110:
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256:
widely, depending on extent of the intrusion, the intended use of the water, and whether the salinity exceeds standards for the intended use. In some areas such as
Washington State, intrusion only reaches portions of the aquifer, affecting only certain water supply wells. Other aquifers have faced more widespread salinity contamination, significantly affecting groundwater supplies for the region. For instance, in
231:
239:
658:
The fact that saltwater intrusions are often not in equilibrium makes it harder to model. Aquifer dynamics tend to be slow and it takes the intrusion cone a long time to adapt to changes in pumping schemes, rainfall, etc. So the situation in the field can be significantly different from what would be
246:
The seawater intrusion (SWI) into rivers can lead to many negative consequences, especially on agricultural activities and live ecosystems in upstream areas of rivers. There are many solutions developed to prevent or reduce the negative effects of
Seawater intrusion. One of the sustainable solutions
171:
Groundwater extraction can also lead to well contamination by causing upwelling, or upcoming, of saltwater from the depths of the aquifer. Under baseline conditions, a saltwater wedge extends inland, underneath the freshwater because of its higher density. Water supply wells located over or near the
155:
is the primary cause of saltwater intrusion. Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in many coastal areas of the United States, and extraction has increased over time. Under baseline conditions, the inland extent of saltwater is limited by higher pressure exerted by the freshwater column,
217:
Drainage networks constructed to drain flat coastal areas can lead to intrusion by lowering the freshwater table, reducing the water pressure exerted by the freshwater column. Saltwater intrusion in southeast
Florida has occurred largely as a result of drainage canals built between 1903 into the
255:
Many coastal communities around the United States are experiencing saltwater contamination of water supply wells, and this problem has been seen for decades. Many
Mediterranean coastal aquifers suffer for seawater intrusion effects. The consequences of saltwater intrusion for supply wells vary
1585:
Vespasiano, Giovanni; Cianflone, Giuseppe; Romanazzi, Andrea; Apollaro, Carmine; Dominici, Rocco; Polemio, Maurizio; De Rosa, Rosanna (2019-11-01). "A multidisciplinary approach for sustainable management of a complex coastal plain: The case of Sibari Plain (Southern Italy)".
117:
At the coastal margin, fresh groundwater flowing from inland areas meets with saline groundwater from the ocean. The fresh groundwater flows from inland areas towards the coast where elevation and groundwater levels are lower. Because saltwater has a higher content of
180:
rock or clay layer separates fresh groundwater from saltwater, isolated cracks breach the confining layer, promoting upward movement of saltwater. Pumping of groundwater strengthens this effect by lowering the water table, reducing the downward push of freshwater.
209:
Estuary in the Gulf of Mexico, large-scale waterways have allowed saltwater to move into the lake, and upstream into the rivers feeding the lake. Additionally, channel dredging in the surrounding wetlands to facilitate oil and gas drilling has caused land
75:, have increased saltwater intrusion in many coastal areas. Water extraction drops the level of fresh groundwater, reducing its water pressure and allowing saltwater to flow further inland. Other contributors to saltwater intrusion include
1357:
640:
The possible presence of small scale heterogeneities in the hydraulic properties of the aquifer, which are too small to be taken into account by the model but which may also have great influence on the development of the saltwater
126:
than freshwater. Hydraulic head refers to the liquid pressure exerted by a water column: a water column with higher hydraulic head will move into a water column with lower hydraulic head, if the columns are connected.
702:
As groundwater salinization becomes a relevant problem, more complex initiatives should be applied from local technical and engineering solutions to rules or regulatory instruments for whole aquifers or regions.
130:
The higher pressure and density of saltwater causes it to move into coastal aquifers in a wedge shape under the freshwater. The saltwater and freshwater meet in a transition zone where mixing occurs through
290:
in 1901, thus called the Ghyben–Herzberg relation. They derived analytical solutions to approximate the intrusion behavior, which are based on a number of assumptions that do not hold in all field cases.
374:
222:
for agricultural and urban development. The main cause of intrusion was the lowering of the water table, though the canals also conveyed seawater inland until the construction of water control gates.
