307:". They argue for example that researchers cannot make valid causal inferences about war outbreaks by only looking at instances where war did happen (the researcher should also look at cases where war did not happen). Scholars of qualitative methods have disputed this claim, however. They argue that selecting the dependent variable can be useful depending on the purposes of the research. Barbara Geddes shares their concerns with selecting the dependent variable (she argues that it cannot be used for theory testing purposes), but she argues that selecting on the dependent variable can be useful for theory creation and theory modification.
100:), the thickness of the research (a comprehensive examination of a phenomenon and its context), and the naturalism (a "real-life context" is being examined) involved in the research. There is general agreement among scholars that a case study does not necessarily have to entail one observation (N=1), but can include many observations within a single case or across numerous cases. For example, a case study of the
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video-recordings of interviews) often accompany the case studies. Similarly, teaching case studies have become increasingly popular in science education, covering different biological and physical sciences. The
National Center for Case Studies in Teaching Science has made a growing body of teaching case studies available for classroom use, for university as well as secondary school coursework.
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lacks a sufficient number of observations to properly estimate the effects of an independent variable. They write that the number of observations could be increased through various means, but that would simultaneously lead to another problem: that the number of variables would increase and thus reduce
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Through fine-gained knowledge and description, case studies can fully specify the causal mechanisms in a way that may be harder in a large-N study. In terms of identifying "causal mechanisms", some scholars distinguish between "weak" and "strong chains". Strong chains actively connect elements of the
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thus proposes a typology for the case study wherein purposes are first identified (evaluative or exploratory), then approaches are delineated (theory-testing, theory-building, or illustrative), then processes are decided upon, with a principal choice being between whether the study is to be single or
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cases (those which are extreme, deviant or atypical) can reveal more information than the potentially representative case. A case may also be chosen because of the inherent interest of the case or the circumstances surrounding it. Alternatively, it may be chosen because of researchers' in-depth local
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Case selection in case study research is generally intended to find cases that are representative samples and which have variations on the dimensions of theoretical interest. Using that is solely representative, such as an average or typical case is often not the richest in information. In clarifying
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According to John
Gerring, the key characteristic that distinguishes case studies from all other methods is the "reliance on evidence drawn from a single case and its attempts, at the same time, to illuminate features of a broader set of cases". Scholars use case studies to shed light on a "class" of
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The purported "degrees of freedom" problem that KKV identify is widely considered flawed; while quantitative scholars try to aggregate variables to reduce the number of variables and thus increase the degrees of freedom, qualitative scholars intentionally want their variables to have many different
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and qualitative research as being "unable to yield strong causal inference" due to the fact that qualitative scholars would struggle with determining which of many intervening variables truly links the independent variable with a dependent variable. The primary problem is that qualitative research
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As small-N research should not rely on random sampling, scholars must be careful in avoiding selection bias when picking suitable cases. A common criticism of qualitative scholarship is that cases are chosen because they are consistent with the scholar's preconceived notions, resulting in biased
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KKV also identify inductive reasoning in qualitative research as a problem, arguing that scholars should not revise hypotheses during or after data has been collected because it allows for ad hoc theoretical adjustments to fit the collected data. However, scholars have pushed back on this claim,
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in rationalist scholarship than quantitative methods. Case studies can identify necessary and insufficient conditions, as well as complex combinations of necessary and sufficient conditions. They argue that case studies may also be useful in identifying the scope conditions of a theory: whether
73:=1), but may include many observations (one or multiple individuals and entities across multiple time periods, all within the same case study). Research projects involving numerous cases are frequently called cross-case research, whereas a study of a single case is called within-case research.
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While a random selection of cases is a valid case selection strategy in large-N research, there is a consensus among scholars that it risks generating serious biases in small-N research. Random selection of cases may produce unrepresentative cases, as well as uninformative cases. Cases should
346:: the unintentional comparison of dissimilar cases). Case studies add descriptive richness, and can have greater internal validity than quantitative studies. Case studies are suited to explain outcomes in individual cases, which is something that quantitative methods are less equipped to do.
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has been among the most prominent developers and users of teaching case studies. Teachers develop case studies with particular learning objectives in mind. Additional relevant documentation, such as financial statements, time-lines, short biographies, and multimedia supplements (such as
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Case studies of cases that defy existing theoretical expectations may contribute knowledge by delineating why the cases violate theoretical predictions and specifying the scope conditions of the theory. Case studies are useful in situations of causal complexity where there may be
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research. Alexander George and Andrew
Bennett also note that a common problem in case study research is that of reconciling conflicting interpretations of the same data. Another limit of case study research is that it can be hard to estimate the magnitude of causal effects.
