 30,000. 1191:, the violently anti-Huguenot city of Paris was really responsible. He stresses that the city was on the verge of revolt. The Guises, who were highly popular, exploited this situation to put pressure on the King and the Queen Mother. Charles IX was thus forced to head off the potential riot, which was the work of the Guises, the city militia and the common people. 840:, who himself barely escaped death. Accurate figures for casualties have never been compiled, and even in writings by modern historians there is a considerable range, though the more specialised the historian, the lower they tend to be. At the low end are figures of about 2,000 in Paris and 3,000 in the provinces, the latter figure an estimate by 757:. In most of them, the killings swiftly followed the arrival of the news of the Paris massacre, but in some places there was a delay of more than a month. According to Mack P. Holt: "All twelve cities where provincial massacres occurred had one striking feature in common; they were all cities with Catholic majorities where there had once been 683:(respectively aged 19 and 20), were spared as they pledged to convert to Catholicism; both would eventually renounce their conversions when they managed to escape Paris. According to some interpretations, the survival of these Huguenots was a key point in Catherine's overall scheme, to prevent the House of Guise from becoming too powerful. 584: 1740:

and depicts them as sincere proponents of religious toleration, caught by surprise and horrified by the events; he places the entire responsibility on the Guise Family, following the "Machiavellian" view of the massacre and depicting it as a complicated Guise conspiracy, meticulously planned in advance and implemented in full detail.

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whose details were now fleshed out in officially sponsored works, though the larger mob massacres were somewhat deprecated: " must excuse the people's fury moved by a laudable zeal which is difficult to restrain once it has been stirred up". Huguenot works understandably dwelt on the harrowing details of violence, expounded various

1244: 432:, a book of 1561, in which he had argued that when kings disobey God, they "automatically abdicate their worldly power" – a change from his views in earlier works that even ungodly kings should be obeyed. This change was soon picked up by Huguenot writers, who began to expand on Calvin and promote the idea of the 2537:

a century later, put the number at 100,000, but "This last number is probably exaggerated, if we reckon only those who perished by a violent death. But if we add those who died from wretchedness, hunger, sorrow, abandoned old men, women without shelter, children without bread,—all the miserable whose

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The traditional interpretation makes Catherine de' Medici and her Catholic advisers the principal culprits in the execution of the principal military leaders. They forced the hand of a hesitant and weak-willed king in the decision of that particular execution. This traditional interpretation has been

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The impending marriage led to the gathering of a large number of well-born Protestants in Paris, but Paris was a violently anti-Huguenot city, and Parisians, who tended to be extreme Catholics, found their presence unacceptable. Encouraged by Catholic preachers, they were horrified at the marriage of

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uses this event. Several chapters depict in great detail the massacre and the events leading up to it, with the book's protagonists getting some warning in advance and making enormous but futile efforts to avert it. Follett completely clears King Charles IX and his mother Catherine of any complicity

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described the massacre in "From the Manuscript of 'A Tramp Abroad' (1879): The French and the Comanches", an essay about "partly civilized races". He wrote in part, "St. Bartholomew's was unquestionably the finest thing of the kind ever devised and accomplished in the world. All the best people took

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had "said if the King ordered the Admiral (Coligny) killed, 'it would be wicked not to kill him'. With these words, the most popular preacher in Paris legitimised in advance the events of St. Bartholomew's Day". Diefendorf says that when the head of the murdered Coligny was shown to the Paris mob by

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Traditional histories have tended to focus more on the roles of the political notables whose machinations began the massacre than the mindset of those who actually did the killing. Ordinary lay Catholics were involved in the mass killings; they believed they were executing the wishes of the king and

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on a stone base. Under the terms of the peace, and after considerable popular resistance, this had been removed in December 1571 (and re-erected in a cemetery), which had already led to about 50 deaths in riots, as well as mob destruction of property. In the massacres of August, the relatives of the

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Some, like Leonie Frieda, emphasise the element within the mob violence of the "haves" being "killed by the 'have-nots'". Many Protestants were nobles or bourgeois and Frieda adds that "a number of bourgeois Catholic Parisians had suffered the same fate as the Protestants; many financial debts were

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Holt, notable for re-emphasising the importance of religious issues, as opposed to political/dynastic power struggles or socio-economic tensions, in explaining the French Wars of Religion, also re-emphasised the role of religion in the St Bartholomew's Day massacre. He noted that the extra violence

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Although these formal acts of rejoicing in Rome were not repudiated publicly, misgivings in the papal curia grew as the true story of the killings gradually became known. Pope Gregory XIII himself refused to receive Charles de Maurevert, said to be the killer of Coligny, on the ground that he was a

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The attempted assassination of Coligny triggered the crisis that led to the massacre. Admiral de Coligny was the most respected Huguenot leader and enjoyed a close relationship with the king, although he was distrusted by the king's mother. Aware of the danger of reprisals from the Protestants, the

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Compounding this bad feeling was the fact that the harvests had been poor and taxes had risen. The rise in food prices and the luxury displayed on the occasion of the royal wedding increased tensions among the common people. A particular point of tension was an open-air cross erected on the site of

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Historians cite the extreme tension and bitterness that led to the powder-keg atmosphere of Paris in August 1572. In the previous ten years there had already been three outbreaks of civil war, and attempts by Protestant nobles to seize power in France. Some blame the complete esteem with which the

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The Parisian St. Bartholomew's Day massacre resulted from this conjunction of interests, and this offers a much better explanation as to why the men of the Duke of Anjou acted in the name of the Lieutenant General of the Kingdom, consistent with the thinking of the time, rather than in the name of

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mass of polemical literature, bubbling with theories, prejudices and phobias". Many Catholic authors were exultant in their praise of the king for his bold and decisive action (after regretfully abandoning a policy of meeting Huguenot demands as far as he could) against the supposed Huguenot coup,

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the mayor fortunately held on to his without publicising it until a week later when contrary orders from the king had arrived. In some cities the massacres were led by the mob, while the city authorities tried to suppress them, and in others small groups of soldiers and officials began rounding up

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The tension that had been building since the Peace of St. Germain now exploded in a wave of popular violence. The common people began to hunt Protestants throughout the city, including women and children. Chains were used to block streets so that Protestants could not escape from their houses. The