64:. Because saline water has a higher mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. As a result, saltwater can push inland beneath the freshwater. In other topologies,
567:
is the density of saltwater. Freshwater has a density of about 1.000 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm) at 20 °C, whereas that of seawater is about 1.025 g/cm. The equation can be simplified to
1637:
Zuffianò, L. E.; Basso, A.; Casarano, D.; Dragone, V.; Limoni, P. P.; Romanazzi, A.; Santaloia, F.; Polemio, M. (2016-07-01). "Coastal hydrogeological system of Mar
Piccolo (Taranto, Italy)".
172:
saltwater wedge can draw the saltwater upward, creating a saltwater cone that might reach and contaminate the well. Some aquifers are predisposed towards this type of intrusion, such as the
606:
The Ghyben–Herzberg ratio states that, for every meter of fresh water in an unconfined aquifer above sea level, there will be forty meters of fresh water in the aquifer below sea level.
164:, since the 1940s water withdrawals have lowered groundwater levels by up to 30 meters, reducing the water table to below sea level and causing widespread intrusion and contamination of
1313:
Polemio, Maurizio; Pambuku, Arben; Limoni, Pier Paolo; Petrucci, Olga (2011-01-01). "Carbonate
Coastal Aquifer of Vlora Bay and Groundwater Submarine Discharge (Southwestern Albania)".
1418:
Romanazzi, A.; Gentile, F.; Polemio, M. (2015-07-01). "Modelling and management of a
Mediterranean karstic coastal aquifer under the effects of seawater intrusion and climate change".
139:. Ordinarily the inland extent of the saltwater wedge is limited because fresh groundwater levels, or the height of the freshwater column, increases as land elevation gets higher.
691:
in
Washington). In this case a collection basin was built from which the saltwater can be pumped back to the sea. Some of the intruding saltwater is also pumped to the
565:
538:
511:
484:
1158:
600:
637:
and cracks and fractures in the aquifer, whose precise positions and extents are unknown but which have great influence on the development of the saltwater intrusion
666:
forms a large unknown but good results are possible . Model results often depend strongly on sea level and recharge rate. Both are expected to change in the future.
260:, where groundwater extraction has lowered water tables by up to 30 meters, saltwater intrusion has caused closure of over 120 water supply wells since the 1940s.
644:
The change of hydraulic properties by the saltwater intrusion. A mixture of saltwater and freshwater is often undersaturated with respect to calcium, triggering
457:
437:
417:
397:
972:
879:
1721:
1561:
738:
728:
712:
1282:"Monitoring and Management of Karstic Coastal Groundwater in a Changing Environment (Southern Italy): A Review of a Regional Experience"
197:
networks can lead to saltwater intrusion. Canals provide conduits for saltwater to be carried inland, as does the deepening of existing
1242:
308:
1173:
1138:
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65:
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160:, reducing the pressure exerted by the freshwater column and allowing the denser saltwater to move inland laterally. In
768:
757:
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285:
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762:
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1005:"Hydrogeologic Framework, Availability of Water Supplies, and Saltwater Intrusion, Cape May County, New Jersey"
1131:
790:
979:
886:
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752:
269:
132:
119:
91:
also contributes to saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion can also be worsened by extreme events like
1706:
853:
838:
785:
280:
92:
655:, which slows the advance of a saltwater intrusion and also slows the retreat of a saltwater intrusion.
1646:
1595:
1427:
1104:
1055:
257:
161:
1501:
1202:"Experimental evaluation of two-layer air bubble curtains to prevent seawater intrusion into rivers"
717:
629:
Modeling of saltwater intrusion is considered difficult. Some typical difficulties that arise are:
198:
109:
1095:
Reilly, T.E. & Goodman, A.S. (1987). "Analysis of saltwater upconing beneath a pumping well".
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1358:"Modelling of coastal karst aquifers for management support: Study of Salento (Apulia, Italy)"
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1004:
841: – People forced to leave their home region due to changes to their local environment
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Good, B. J., Buchtel, J., Meffert, D.J., Radford, J., Rhinehart, W., Wilson, R. (1995).
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for rivers is using air bubble curtains that can completely solve SWI issues in rivers.