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John
Gerring defines the case study approach as an "intensive study of a single unit or a small number of units (the cases), for the purpose of understanding a larger class of similar units (a population of cases)". According to Gerring, case studies lend themselves to an
406:, primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research. The authors' recommendation is to increase the number of observations (a recommendation that
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attributes and complexity. For example, James
Mahoney writes, "the Bayesian nature of process of tracing explains why it is inappropriate to view qualitative research as suffering from a small-N problem and certain standard causal identification problems." By using
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lines of history and causation it is more useful to select subjects that offer an interesting, unusual, or particularly revealing set of circumstances. A case selection that is based on representativeness will seldom be able to produce these kinds of insights.
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style of analysis. He adds that "the defining feature of qualitative work is its use of noncomparable observations—observations that pertain to different aspects of a causal or descriptive question", whereas quantitative observations are comparable.
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Case studies have commonly been seen as a fruitful way to come up with hypotheses and generate theories. Case studies are useful for understanding outliers or deviant cases. Classic examples of case studies that generated theories includes Darwin's
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A commonly described limit of case studies is that they do not lend themselves to generalizability. Due to the small number of cases, it may be harder to ensure that the chosen cases are representative of the larger population.
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Aaron
Rapport reformulated "least-likely" and "most-likely" case selection strategies into the "countervailing conditions" case selection strategy. The countervailing conditions case selection strategy has three components:
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would at the bare minimum be an observation of two observations: France before and after a revolution. John
Gerring writes that the N=1 research design is so rare in practice that it amounts to a "myth".
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Kyburz-Graber, Regula (2004). "Does case-study methodology lack rigour? The need for quality criteria for sound case-study research, as illustrated by a recent case in secondary and higher education".
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As with other social science methods, no single research design dominates case study research. Case studies can use at least four types of designs. First, there may be a "no theory first" type of case
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Diverse cases are cases that have variations on the relevant X and Y variables. Due to the range of variation on the relevant variables, these cases are representative of the full population of cases.
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Case studies have been characterized as useful to assess the plausibility of arguments that explain empirical regularities. Case studies are also useful for understanding outliers or deviant cases.
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assumptions becomes important. However, although the designs can have substantial methodological differences, the designs also can be used in explicitly acknowledged combinations with each other.
342:, which are an important aspect of theory construction. The concepts used in qualitative research will tend to have higher conceptual validity than concepts used in quantitative research (due to
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While case studies can be intended to provide bounded explanations of single cases or phenomena, they are often intended to raise theoretical insights about the features of a broader population.
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Underwood, Peter; Waterson, Patrick; Braithwaite, Graham (2016). "'Accident investigation in the wild' – A small-scale, field-based evaluation of the STAMP method for accident analysis".
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Deviant cases are cases that defy existing theories and common sense. They not only have extreme values on X or Y (like extreme cases) but defy existing knowledge about causal relations.
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Typical cases are cases that exemplify a stable cross-case relationship. These cases are representative of the larger population of cases, and the purpose of the study is to look
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Generally, a case study can highlight nearly any individual, group, organization, event, belief system, or action. A case study does not necessarily have to be one observation (
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Beyond decisions about case selection and the subject and object of the study, decisions need to be made about the purpose, approach, and process of the case study.
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Outside of law, teaching case studies have become popular in many different fields and professions, ranging from business education to science education. The
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and began using cases pled before courts as the basis for class discussions. By 1920, this practice had become the dominant pedagogical approach used by
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identified five types of case study research designs (depending on the research objectives), Alexander George and Andrew
Bennett added a sixth category:
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Kimball, B. A. (2009). The
Inception of Modern Professional Education: C. C. Langdell, 1826–1906 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009)
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multiple, and choices also about whether the study is to be retrospective, snapshot or diachronic, and whether it is nested, parallel or sequential.
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Hypothesis-generating (or heuristic) case studies aim to inductively identify new variables, hypotheses, causal mechanisms, and causal paths.
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Seawright, Jason; Gerring, John (2014), "Case
Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options",
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For theoretical discovery, Jason Seawright recommends using deviant cases or extreme cases that have an extreme value on the X variable.