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There is also a dramatic and influential account by Henry, duke of Anjou that was not recognised as fake until the 19th century. Anjou's supposed account was the source of the quotation attributed to Charles IX: "Well then, so be it! Kill them! But kill them all! Don't leave a single one alive to

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In several cases the Catholic party in the city believed they had received orders from the king to begin the massacre, some conveyed by visitors to the city, and in other cases apparently coming from a local nobleman or his agent. It seems unlikely any such orders came from the king, although the

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After the wedding of Catholic Marguerite de Valois and Huguenot Henry de Navarre on 18 August 1572, Coligny and the leading Huguenots remained in Paris to discuss some outstanding grievances about the Peace of St. Germain with the king. An attempt was made on Coligny's life a few days later on 22

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In the cities affected, the loss to the Huguenot communities after the massacres was numerically far larger than those actually killed; in the following weeks there were mass conversions to Catholicism, apparently in response to the threatening atmosphere for Huguenots in these cities. In Rouen,

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of 1767, was among the first to begin impartial historical investigation, emphasising the lack of premeditation (before the attempt on Coligny) in the massacre and that Catholic mob violence had a history of uncontrollable escalation. By this period the Massacre was being widely used by

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against the Spanish. This intervention threatened to involve France in that war; many Catholics believed that Coligny had again persuaded the king to intervene on the side of the Dutch, as he had managed to do the previous October, before Catherine had got the decision reversed.

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The massacre caused a "major international crisis". Protestant countries were horrified at the events, and only the concentrated efforts of Catherine's ambassadors, including a special mission by Gondi, prevented the collapse of her policy of remaining on good terms with them.

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changed his mind on whether the massacre had been premeditated twice, finally concluding that it was not. The question of whether the massacre had long been premeditated was not entirely settled until the late 19th century by which time a consensus was reached that it was not.

1606:(1852), which depicts a Catholic woman attempting to convince her Huguenot lover to wear the white scarf badge of the Catholics and protect himself. The man, true to his beliefs, gently refuses her. Millais was inspired to create the painting after seeing Meyerbeer's 1012:

Diplomatic correspondence was readier than published polemics to recognise the unplanned and chaotic nature of the events, which also emerged from several accounts in memoirs published over the following years by witnesses to the events at court, including the famous

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Protestant minorities.... All of them had also experienced serious religious division... during the first three civil wars... Moreover seven of them shared a previous experience ... had actually been taken over by Protestant minorities during the first civil war..."

1083:(1589–90) "Machievel" in person speaks the Prologue, claiming to not be dead, but to have possessed the soul of the Duke of Guise, "And, now the Guise is dead, is come from France/ To view this land, and frolic with his friends" (Prologue, lines 3–4) His last play, 1028: 1169:

largely abandoned by some modern historians including, among others, Janine Garrisson. However, in a more recent work than his history of the period, Holt concludes: "The ringleaders of the conspiracy appear to have been a group of four men: Henry, duke of Anjou;

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Catherine de' Medici: according to tradition, the Queen Mother had been worried that the king was increasingly becoming dominated by Coligny. Among other things, Catherine reportedly feared that Coligny's influence would drag France into a war with Spain over the

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The court itself was extremely divided. Catherine had not obtained Pope Gregory XIII's permission to celebrate this irregular marriage; consequently, the French prelates hesitated over which attitude to adopt. It took all the queen mother's skill to convince the

981:, King Charles's father-in-law, was sickened, describing the massacre as a "shameful bloodbath". Moderate French Catholics also began to wonder whether religious uniformity was worth the price of such bloodshed and the ranks of the Politiques began to swell. 1206:

of the duke of Anjou was a success, but Catherine de' Medici went out of her way to deprive him from any power in France: she sent him with the royal army to remain in front of La Rochelle and then had him elected King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

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in 1978. Other estimates are about 10,000 in total, with about 3,000 in Paris and 7,000 in the provinces. At the higher end are total figures of up to 20,000, or 30,000 in total, from "a contemporary, non-partisan guesstimate" quoted by the historians

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For Paris, the only hard figure is a payment by the city to workmen for collecting and burying 1,100 bodies washed up on the banks of the Seine downstream from the city in one week. Body counts relating to other payments are computed from this.

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Although Charles had dispatched orders to his provincial governors on 24 August to prevent violence and maintain the terms of the 1570 edict, from August to October, similar massacres of Huguenots took place in a total of twelve other cities:

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were given the task of killing a list of leading Protestants. It is difficult today to determine the exact chronology of events, or to know the precise moment the killing began. It seems probable that a signal was given by ringing bells for

1270:, mostly priests and prominent laymen, at the hands of their Protestant neighbours. Few towns escaped the episodic violence and some suffered repeatedly from both sides. Neither faith had a monopoly on cruelty and misguided fervour". 569:

to free the region from Spanish control. During the summer, Coligny had secretly dispatched a number of troops to help the Protestants in Mons, who were now besieged by the Duke of Alba. So Admiral de Coligny was a real threat to the

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suggests that the massacres were carried by a group of militants who had already made out lists of Protestants deserving extermination, and the mass of the population, whether approving or disapproving, were not directly involved.

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of 1913 was still ready to endorse a version of this view, describing the massacres as "an entirely political act committed in the name of the immoral principles of Machiavellianism" and blaming "the pagan theories of a certain

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was a huge success during the French Revolution, drawing strongly anti-monarchical and anti-religious lessons from the massacre. Chénier was able to put his principles into practice as a politician, voting for the execution of

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sovereign's office was held, justified by prominent French Roman Catholic theologians, and that the special powers of French Kings "...were accompanied by explicit responsibilities, the foremost of which was combating heresy".

694:, Charles declared that he had ordered the massacre in order to thwart a Huguenot plot against the royal family." A jubilee celebration, including a procession, was then held, while the killings continued in parts of the city. 397:(paternal uncle of the Protestant groom, but himself a Catholic clergyman) to marry the couple. Beside this, the rivalries between the leading families re-emerged. The Guises were not prepared to make way for their rivals, the 1223:

in circulation, literacy rates were still poor. Thus, some modern historians have stressed the critical and incendiary role that militant preachers played in shaping ordinary lay beliefs, both Catholic and Protestant.