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88:
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34:
679:
Catfish Point control structure (lock) on the
Mermentau River in coastal Louisiana
230:
156:
owing to its higher elevation. Groundwater extraction can lower the level of the
71:
Certain human activities, especially groundwater pumping from coastal freshwater
1039:
833:
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sources, and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion can naturally occur in
1674:
1502:"Review of Utilization Management of Groundwater at Risk of Salinization"
1218:
1201:
927:"Ground Water in Freshwater-Saltwater Environments of the Atlantic Coast"
733:
634:
610:
194:
61:
861: – Concept on the quality and availability of freshwater resources
379:
the thickness of the freshwater zone above sea level is represented as
41:
234:
Two-layer air bubble curtain to prevent seawater intrusion into rivers
1298:
1281:
978:. Water Replenishment District of Southern California. Archived from
885:. Water Replenishment District of Southern California. Archived from
1547:
1470:
1326:
973:"Battling Seawater Intrusion in the Central & West Coast Basins"
880:"Battling Seawater Intrusion in the Central & West Coast Basins"
268:
The first physical formulations of saltwater intrusion were made by
1471:"Mitigating Salt-Water Intrusion through Hiram M. Chittenden Locks"
1174:"Preliminary Investigation: Saltwater Barrier - Lower Sabine River"
674:
293:
237:
229:
190:
108:
49:
1387:
Bulletin of the
International Association of Scientific Hydrology
621:) that need fewer assumptions and can be applied more generally.
1562:"In a Pickle: The Mystery of the North Shore's Salty Well Water"
696:
648:
of calcium in the mixing zone and changing hydraulic properties.
1243:"Salt water intrusion of coastal aquifers in the United States"
44:, which can lead to groundwater quality degradation, including
613:
power available allowed the use of numerical methods (usually
369:{\displaystyle z={\frac {\rho _{f}}{(\rho _{s}-\rho _{f})}}h}
122:, it is denser than freshwater, causing it to have a higher
1548:"Case Studies of Various Water Quality Problems | H2O Care"
1393:(4). Delft, Netherlands: Technological University: 43–46.
1475:
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering
1040:"Saltwater intrusion in coastal regions of North America"
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
83:, which provide conduits for saltwater to move inland.
1365:
Italian Journal of Engineering Geology and Environment
687:
separates saltwater from freshwater (for example the
576:
546:
519:
492:
465:
445:
425:
405:
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311:
1500:
Polemio, Maurizio; Zuffianò, Livia Emanuela (2020).
849:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
659:
expected based on the sea level, pumping scheme etc.
1003:Lacombe, Pierre J. & Carleton, Glen B. (2002).
1506:Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
594:
559:
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478:
451:
431:
411:
391:
368:
27:Movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers
1038:Barlow, Paul M. & Reichard, Eric G. (2010).
1132:"Louisiana's Major Coastal Navigation Channels"
214:, further promoting inland saltwater movement.
1469:Mausshardt, Sherrill; Singleton, Glen (1995).
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1273:
8:
1639:Environmental Science and Pollution Research
1157:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
920:
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399:and that below sea level is represented as
813:Western Shore of Lake Superior (Minnesota)
1297:
1252:(52). IAHS Publ.: 452–461. Archived from
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1139:Louisiana Department of Natural Resources
609:In the 20th century the vastly increased
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695:to make it more attractive to migrating
1487:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(1995)121:4(224)
1380:"A note on the Ghyben-Herzberg formula"
870:
113:Cause and impact of saltwater intrusion
1150:
68:can push fresh water into saltwater.
7:
1200:Kahrizi, Ehsan; et al. (2023).
951:"CWPtionary Saltwater Intrusion yes"
1206:Journal of Water and Climate Change
683:Saltwater is also an issue where a
1518:10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001278
25:
662:For long-term models, the future
540:is the density of freshwater and
1280:Polemio, Maurizio (2016-04-01).
1722:Environmental issues with water
1608:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.06.031
1181:Sabine River Authority of Texas
66:submarine groundwater discharge
357:
331:
1:
279:in 1888 and 1889 as well as
1588:Marine and Petroleum Geology
1420:Environmental Earth Sciences
1117:10.1016/0022-1694(87)90179-x
847: – American hydrologist
298:the Ghyben–Herzberg relation
185:Canals and drainage networks
120:dissolved salts and minerals
1315:Journal of Coastal Research
769:Hutchinson Island (Georgia)
758:Essex County, Massachusetts
1743:
102:
1659:10.1007/s11356-015-4932-6
1440:10.1007/s12665-015-4423-6
1399:10.1080/02626666809493624
1378:Verrjuit, Arnold (1968).