153:'s methodological work. A second type of research design highlights the distinction between single- and multiple-case studies, following
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Influential cases are cases that are central to a model or theory (for example, Nazi Germany in theories of fascism and the far-right).
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427:. Christopher H. Achen and Duncan Snidal similarly argue that case studies are not useful for theory construction and theory testing.
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Widner, Jennifer; Woolcock, Michael; Nieto, Daniel Ortega (2022), Ortega Nieto, Daniel; Widner, Jennifer; Woolcock, Michael (eds.),
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Qualitative research may be necessary to determine whether a treatment is as-if random or not. As a consequence, good quantitative
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The chosen cases fall within the scope conditions of both the primary theory being tested and the competing alternative hypotheses.
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In determining how difficult a test is, the analyst should identify the strength of countervailing conditions in the chosen cases.
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Most different cases are cases that are different on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher.
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1804:"Using Case Studies to Enhance the Quality of Explanation and Implementation: Integrating Scholarship and Development Practice"
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157:'s guidelines and extensive examples. A third design deals with a "social construction of reality", represented by the work of
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is an in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case (or cases) within a real-world context. For example, case studies in
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Atheoretical (or configurative idiographic) case studies aim to describe a case very well, but not to contribute to a theory.
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161:. Finally, the design rationale for a case study may be to identify "anomalies". A representative scholar of this design is
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414:), because few observations make it harder to estimate multiple causal effects, as well as increase the risk that there is
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Teachers may prepare a case study that will then be used in classrooms in the form of a "teaching" case study (also see
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Interpretative (or disciplined configurative) case studies aim to use established theories to explain a specific case.
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put it, and thereby to offer reasoned lines of explanation based on this rich knowledge of setting and circumstances.
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The Extended Case Method: Four Countries, Four Decades, Four Great Transformations, and One Theoretical Tradition
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Braumoeller, Bear and Anne Sartori. 2004. "The Promise and Perils of Statistics in International Relations." in
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335:'s theories of economic development (derived from case studies of early developing states, such as England).
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1528:"A Typology for the Case Study in Social Science Following a Review of Definition, Discourse, and Structure"
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noting that inductive reasoning is a legitimate practice (both in qualitative and quantitative research).
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165:. Each of these four designs may lead to different applications, and understanding their sometimes unique
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knowledge; where researchers have this local knowledge they are in a position to "soak and poke" as
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418:, and that an event in a single case was caused by random error or unobservable factors. KKV sees
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Extreme cases are cases that have an extreme value on the X or Y variable relative to other cases.
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Bennett, Andrew (2008-08-21). Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M; Brady, Henry E; Collier, David (eds.).
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Theory testing case studies aim to assess the validity and scope conditions of existing theories.
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2154:"Ontology, methodology, and causation in the American school of international political economy"
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725:"A Pragmatic Guide to Qualitative Historical Analysis in the Study of International Relations"
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Unraveling the Mysteries of Case Study Research: A Guide for Business and Management Students
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2775:"Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers"
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Bennett, Andrew (2008). Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M; Brady, Henry E; Collier, David (eds.).
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1093:(1991). "Better Stories and Better Constructs: The Case for Rigor and Comparative Logic".
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Building block studies of types or subtypes, aim to identify common patterns across cases.
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In a 2015 article, John Gerring and Jason Seawright list seven case selection strategies:
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King, Keohane, and Verba argue that there is no methodological problem in selecting the
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For the theories being tested, the analyst must derive clearly stated expected outcomes.
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Paradigms and Sand Castles: Theory Building and Research Design in Comparative Politics
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causal chain to produce an outcome whereas weak chains are just intervening variables.
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318:(choosing two or more explanatory variables that perfectly correlate with each other).
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Humphreys, Macartan; Jacobs, Alan M. (2015). "Mixing Methods: A Bayesian Approach".
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435:, it may be possible to makes strong causal inferences from a small sliver of data.
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Plausibility probes, aim to assess the plausibility of new hypotheses and theories.
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There are multiple definitions of case studies, which may emphasize the number of
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The Case Study Handbook: How to Read, Write, and Discuss Persuasively about Cases
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The Case for Case Studies: Methods and Applications in International Development
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Embedded Case Study Methods. Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Knowledge
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can range from a narrow happening over time like the operations of a specific
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generally be chosen that have a high expected information gain. For example,
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Herreid, Clyde F.; Schiller, Nancy A.; Wright, Carolyn; Herreid, Ky (eds.).