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and survives only in audio form. It depicts the massacre as having been instigated by Catherine de' Medici for both religious and political reasons, and authorised by a weak-willed and easily influenced Charles IX.

3024:. Paris: Gallimard, p. 203. The ultimate source for the story of Gregory XIII and Maurevert is a contemporaneous diplomatic report preserved in the French National Library, and described in De la Ferrière, 895:, those Catholics who placed national unity above sectarian interests, were horrified, but many Catholics inside and outside France initially regarded the massacres as deliverance from an imminent Huguenot 313:, were practical in their support of peace and Coligny, as they were conscious of the kingdom's financial difficulties and the Huguenots' strong defensive position: they controlled the fortified towns of 3284:

Butterfield, p. 183 (and note), and p. 199; Anjou's account was defended by a minority of historians into the early 20th century, or at least claimed as being in some sense an account informed by actual

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Shortly after this decision, the municipal authorities of Paris were summoned. They were ordered to shut the city gates and arm the citizenry to prevent any attempt at a Protestant uprising. The king's

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put an end to three years of civil war between Catholics and Protestants. This peace, however, was precarious since the more intransigent Catholics refused to accept it. The strongly Catholic

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It is unlikely that it was an agreed signal for a massacre planned in advance—a highly dubious plan, whether attributed to the Queen Mother (by Protestant sources) or to Parisian Catholics.

629:, near the Louvre, which was the parish church of the kings of France. The Swiss mercenaries expelled the Protestant nobles from the Louvre castle and then slaughtered them in the streets. 1530:, an 1845 novel that fills in the history as it was then seen with romance and adventure. That novel has been translated into English and was made first into a commercially successful 2242: 1184:, Charles IX feared a Protestant uprising, and chose to strangle it at birth to protect his power. The execution decision was therefore his own, and not Catherine de' Medici's. 1165:

Over the centuries, the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre has aroused a great deal of controversy. Modern historians are still divided over the responsibility of the royal family:

663:, one of Coligny's murderers was struck by how calmly he accepted his fate, and remarked that "he never saw anyone less afraid in so great a peril, nor die more steadfastly". 4232: 1658:), and the Duke of Anjou, who is portrayed as homosexual. These historic scenes are depicted alongside a fictional plot in which a Huguenot family is caught among the events. 243: 1330: 360: 417:

In the years preceding the massacre, Huguenot political rhetoric had for the first time taken a tone against not just the policies of a particular monarch of France, but

703: 2911: 2794: 2479:("Emond" or "Edmond"). Garrison, pp. 144–45, who rejects the view that this "met le feu au poudres" (lit the powder) in Bordeaux. See also: Pearl, Jonathan L. (1998), 1089:(1593) takes the massacre, and the following years, as its subject, with Guise and Catherine both depicted as Machiavellian plotters, bent on evil from the start. The 558:, whose assassination ten years earlier they believed to have been ordered by Coligny. The shot aimed at Admiral de Coligny came from a house belonging to the Guises. 562: 1009:

that the royal court had long planned the massacres, and often showed extravagant anti-Italian feelings directed at Catherine, Gondi, and other Italians at court.

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August as he made his way back to his house from the Louvre. He was shot from an upstairs window, and seriously wounded. The would-be assassin, most likely

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as Queen Elizabeth I of England, the English court's reaction to the massacre and its effect on England's relations with France is addressed in depth.

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in 1576, which was printed in ten editions in three languages over the next four years. Gentillet held, quite wrongly according to Sydney Anglo, that

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Estimates of the number that perished in the massacres have varied from 2,000 by a Roman Catholic apologist to 70,000 by the contemporary Huguenot

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knew the story well from the Huguenot literature translated into English, and probably from French refugees who had sought refuge in his native

915:(Latin: "Overthrow (or slaughter) of the Huguenots 1572") showing an angel bearing a cross and a sword before which are the felled Protestants. 506: 4177: 2530: 1377: 1266:

However Raymond Mentzer points out that Protestants "could be as bloodthirsty as Catholics. Earlier Huguenot rage at Nimes (in 1567) led to...

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and thus Pope Gregory XIII designated 11 September 1572 as a joint commemoration of the Battle of Lepanto and the massacre of the Huguenots."

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Burdett, Sarah, Sarah Burdett, "'Feminine Virtues Violated’ Motherhood, Female Militancy and Revolutionary Violence in Elizabeth Inchbald's

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The Speech of Roy Henry third to a personage of honor and quality, being close to His Majesty, of the causes and motives of Saint Barthelemy

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depicting the wounding of Coligny, his death, and Charles IX before Parliament, matching those commemorating the defeat of the Turks at the

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life was shortened by this great catastrophe, we shall see that the estimate of Péréfixe is still below the reality." G. D. Félice (1851).

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Nevertheless, it was only in the aftermath of the massacre that anti-monarchical ideas found widespread support from Huguenots, among the "

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Charles IX in front of the Paris Parlement on 26 August 1572, justifying the Saint Bartholomew massacre as a response to a Huguenot plot.

542:–1583), escaped in the ensuing confusion. Other theories about who was ultimately responsible for the attack centre on three candidates: 3747: 2784: 1356: 1274:

wiped clean with the death of creditors and moneylenders that night". At least one Huguenot was able to buy off his would-be murderers.

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the house of Philippe de Gastines, a Huguenot who had been executed in 1569. The mob had torn down his house and erected a large wooden

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The range of estimates available in the mid-19th century, with other details, are summarized by the Huguenot statesman and historian

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a member of the nobility, with the claim that it was the King's will, the die was cast. Another historian Mack P. Holt, Professor at

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of God. At this time, in an age before mass media, "the pulpit remained probably the most effective means of mass communication".