1068:10.1007/s10040-009-0514-3
763:Hiram M. Chittenden Locks
689:Hiram M. Chittenden Locks
671:Mitigation and management
633:The possible presence of
560:{\displaystyle \rho _{s}}
533:{\displaystyle \rho _{f}}
506:{\displaystyle \rho _{s}}
479:{\displaystyle \rho _{f}}
1356:Romanazzi A, Polemio M.
1172:Barlow, Paul M. (2008).
925:Barlow, Paul M. (2003).
264:Ghyben–Herzberg relation
1241:Todd, David K. (1960).
878:Johnson, Teddy (2007).
791:Mississippi River Delta
595:{\displaystyle z\ =40h}
52:aquifers, owing to the
753:Environment of Florida
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419:. The two thicknesses
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251:Effect on water supply
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176:: though a relatively
174:Lower Floridan aquifer
153:Groundwater extraction
148:Groundwater extraction
114:
93:hurricane storm surges
971:Johnson, Ted (2007).
854:Inflatable rubber dam
839:Environmental migrant
786:Miami River (Florida)
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103:Further information:
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1097:Journal of Hydrology
1044:Hydrogeology Journal
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270:Willem Badon-Ghijben
258:Cape May, New Jersey
189:The construction of
162:Cape May, New Jersey
79:or agricultural and
1651:2016ESPR...2312502Z
1645:(13): 12502–12514.
1600:2019MarPG.109..740V
1432:2015EES....74..115R
1109:1987JHyd...89..169R
1060:2010HydJ...18..247B
953:. LaCoast.gov. 1996
707:Areas of occurrence
218:1980s to drain the
77:navigation channels
56:connection between
33:is the movement of
31:Saltwater intrusion
1250:Subterranean Water
780:Lake Pontchartrain
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615:finite differences
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749:(Florida/Georgia)
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459:, are related by
452:{\displaystyle z}
432:{\displaystyle h}
412:{\displaystyle z}
392:{\displaystyle h}
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302:In the equation,
81:drainage channels
16:(Redirected from
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819:Mekong Delta
810:(California)
808:Sonoma Creek
804:(California)
798:(California)
796:Oxnard Plain
765:(Washington)
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166:water supply
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35:saline water
30:
29:
1594:: 740–759.
1054:: 247–260.
834:Groundwater
802:San Leandro
782:(Louisiana)
774:Lake Lanier
693:fish ladder
646:dissolution
284: [
273: [
207:Sabine Lake
178:impermeable
58:groundwater
1696:Categories
1571:2018-09-27
1404:2009-03-21
1292:(4): 148.
1263:2009-03-22
1186:2012-12-09
1144:2013-09-14
1081:2012-12-10
1017:2012-12-10
989:2012-10-08
957:2009-03-21
936:2009-03-21
896:2012-10-08
866:References
859:Peak water
723:Bou Regreg
220:Everglades
212:subsidence
203:navigation
133:dispersion
105:Salt wedge
87:caused by
39:freshwater
1712:Hydrology
1667:1614-7499
1624:197580624
1616:0264-8172
1534:225224426
1526:0733-9496
1448:1866-6299
1335:0749-0208
1321:: 26–34.
1228:255924963
1076:128870219
776:(Georgia)
725:(Morocco)
641:intrusion
611:computing
549:ρ
522:ρ
495:ρ
468:ρ
349:ρ
345:−
336:ρ
322:ρ
226:Solutions
137:diffusion
99:Hydrology
54:hydraulic
1702:Aquifers
1675:26201653
1456:56376966
1343:54861536
1153:cite web
828:See also
734:Suriname
729:Pakistan
635:fissures
625:Modeling
199:channels
195:drainage
62:seawater
42:aquifers
1683:9262421
1647:Bibcode
1596:Bibcode
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513:where
191:canals
143:Causes
1679:S2CID
1620:S2CID
1530:S2CID
1452:S2CID
1383:(PDF)
1361:(PDF)
1339:S2CID
1286:Water
1257:(PDF)
1246:(PDF)
1224:S2CID
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1072:S2CID
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823:Italy
713:Benin
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73:wells
37:into
1671:PMID
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1052:USGS
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685:lock
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201:for
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