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Levy, Jack (2014), "Case Studies: Types, Designs, and Logics of Inference",
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59:
2511:"From Methodology to Practice: Inductive Iteration in Comparative Research"
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Multi-Method Social Science: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Tools
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51:
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1480:(2014). "Observation, Context, and Sequence in the Study of Politics".
626:
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Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research
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Designing Social Inquiry. Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research
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657:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 52–53.
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departed from the traditional lecture-and-notes approach to teaching
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1493:
2806:
2613:"Making the Case: Professional Education for the World of Practice"
1956:
Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2011). Goodin, Robert E (ed.).
1527:
369:. They may also be more appropriate for empirical verifications of
112:
research is frequently used for studies of multiple cases, whereas
2956:(6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, US: SAGE Publications.
837:(6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, US: SAGE Publications.
481:
2879:
Mills, Albert J.; Durepos, Gabrielle; Wiebe, Elden, eds. (2010).
1999:"Qualitative Research: Recent Developments in Case Study Methods"
800:
Mills, Albert J.; Durepos, Gabrielle; Wiebe, Elden, eds. (2010).
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variables are sufficient or necessary to bring about an outcome.
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2039:
Cases, Numbers, Models: International Relations Research Methods
1692:
Rethinking social inquiry : diverse tools, shared standards
1431:
Development of New Methods to Support Systemic Incident Analysis
43:
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2979:
2945:
How to Do Your Case Study: A Guide for Students and Researchers
76:
Case study research has been extensively practiced in both the
38:
may focus on an individual patient or ailment; case studies in
3506:
1600:"Hard Thinking about Hard and Easy Cases in Security Studies"
486:
Engineering students participate in a case study competition.
621:. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. p. 117.
2899:
What is a Case? Exploring the Foundations of Social Inquiry
2714:
National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS)
550:
The case-study method in psychology and related disciplines
2823:
Case studies and theory development in the social sciences
1567:
Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences
1350:
Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences
776:
Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences
581:
Feagin, Joe R.; Orum, Anthony M.; Sjoberg, Gideon (1991).
2271:"Rational Deterrence Theory and Comparative Case Studies"
1137:. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. pp. 99–102.
394:(also called "KKV"), an influential 1994 book written by
232:
Most similar cases are cases that are similar on all the
66:
of real-world problems affecting multiple stakeholders.
2665:
Exploring Cases Using Emotion, Open Space and Creativity
1837:"After KKV: The New Methodology of Qualitative Research"
1041:"The theory contribution of case study research designs"
1437:(Doctoral dissertation). London: Queen Mary University.
2793:(1989). "Building Theories from Case Study Research".
2482:
King, Gary; Keohane, Robert O.; Verba, Sidney (1994).
804:. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. p. xxxi.
653:
King, Gary; Keohane, Robert O.; Verba, Sidney (1994).
2592:
Jackson, Giles (2011). "Rethinking the case method".
331:(derived from his travels to the Easter Island), and
116:
research is frequently used for a single case study.
2897:
Ragin, Charles C. and Becker, Howard S. Eds. (1992)
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1694:(2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
585:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
27:
In-depth, detailed examination of a particular case
2635:
2562:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44, 53–55.
2080:"Process Tracing and Qualitative Causal Inference"
1958:"Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Methods"
1730:. University of Michigan Press. pp. 129–139.
2925:Straits, Bruce C. and Singleton, Royce A. (2004)
2821:George, Alexander L. and Bennett, Andrew. (2005)
2041:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press: ch. 6.
1319:Random sampling is unreliable in small-N research
699:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 19–20.
217:the case rather than compare it with other cases.
1658:. Princeton University Press. pp. 221–227.
873:Taylor, Marilyn L.; Søndergaard, Mikael (2017).
1935:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 43, 49.
1394:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 75–106,
1284:King, Gary/ Keohane, Robert O./ Verba, Sidney:
236:, except the one of interest to the researcher.
2488:. Princeton University Press. pp. 20–22.
2369:"Mechanisms, Bayesianism, and process tracing"
2269:Achen, Christopher H.; Snidal, Duncan (1989).
2205:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–55.
2131:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 61–62.
1776:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–40.
1565:George, Alexander L.; Bennett, Andrew (2005).
1348:George, Alexander L.; Bennett, Andrew (2005).
936:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–32.