565:: he governed the Netherlands on behalf of Philip II. Coligny planned to lead a campaign in the Netherlands to participate in the 4172: 4162: 3962: 1758: 501: 58:, a Huguenot painter who fled France after the massacre. Although it is not known whether Dubois witnessed the event, he depicts 4242: 4227: 4197: 2881:, who goes into full details, listing estimates of other historians, which range up to 100,000. His own estimation was 20,000. 1779: 4237: 3518: 2676: 1345: 1334: 263: 4019: 765: 554:, are the most likely suspects. The leaders of the Catholic party, they wanted to avenge the death of the two dukes' father 405:

and governor of Paris, was unable to control the disturbances in the city. On 20 August, he left the capital and retired to

2272: 4257: 1692: 1174: 547: 1585:(1836), very loosely based on the events of the massacre, was one of the most popular and spectacular examples of French 4262: 4187: 4167: 3175: 626: 911:

to be sung as a special thanksgiving (a practice continued for many years after) and had a medal struck with the motto

4217: 2738: 2713: 1898: 1712: 1546: 1536: 1056: 2846: 2048: 846: 652: 4247: 4157: 3116: 3048: 2396: 2172: 1463: 402: 221: 1409: 1323: 1509:. However, before the collapse of the Revolution he became suspected of moderation, and in some danger himself. 344:. The royal marriage was arranged for 18 August 1572. It was not accepted by traditionalist Catholics or by the 1277:

The historian H.G. Koenigsberger (who until his retirement in 1984 was Professor of History at King's College,

1251: 428: 1521: 1370: 1177:, and the comte de Retz" (Gondi). Apart from Anjou, the others were all Italian advisors at the French court. 2789: 4152: 2721: 1631: 1526: 1237: 1154: 966: 810: 660: 644: 640: 318: 306: 232: 194: 190: 63: 41: 4128: 3773: 2271:, with a plaque commemorating the event, though both building and street layout postdate the 16th century. 2597: 990: 986: 555: 551: 476: 294: 4118: 3816: 3038: 2916: 1663: 1439: 1106: 1090: 1085: 923: 519: 302: 267: 248: 225: 3250: 1513: 455:

Tensions were further raised when in May 1572 the news reached Paris that a French Huguenot army under

2343:

The history of modern Europe: from the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the war in the Crimea in 1857

2034:

Holt (2005), pp. 78–79; Calvin's book was "Praelectiones in librum prophetiarum Danielis", Geneva and

2958: 1643: 1639: 1597: 1413: 1278: 1247: 1125: 1041: 939: 398: 364: 310: 274: 210: 198: 17: 4112: 4056:

James R. Smither, "The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre and Images of Kingship in France: 1572–1574."

1486:, completed by February 1792, also reflected events in the recent French Revolution, though not the 3891: 2939: 2534: 1626: 1487: 1430: 1285: 1074: 1006: 799: 782: 528: 433: 4087:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Diarmaid McCulloch, Mark Greengrass & Penny Roberts, chaired by 4003:

Discourse and the Construction of Society: Comparative Studies of Myth, Ritual, and Classification

3201:

on the many shifts in emphasis of the historiography of the massacre over the next four centuries.

1506: 1095: 790:

Protestants with little mob involvement. In Bordeaux the inflammatory sermon on 29 September of a

4100:

Massacres during the wars of religion: The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre, a foundational event

4061: 3192: 3159:

Russia self-condemned, secret and inedited documents connected with Russian history and diplomacy

3071: 2989: 2622: 2614: 2154: 2146: 2094: 1799: 1647: 1479: 1018: 977:, wrote a sonnet extravagantly praising the killings. On the other hand, the Holy Roman Emperor, 962: 947: 484: 464: 349: 337: 333: 278: 206: 147: 2660: 2554: 1170: 1158: 368: 341: 55: 3145:

Her Majesty's Spymaster: Elizabeth I, Sir Francis Walsingham, and the Birth of Modern Espionage

1195: 1188: 532: 332:

To cement the peace between the two religious parties, Catherine planned to marry her daughter

4006: 3958: 3939: 3924: 3912: 3879: 3797: 3789: 3712: 3682: 3661: 3597: 3576: 3555: 3534: 3514: 3481: 3458: 3450: 3381: 3140: 3120: 3089: 3007: 2858: 2830: 2818: 2772: 2747: 2725: 2692: 2680: 2640: 2576: 2539: 2484: 2412: 2400: 2341: 2337: 2317: 2204: 2102: 2057: 2015: 1954: 1906: 1878: 1839: 1809: 1773: 1745: 1635: 1573: 1493: 1471: 1296: 1228: 1037: 994: 943: 900: 588: 345: 79: 2198: 2009: 1803: 1060: 3594:

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine & Death in Reformation Europe

3184: 3113:

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine & Death in Reformation Europe

2981: 2606: 2138: 1735: 1099: 1077:

was one of many Elizabethan writers who were enthusiastic proponents of these ideas. In the

686:

On 26 August, the king and court established the official version of events by going to the

632: 522:

at left, his subsequent murder at right, and scenes of the general massacre in the streets.

380:'s opposition and the court's absence from the wedding led to increased political tension. 2931: 2592: 1870: 1829: 1655: 1651: 1565:"They seemed but dark shadows as they slid along the walls", illustration from an English 1555: 861: 841: 687: 609: 515: 456: 406: 172: 160: 59: 3909:

Les Guerriers de Dieu. La violence au temps des troubles de religion vers 1525–vers 1610

3378:

Politics, Ideology, and the Law in Early Modern Europe: Essays in Honor of J.H.M. Salmon

1782:, a massacre during World War II that was named after the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre 1620:

The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre and the events surrounding it were incorporated into

2764: 1711:

appeared as Admiral Coligny and Joan Young played Catherine de' Medici. This serial is

1689: 1682: 1593: 935: 927: 896: 691: 322: 298: 213:. Many of the wealthiest and most prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic 1437:. He wrote a strongly anti-Catholic and anti-French play based on the events entitled 4146: 4107: 3998: 3361: 2907: 2626: 2268: 2158: 1944: 1708: 1621: 1581: 1541: 1289: 1181: 742: 672: 511: 468: 460: 440: 168: 67: 2011:

Les huguenots et le roi: le combat politique de Philippe Duplessis-Mornay, 1572–1600

1150: 4088: 2854: 2173:"Gaspard II de Coligny, seigneur de Châtillon | French admiral and Huguenot leader" 1720: 1079: 1021:, the only eye-witness account of the massacre from a member of the royal family. 884: 857: 617: 566: 488: 472: 258:

The Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day was the culmination of a series of events:

175: 110: 4127: 4111: 3876:

Machiavelli – the First Century: Studies in Enthusiasm, Hostility, and Irrelevance

880: 3042: 2470:

Knecht (2001), p. 368, though see Holt (2005), pp. 93–95 for a different emphasis

2243:"Le massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy : l'obsession de la souillure hérétique" 1948: 1833: 2664: 1730: 1677: 1668: 1642:(Frank Bennett) to sanction it. Incidental characters include Henri of Navarre, 1586: 1531: 1426: 1312: 1232: 1068: 951: 904: 444: 422: 314: 118: 98: 2631:; cited by Holt (2005 ed.), p. 91, and also used by Knecht (2001), p. 366, and 3900: 3188: 3162:, London: David Bogue, p. 168. Ivan was against Anjou becoming King of Poland. 2610: 1838:. Translated by Bergin, Joseph. Manchester University Press (published 2016). 1697: 1613: 1434: 1220: 1133: 1001: 829: 730: 186: 3847: 3233: 965:

supposedly "laughed, for almost the only time on record". In Paris, the poet

4084: 4044: 3531:

Priests, Prelates & People: A History of European Catholicism Since 1750

2814: 1763: 1502: 1267: 892: 794:, Edmond Auger, encouraged the massacre that was to occur a few days later. 656: 605: 377: 326: 252: 183: 179: 114: 62:'s body hanging out of a window at the rear to the right. To the left rear, 301:

family was out of favour at the French court; the Huguenot leader, Admiral

3020:, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, p. 119, n. 2, Jouanna, Arlette (2007), 2142: 3062:

Roberts, Yvonne (1997). "Jean-Antoine de Baïf and the Saint-Barthélemy".

2972:

Howe, E. (1976). "Architecture in Vasari's 'Massacre of the Huguenots'".

1767: 1129: 1120: 1115: 1055:

It was in this context that the massacre came to be seen as a product of

865: 714: 710: 418: 202: 136: 3447:

The Duke of Anjou and the Politique Struggle During the Wars of Religion

3075: 2150: 2126: 785:, the king's younger brother, did urge massacres in the king's name; in 205:

started a few days after the marriage on 18 August of the king's sister

4065: 4041:

The Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre: The mysteries of a crime of state

3552:

Beneath The Cross: Catholics & Huguenots in Sixteenth Century Paris

3196: 2618: 1835:

The Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre: The mysteries of a crime of state

1600:

managed to create a sentimental moment in the massacre in his painting

1337: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 908: 750: 722: 550:(who was in Rome at the time), and his nephews, the Dukes of Guise and 480: 2993: 1033: 791: 786: 754: 746: 738: 622: 220:

The massacre began in the night of 23–24 August 1572, the eve of the

4072:

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew and the European conflict, 1559–1572

3173:

Butterfield, H. (1953). "Acton and the Massacre of St Bartholomew".

2427:

Holt (2005 ed.), p. 91. The dates are in Garrison, p. 139, who adds

583: 436:, ideas to which Catholic writers and preachers responded fiercely. 421:

in general. In part this was led by an apparent change in stance by

3848:"The Doctor Who Transcripts – The Massacre of St Bartholomew's Eve" 2985: 2223:

Garrisson, pp. 82–83, and Lincoln, p. 96, and Knecht (2001), p. 361

1474:. This play was translated into English, with some adaptations, as 1284:

One historian puts forward an analysis of the massacre in terms of

903:, though it got no further than Lyon, and the pope sent the king a 224:

the Apostle, two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral

4034:

The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre: A Brief History with Documents

1577: 1560: 1408: 1242: 1149: 1027: 917: 879: 869: 820: 764: 734: 726: 668: 631: 582: 505: 385: 359: 242: 214: 3786:

Revolutionary Acts: Theater, Democracy, and the French Revolution

3022:

La Saint Barthélemy: Les Mystères d'un Crime d'État, 24 Août 1572

2481:

The Crime of Crimes: Demonology and Politics in France, 1560–1620

284:

The failed assassination of Admiral de Coligny on 22 August 1572.

2428: 2310:

Tous ceux qui tombent. Visages du massacre de la Saint-Bethélemy

2035: 1243: 718: 587:

Preparation for the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. Painting by

3921:

La Nuit de la Saint-Barthélemy. Un rêve perdu de la Renaissance

3478:

La Nuit de la Saint-Barthélemy: Un rêve perdu de la Renaissance

679:

The two leading Huguenots, Henry of Navarre and his cousin the

667:

bodies of the dead were collected in carts and thrown into the

3294:

The first occurrence of the royal injunction is found late in

2595:(1978). "The Saint Bartholomew's Massacres in the Provinces". 2560:

A Popular History of France from the Earliest Times, Volume IV

1672: 1306: 475:(now in Belgium and France, respectively). Louis governed the 389:

Gastines family were among the first to be killed by the mob.

3376:

Whitehead, Barbara (1994), "Revising the Revisionists," in:

2701:

Guerres et paix de religion en Europe aux XVIe-XVIIe siecles

997:

expressed horror at the carnage in a letter to the Emperor.

2502:

Holt (2005 ed.), p. 95, citing Benedict (2004), pp. 127–132

1707:

is set during the events leading up to the Paris massacre.

899:. The severed head of Coligny was apparently dispatched to 4051:

Myths about the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacres, 1572–1576

3380:, ed. John Hearsey McMillan Salmon, Boydell & Brewer, 3018:

St. Bartholomew's Night: The Massacre of Saint Bartholomew

193:. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Queen 2659:

Lincoln, p. 97 (a "bare minimum of 2,000" in Paris), and

1227:

Historian Barbara B. Diefendorf, Professor of History at

2529:(2008) Encyclopædia Britannica Deluxe Edition, Chicago; 1554:, and subtitled, in English-language markets), starring 352:

strongly condemned Catherine's Huguenot policy as well.

3400:

The subject of Butterfield's chapter, referenced below.

2443:

Holt (2005 ed.), pp. 93–94, and Benedict (2004), p. 127

1617:

a hand in it, the King and the Queen Mother included."

647:

is in black. The scene from Dubois (above) re-imagined.

3992:

Society in Crisis: France during the Sixteenth Century

2127:"From Marriage to Massacre: The Louvre in August 1572" 3737:

Lincoln, chapter 6, pp. 89–102, quotation from p. 101

1719:

The St Bartholomew's Day massacre is the setting for

832:, 1573. Coligny is shot at left, and killed at right. 3028:

vol. 4 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1891), p. cxvi.