773:George, Alexander L.; Bennett, Andrew (2005).
3522:
2991:
2642:. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
2559:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
2455:Fairfield, Tasha; Charman, Andrew E. (2022).
2202:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
2128:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
2054:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
1932:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
1810:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–26,
1773:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
1304:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
960:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
933:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
901:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
696:Case Study Research: Principles and Practices
338:Case studies are also useful for formulating
8:
2420:The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology
2330:The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology
1167:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2911:Scholz, Roland W. and Tietje, Olaf. (2002)
1652:Goertz, Gary; Mahoney, James (2012-09-09).
3529:
3515:
3507:
3203:
2998:
2984:
2976:
2152:Farrell, Henry; Finnemore, Martha (2009).
2057:. Cambridge University Press. p. 42.
1307:. Cambridge University Press. p. 87.
963:. Cambridge University Press. p. 37.
904:. Cambridge University Press. p. 17.
2594:Journal of Management Policy and Practice
2416:"Process Tracing: a Bayesian Perspective"
2326:"Process Tracing: a Bayesian Perspective"
2158:Review of International Political Economy
2014:
1902:
1664:10.23943/princeton/9780691149707.001.0001
1244:, SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. II113,
1066:
1056:
1008:
3290:Preventable fraction among the unexposed
3286:Attributable fraction for the population
2839:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2663:Palmer, Grier; Iordanou, Ioanna (2015).
1962:The Oxford Handbook of Political Science
1690:Brady, Henry E.; Collier, David (2010).
3294:Preventable fraction for the population
3282:Attributable fraction among the exposed
2954:Case study research: design and methods
2716:. University at Buffalo. Archived from
2428:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286546.001.0001
2338:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286546.001.0001
2016:10.1146/annurev.polisci.8.082103.104918
1970:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199604456.001.0001
834:Case Study Research: Design and Methods
540:
381:often entails a qualitative component.
2690:
2680:
1997:Bennett, Andrew; Elman, Colin (2006).
1924:
1922:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1765:
1763:
1685:
1683:
1296:
1294:
986:
984:
982:
980:
925:
923:
921:
862:. Abingdon, England: Hodder Education.
2458:Social Inquiry and Bayesian Inference
1880:
1878:
1721:
1719:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1280:
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1268:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1010:10.1146/annurev-polisci-092415-024158
823:
821:
768:
766:
718:
716:
688:
686:
684:
682:
648:
646:
612:
610:
463:). For instance, as early as 1870 at
7:
3457:Correlation does not imply causation
3373:Animal testing on non-human primates
2773:Baxter, Pamela; Jack, Susan (2008).
2765:Bartlett, L. and Vavrus, F. (2017).
2741:Baskarada, Sasa (October 19, 2014).
1891:PS: Political Science & Politics
2931:, 4th ed. Oxford University Press.
2881:Encyclopedia of Case Study Research
2743:"Qualitative Case Study Guidelines"
1288:. Princeton University Press, 1994.
802:Encyclopedia of Case Study Research
2003:Annual Review of Political Science
1569:. MIT Press. pp. 74–76, 213.
1039:Ridder, Hans-Gerd (October 2017).
997:Annual Review of Political Science
860:Classic Case Studies in Psychology
729:International Studies Perspectives
58:, to an enormous undertaking like
25:
2228:American Political Science Review
1482:American Political Science Review
1388:"Case Selection after Regression"
3738:
2852:Environmental Education Research
2795:The Academy of Management Review
2444:from the original on 2014-08-04.
1986:from the original on 2014-05-30.
1095:The Academy of Management Review
477:law schools in the United States
149:, which is closely connected to
2767:Rethinking Case Study Research.
1887:"Understanding Process Tracing"
303:warn against "selecting on the
3340:Pre- and post-test probability
3062:Patient and public involvement
2952:Yin, Robert K (October 2017).
2901:. Cambridge University Press.
2461:. Cambridge University Press.
1134:The Art of Case Study Research
314:, however. They do warn about
1:
3834:Industrial and organizational
2928:Approaches to Social Research
2515:Comparative Political Studies
2385:10.1080/13563467.2016.1201803
2367:Mahoney, James (2016-09-02).
2096:10.1080/09636412.2015.1036624
2078:Waldner, David (2015-06-22).