2672:

The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda

1727:(Matthias Tannhauser Trilogy:2), published in 2013. 336:

to the Protestant Henry of Navarre (the future King

3748:"Vigil – Address of the Holy Father – John Paul II" 2851:

Reformation: Christianity and the World 1500 – 2000

1482:in 1792. Inchbald kept the historical setting, but 946:(1571). "The massacre was interpreted as an act of 143: 132: 124: 104: 93: 85: 75: 34: 4018:Note: this article incorporates material from the 3047:. Vol. III: Wars of Religion. et al. Oxford: 2920:. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 2099:The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483–1610 2298:Holt (2005 edn), pp. 88–91 (quotation from p. 91) 2054:Reformation: Christianity and the World 1500–2000 3983:Histoire et Dictionnaire des Guerres de Religion 3898:, Cambridge University Press, 1955, Chapter VI, 2314:All Who Fall. Faces of the St. Bethlemy Massacre 2974:Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 1638:) plotting the massacre, coercing her son King 1505:and many others, perhaps including his brother 934:Pope Gregory XIII also commissioned the artist 778:Guise faction may have desired the massacres. 773:began soon after the St. Bartholomew massacre. 704:St Bartholomew's Day massacre in the provinces 604:That evening, Catherine held a meeting at the 3837:Letters from Earth. Ostara publications. 2013 3096:(in French). Editions Pygmalion. p. 82. 868:from Lyon are said to have put the people of 625:(between midnight and dawn) at the church of 496:Attempted assassination of Admiral de Coligny 8: 3014:. Vol. 1. New York: Image. p. 241. 2363: 2361: 1766:, a massacre of Catholics by Protestants in 1490:of 1792, which coincided with its printing. 1059:, a view greatly influenced by the Huguenot 970: 608:Palace with her Italian advisers, including 3660:, Ed. Andrew Pettegree, Routledge, (2000), 3511:Catherine de Médicis: Le pouvoir au féminin 2514:Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set 2267:Knecht (2001), p. 364. The site is now 144 1459:– see above for Marlowe and Machiavellism. 1219:Despite the large numbers of pamphlets and 231:The massacre marked a turning point in the 2938:. Vol. One (Ninth ed.). London: 2203:. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. 993:, barely escaped with his life. Even Tsar 813:, which began before the end of the year. 376:a princess of France to a Protestant. The 367:, who was 22 years old in August 1572, by 31: 3957:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3639: 3637: 3592:Cunningham, A. & Grell, O. P. (2000) 3334:Anglo, p. 283, see also the whole chapter 2896: 2894: 2375: 2373: 2286:Histoire des choses arrivees de son temps 2081: 2079: 1661:Another novel depicting this massacre is 1397:Learn how and when to remove this message 872:off drinking the water for three months. 828:detail from a portrait print of Coligny, 809:Soon afterward both sides prepared for a 467:and captured the Catholic strongholds of 1986:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 79–80 1749:depicts the St. Bartholomew's massacre. 451:Huguenot intervention in the Netherlands 3573:The French Wars of Religion 1562 – 1629 3421: 3064:Bibliothèque d'Humanisme et Renaissance 1791: 1540:(US title "A Woman of Evil"), starring 1462:The story was also taken up in 1772 by 1132:against organised religion in general. 926:above left, as depicted in a fresco by 4233:Catholic–Protestant sectarian violence 3974:The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629 3955:The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629 3923:, Fayard, coll. " Chroniques ", 1994 ( 3433: 3352:Anglo, Chapters 10 and 11; p. 328 etc. 3265:Amanti e regine. Il potere delle donne 2879:the 19th-century historian Henry White 2667:; Schneider, Edward; Pulver, Kathryn; 2636:Montaigne And the Ethics of Skepticism 2483:, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, p. 70, 2200:The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629 989:'s ambassador to France at that time, 637:One morning at the gates of the Louvre 3111:Cunningham, A.; Grell, O. P. (2000). 2908:Goyau, Pierre-Louis-Théophile-Georges 2120: 2118: 1984:The French Wars of Religion 1562–1626 1268:the massacre of twenty-four Catholics 950:; Coligny was considered a threat to 856:Among the slain were the philosopher 518:shows the attempted assassination of 18:Saint Bartholemew's Day Massacre 7: 4005:, Oxford University Press US, 1989, 3817:"A Huguenot on St Bartholomew's Day" 3409: 2769:The Faith: A History of Christianity 2541:History of the Protestants of France 2527:Saint Bartholomew's Day, Massacre of 1805:The French religious wars: 1562–1598 1704:The Massacre of St Bartholomew's Eve 1671:(1953). In the third episode of the 1603:A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew's Day 1419:A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew's Day 1335:adding citations to reliable sources 781:Apparently genuine letters from the 340:), son of the Huguenot leader Queen 4129:"St Bartholomew, Massacre of" 4039:Arlette Jouanna and Joseph Bergin. 3533:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 3529:Atkin, N. & Tallett, F. (2003) 3251:The Memoirs of Marguerite de Valois 2887:. London: John Murray. p. 472. 483:in southern France for his brother 27:1572 killing of Huguenots in France 4253:Anti-Christian sentiment in France 4223:16th-century Reformed Christianity 4208:History of Protestantism in France 3903:and the Massacre of St Bartholomew 3788:, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2544:. New York: Edward Walker, p. 217. 