1616:10.1080/09636412.2015.1070615
741:10.1111/1528-3577.t01-1-00099
50:; similarly, case studies in
4075:Human factors and ergonomics
3467:Sex as a biological variable
1400:10.1017/cbo9781316160831.004
1199:Political Research Quarterly
291:In terms of case selection,
180:Case selection and structure
3431:Intention-to-treat analysis
3403:Analysis of clinical trials
3332:Specificity and sensitivity
3086:Randomized controlled trial
2864:10.1080/1350462032000173706
877:. Edward Elgar Publishing.
124:style of analysis, whereas
4553:
1464:10.1016/j.ssci.2015.08.014
723:Thies, Cameron G. (2002).
619:Paradigms and Sand Castles
412:Paradigms and Sand Castles
4461:
3764:Applied behavior analysis
3736:
3544:
3475:
3440:Interpretation of results
3173:Nested case–control study
2667:. Libri. pp. 19–38.
2611:Garvin, David A. (2003).
2240:10.1017/s0003055415000453
2170:10.1080/09692290802524075
1904:10.1017/s1049096511001429
1853:10.1017/S0043887109990220
1386:Seawright, Jason (2016),
1250:10.4135/9781473915480.n26
1207:10.4135/9781473915480.n31
1058:10.1007/s40685-017-0045-z
779:. MIT Press. p. 18.
583:A Case for the case study
96:(a small N), the method (
46:'s strategy or a broader
42:might cover a particular
3042:Academic clinical trials
2527:10.1177/0010414014554685
1726:Geddes, Barbara (2003).
1544:10.1177/1077800411409884
1107:10.5465/amr.1991.4279496
858:Rolls, Geoffrey (2005).
655:Designing Social Inquiry
617:Geddes, Barbara (2003).
391:Designing Social Inquiry
4040:Behavioral neuroscience
3604:Behavioral neuroscience
3260:Relative risk reduction
3108:Adaptive clinical trial
3052:Evidence-based medicine
3035:Adaptive clinical trial
2791:Eisenhardt, Kathleen M.
1885:Collier, David (2011).
1835:Mahoney, James (2010).
1598:Rapport, Aaron (2015).
1091:Eisenhardt, Kathleen M.
548:Bromley, D. B. (1986).
492:Harvard Business School
128:work lends itself to a
18:Sampling (case studies)
4537:Management cybernetics
4090:Psychology of religion
4030:Behavioral engineering
3967:Human subject research
3623:Cognitive neuroscience
3589:Affective neuroscience
3248:Number needed to treat
2835:Gerring, John. (2008)
2779:The Qualitative Report
2747:The Qualitative Report
2556:Gerring, John (2007).
2199:Gerring, John (2007).
2125:Gerring, John (2007).
2051:Gerring, John (2007).
1929:Gerring, John (2007).
1770:Gerring, John (2007).
1655:A Tale of Two Cultures
1301:Gerring, John (2007).
991:Gerring, John (2017).
957:Gerring, John (2007).
930:Gerring, John (2007).
898:Gerring, John (2007).
693:Gerring, John (2007).
487:
379:observational research
371:strategic interactions
151:Kathleen M. Eisenhardt
4466:Wiktionary definition
4002:Self-report inventory
3997:Quantitative research
3252:Number needed to harm
3139:Cross-sectional study
3091:Scientific experiment
3047:Clinical study design
2943:Thomas, Gary (2011).
2883:. SAGE Publications.
2373:New Political Economy
1428:Huang, Huayi (2015).
993:"Qualitative Methods"
663:10.1515/9781400821211
552:. Chichester: Wiley.
485:
451:Teaching case studies
344:conceptual stretching
234:independent variables
3992:Qualitative research
3947:Behavior epigenetics
3218:Cumulative incidence
2947:. SAGE Publications.
469:Christopher Langdell
433:Bayesian probability
312:explanatory variable
62:, or more often the
4471:Wiktionary category
4035:Behavioral genetics
4007:Statistical surveys
3864:Occupational health
3599:Behavioral genetics
3125:Observational study
3057:Real world evidence
3011:experimental design
2837:Case Study Research
1532:Qualitative Inquiry
363:interaction effects
329:theory of evolution
4527:Evaluation methods
4443:Schools of thought
4346:Richard E. Nisbett
4226:Donald T. Campbell
3904:Sport and exercise
3411:Risk–benefit ratio
3378:First-in-man study
3328:Case fatality rate
3169:Case–control study
3143:Longitudinal study
2634:Ellet, W. (2007).