2316:] (in French). La Découverte. 1905:. London: Macmillan. p. 113. 1808:. Oxford: Osprey. pp. 51–52. 1780:Grenoble's Saint-Bartholomew's Day 1105:The French 18th-century historian 167:) in 1572 was a targeted group of 35:St. Bartholomew's Day massacre 25: 4183:Catholicism-related controversies 2914:". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). 2718:Oxford Encyclopedia World History 2392:Rouen During the Wars of Religion 1733:'s 2017 historical fiction novel 922:The massacre, with the murder of 804:Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 4203:History of Catholicism in France 3480:, Fayard, coll. " Chroniques ", 3156:Morell, J. R. (transl.) (1854), 3100:[the shameful bloodbath] 2900: 2771:. London: Pimlico. p. 456. 2531:Hardouin de Péréfixe de Beaumont 2101:, p. 356, Blackwell Publishing, 1759:List of incidents of cannibalism 1518:Chronique du règne de Charles IX 1468:Jean Hennuyer, Bishop of Lizieux 1445:The World of Christopher Marlowe 1346:"St. Bartholomew's Day massacre" 1311: 973:Academie de Musique et de Poésie 864:. The corpses floating down the 771:Siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573) 502:Assassination of Admiral Coligny 157:Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre 48: 4113:"Saint Bartholomew's Day" 3936:1572 : la Saint-Barthélemy 3709:Early Modern Europe 1500 – 1789 3267:, Milano, Adelphi, 2008, p. 65. 3026:Lettres de Catherine de Médicis 2699:, citing David El Kenz (2008), 1875:Europe in the sixteenth century 1512:The story was fictionalised by 1322:needs additional citations for 459:had crossed from France to the 289:Unacceptable peace and marriage 165:Massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy 4213:Political repression in France 3596:, Cambridge University Press, 3575:, Cambridge University Press, 3449:, Cambridge University Press, 3070:(3). Librairie Droz: 607–611. 2885:The Massacre of St Bartholomew 2810:Aspects of Contemporary France 2677:University of California Press 2014:. Librairie Droz. p. 84. 1478:by the actress and playwright 1211:Role of the religious factions 938:to paint three frescos in the 264:Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1: 4178:Terrorist incidents in France 4085:St Bartholomew's Day Massacre 4058:The Sixteenth Century Journal 3976:. Cambridge University Press. 3681:, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 3509:Wanegffelen, Thierry (2005), 3496:Bourgeon, Jean-Louis (1992), 3016:, Erlanger, Philippe (1962), 2744:Atlas of the Christian Church 1903:Atlas of the Christian church 1713:missing from the BBC archives 1157:, Charles IX's mother, after 961:On hearing of the slaughter, 536: 403:François, Duke of Montmorency 4193:Persecution of the Huguenots 3707:Koenigsberger, H. G. (1987) 3176:Cambridge Historical Journal 3044:The Cambridge Modern History 2795:The Huguenots and the League 2633:Zalloua, Zahi Anbra (2004). 2571:Armstrong, Alastair (2003), 2273:New York Times on the plaque 1743:The second season finale of 1725:The Twelve Children of Paris 1050:Lettre de Pierre Charpentier 70:to inspect a heap of bodies. 3878:, Oxford University Press, 3852:Chrissie's Transcripts Site 3654:The French Wars of Religion 3554:, Oxford University Press, 2288:. Boston: Ginn and Company. 2284:De Thou, Jacques- Auguste. 1544:. It was remade in 1994 as 1100:the end justified the means 860:, and in Lyon the composer 639:, 19th-century painting by 66:is shown emerging from the 4279: 3117:Cambridge University Press 3049:Cambridge University Press 2790:Lectures on Modern History 2742:& Evans, G.R. (1987), 2397:Cambridge University Press 2346:. John Murray. p. 268 2249:(in French). 3 August 2007 1693:science fiction television 1288:– the religious historian 701: 655:, on 24 August at noon, a 499: 266:, which put an end to the 222:Feast of Saint Bartholomew 3981:Jouanna, Arlette (1998). 3234:The Catholic Encyclopedia 3189:10.1017/S1474691300002201 2955:The European Reformations 2953:Lindberg, Carter (1996). 2877:Garrisson, 131; see also 2611:10.1017/S0018246X00000510 2389:Benedict, Philip (2004). 2052:& Wilson, D. (1996), 1934:Lincoln (1989), pp. 93–94 1877:(2nd ed.). Longman. 1630:(1916). The film follows 1443:. Also, in his biography 1065:Discours contre Machievel 627:Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois 434:sovereignty of the people 413:Shift in Huguenot thought 348:. Both the Pope and King 47: 39: 3550:Diefendorf, B.B. (1991) 3012:The Catholic Reformation 2056:, Bantam Press, London, 1873:; Bowler, G. Q. (1999). 1470:, unperformed until the 1146:Role of the royal family 1000:The massacre "spawned a 913:Ugonottorum strages 1572 847:Felipe Fernández-Armesto 653:Holy Innocents' Cemetery 427:Readings on the Prophet 4173:Massacres of Christians 4163:French Wars of Religion 4135:Encyclopædia Britannica 4032:Barbara B. Diefendorf, 3498:L'assassinat de Coligny 3476:Crouzet, Denis (1994), 3238:Saint Bartholomew's Day 3228:See Butterfield, 1955, 3098:le honteux bain de sang 2912:Saint Bartholomew's Day 2722:Oxford University Press 2669:Browner, Jesse (2007). 2575:, Heinemann, pp. 70–71 2452:Benedict (2004), p. 127 2125:Usher, Phillip (2014). 1901:; Evans, G. R. (1987). 1464:Louis-Sébastien Mercier 1238:George Mason University 802:, culminating with the 661:Jacques Auguste de Thou 233:French Wars of Religion 217:to attend the wedding. 209:to the Protestant King 191:French Wars of Religion 42:French Wars of Religion 4243:Massacres of Huguenots 4228:16th century in France 4198:Protestant Reformation 4138:(11th ed.). 1911. 4020:French Knowledge (XXG) 3990:Salmon, J.H.M (1979). 3972:Holt, Mack P. (2005). 3953:Holt, Mack P. (1995). 3874:Anglo, Sydney (2005), 3784:Maslan, Susan (2005), 3643:Holt (1995 ed.), p. 87 3445:Holt, Mack P. (2002), 3240:has several quotations 3171:Anglo, 229; See also: 2807:Perry, Sheila (1997). 2598:The Historical Journal 2379:Holt (2005 ed.), p. 91 2008:Hugues Daussy (2002). 1982:Holt, Mack P. (2005). 1953:. Sutton. p. 25. 1950:The Parlement of Paris 1869:Koenigsburger, H. G.; 1570: 1422: 1255: 1162: 1045: 991:Sir Francis Walsingham 987:Elizabeth I of England 971: 931: 888: 833: 774: 648: 592: 556:Francis, Duke of Guise 523: 487:, who was leading the 477:Principality of Orange 372: 295:Peace of Saint-Germain 255: 164: 4238:16th century in Paris 4119:Catholic Encyclopedia 3911:, Champvallon, 1990 ( 3907:Denis Crouzet : 3772:, 5.1 (Summer 2014), 3728:Koenigsberger, p. 115 3698:Knecht (2001), p. 364 3658:The Reformation World 3652:Mentzer, Raymond A., 3631:Holt (1995 ed.), p. 9 3278:Catholic Encyclopedia 2917:Catholic Encyclopedia 2883:White, Henry (1868). 2849:; Wilson, D. (1996). 2847:Fernández-Armesto, F. 2746:, Macmillan, London, 2512:Hillerbrand, Hans J. 2461:Knecht (2001), p. 367 2308:Foa, Jérémie (2021). 2197:Mack P. Holt (1995). 2143:10.1353/esp.2014.0023 2073:Holt (1995 ed), p. 95 2049:Fernández-Armesto, F. 1973:Knecht (2001), p. 359 1688:A 1966 serial in the 1564: 1522:Alexandre Dumas, père 1440:The Massacre at Paris 1412: 1246: 1153: 1107:Louis-Pierre Anquetil 1091:Catholic Encyclopedia 1086:The Massacre at Paris 1031: 921: 907:. The pope ordered a 883: 838:Maximilien de Béthune 824: 768: 635: 586: 509: 363: 273:The marriage between 268:third War of Religion 246: 197:, the mother of King 178:directed against the 4258:Mass murder in Paris 3892:Butterfield, Herbert 2959:Blackwell Publishing 2857:. pp. 236–237. 1723:' historical novel, 1644:Marguerite de Valois 1632:Catherine de' Medici 1598:John Everett Millais 1414:John Everett Millais 1331:improve this article 1279:University of London 1248:Henry, Duke of Guise 1155:Catherine de' Medici 1063:, who published his 1042:Sala Regia (Vatican) 967:Jean-Antoine de Baïf 645:Catherine de' Medici 641:Édouard Debat-Ponsan 548:Cardinal of Lorraine 399:House of Montmorency 365:Charles IX of France 319:La Charité-sur-Loire 307:Catherine de' Medici 275:Henry III of Navarre 251:, the leader of the 211:Henry III of Navarre 195:Catherine de' Medici 64:Catherine de' Medici 4263:Attacks on weddings 4188:Counter-Reformation 4168:Massacres in France 4095:, 27 November 2003) 3994:. Metheun & Co. 3934:Garrisson, Janine, 3711:, Longman, Harlow, 3679:Catherine de Medici 3622:Holt, (1995), p. 44 3613:Holt, (1995), p. 86 3583:hardback, pp. 88–89 3571:Holt, M. P. (1995) 2936:A History of Europe 2711:Garrisson, p, 131; 2535:Archbishop of Paris 2431:to the 12 in Holt. 2232:Holt (2005), p. 85. 2095:Knecht, Robert Jean 1488:September Massacres 1431:Christopher Marlowe 1303:Cultural references 1295:On 23 August 1997, 1286:social anthropology 1196:Thierry Wanegffelen 1189:Jean-Louis Bourgeon 1098:according to which 1075:Christopher Marlowe 1007:conspiracy theories 529:Charles de Louviers 395:Cardinal de Bourbon 4218:Henry IV of France 4102:(at Massacres.org) 3938:, Complexe, 2000 ( 3677:Frieda, L. (2003) 3210:Anglo, pp. 237–240 3090:Bordonove, Georges 3008:Daniel-Rops, Henri 2754:hardback, pp. 113; 2639:. Rookwood Press. 2338:Dyer, Thomas Henry 2177:www.britannica.com 2161:– via jstor. 2085:Holt (2005), p. 81 1998:Holt (2005), p. 86 1648:Constance Talmadge 1571: 1480:Elizabeth Inchbald 1423: 1256: 1171:Chancellor Birague 1163: 1111:Esprit de la Ligue 1061:Innocent Gentillet 1048:The author of the 1046: 1019:Margaret of Valois 963:Philip II of Spain 948:divine retribution 932: 924:Gaspard de Coligny 889: 834: 775: 649: 593: 524: 485:William the Silent 447:monarchy itself". 373: 350:Philip II of Spain 303:Gaspard de Coligny 281:on 18 August 1572. 279:Margaret of Valois 256: 249:Gaspard de Coligny 226:Gaspard de Coligny 148:Anti-Protestantism 4248:Massacres in 1572 4158:Conflicts in 1572 4070:N. M Sutherland. 4011:978-0-19-507909-8 3884:978-0-19-926776-7 3802:978-0-8018-8125-1 3719:paperback, p. 115 3604:paperback, p. 151 3562:paperback, p. 157 3463:978-0-521-89278-0 3362:Project Gutenberg 3325:Anglo, pp. 254–65 3219:Anglo, pp. 272–80 3141:Stephen Budiansky 2835:978-0-415-13179-7 2697:978-0-520-24709-3 2686:978-0-520-24709-3 2646:978-1-886365-59-9 2489:978-0-88920-296-2 2417:978-0-521-54797-0 2210:978-0-521-35873-6 2131:L'Esprit Créateur 2107:978-0-631-22729-8 2064:paperback, p. 237 2021:978-2-600-00667-5 1960:978-0-7509-1830-5 1912:978-0-333-44157-2 1800:Knecht, Robert J. 1774:Sack of Magdeburg 1746:The Serpent Queen 1681:(1971), starring 1636:Josephine Crowell 1574:Giacomo Meyerbeer 1567:History of France 1472:French Revolution 1407: 1406: 1399: 1381: 1297:Pope John Paul II 1229:Boston University 1038:Pope Gregory XIII 995:Ivan the Terrible 969:, founder of the 944:Battle of Lepanto 901:Pope Gregory XIII 618:Swiss mercenaries 270:on 8 August 1570. 153: 152: 80:Kingdom of France 16:(Redirected from 4270: 4139: 4131: 4123: 4115: 4049:Robert Kingdon. 3995: 3986: 3977: 3968: 3863: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3844: 3838: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3819:. 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Wilson. 811:fourth civil war 546:The Guises: the 541: 538: 356:Tension in Paris 52: 32: 21: 4278: 4277: 4273: 4272: 4271: 4269: 4268: 4267: 4143: 4142: 4126: 4106: 4081: 4060:(1991): 27–46. 4029: 4027:Further reading 3989: 3980: 3971: 3965: 3952: 3946:). 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