2509:Yom, Sean (2015).
1754:10.3998/mpub.11910
1736:10.3998/mpub.11910
627:10.3998/mpub.11910
505:Analytic narrative
488:
465:Harvard Law School
425:degrees of freedom
305:dependent variable
56:political campaign
4532:Scientific method
4504:
4503:
4481:Wikimedia Commons
4408:Counseling topics
4371:Ronald C. Kessler
4361:Shelley E. Taylor
4286:Lawrence Kohlberg
4261:Stanley Schachter
4060:Consumer behavior
3942:Archival research
3710:Psycholinguistics
3594:Affective science
3504:
3503:
3452:Survivorship bias
3416:Systematic review
3383:Multicenter trial
3346:
3345:
3336:Likelihood-ratios
3308:Clinical endpoint
3276:Population impact
3230:Period prevalence
3007:Clinical research
2963:978-1-5063-3616-9
2890:978-1-4129-5670-3
2845:978-0-521-67656-4
2674:978-1-909818-57-6
2649:978-1-422-10158-2
2569:978-0-521-85928-8
2495:978-1-4008-2121-1
2468:978-1-108-42164-5
2212:978-0-521-85928-8
2138:978-0-521-85928-8
2064:978-0-521-85928-8
1979:978-0-19-960445-6
1942:978-0-521-85928-8
1817:978-1-108-42727-2
1783:978-0-521-85928-8
1745:978-0-472-09835-4
1701:978-1-4422-0343-3
1673:978-0-691-14970-7
1576:978-0-262-30307-1
1478:Fenno, Richard F.
1409:978-1-107-09771-1
1359:978-0-262-30307-1
1314:978-0-521-85928-8
1259:978-1-4462-7448-4
1216:978-1-4462-7448-4
1174:978-0-520-94338-4
1144:978-0-8039-5767-1
1045:Business Research
970:978-0-521-85928-8
943:978-0-521-85928-8
911:978-0-521-85928-8
844:978-1-5063-3616-9
811:978-1-4129-5670-3
786:978-0-262-57222-4
706:978-0-521-85928-8
672:978-1-4008-2121-1
636:978-0-472-09835-4
416:measurement error
316:multicollinearity
102:French Revolution
16:(Redirected from
4544:
4438:Research methods
4381:Richard Davidson
4376:Joseph E. LeDoux
4251:George A. Miller
4241:David McClelland
4236:Herbert A. Simon
4136:Edward Thorndike
3957:Content analysis
3742:
3715:Psychophysiology
3531:
3524:
3517:
3508:
3351:Trial/test types
3226:Point prevalence
3204:
3147:Ecological study
3130:EBM II-2 to II-3
3101:Open-label trial
3096:Blind experiment
3072:Controlled study
3000:
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2625:
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2617:Harvard Magazine
2608:
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2084:Security Studies
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2018:
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1604:Security Studies
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1159:Burawoy, Michael
1155:
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1129:Stake, Robert E.
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520:Case competition
141:Research designs
82:natural sciences
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4547:
4546:
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4543:
4542:
4541:
4507:
4506:
4505:
4500:
4457:
4433:Psychotherapies
4394:
4351:Martin Seligman
4316:Daniel Kahneman
4256:Richard Lazarus
4206:Raymond Cattell
4110:
4101:
4100:
4099:
4011:
3923:
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3743:
3734:
3695:Neuropsychology
3575:
3568:
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3435:
3397:
3342:
3296:
3270:
3244:Risk difference
3232:
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3030:Trial protocols
3013:
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2735:Further reading
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530:Process tracing
510:Casebook method
501:
461:casebook method
453:
420:process-tracing
387:
367:path dependency
324:
182:
171:epistemological
163:Michael Burawoy
159:Robert E. Stake
143:
90:
64:policy analysis
28:
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22:
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12:
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5:
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4391:Roy Baumeister
4388:
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4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4326:Michael Posner
4323:
4318:
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4311:Elliot Aronson
4308:
4306:Walter Mischel
4303:
4298:
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4288:
4283:
4278:
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4271:Albert Bandura
4268:
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4246:Leon Festinger
4243:
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4228:
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4218:
4216:Neal E. Miller
4213:
4211:Abraham Maslow
4208:
4203:
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4196:Ernest Hilgard
4193:
4191:Donald O. Hebb
4188:
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4171:J. P. Guilford
4168:
4166:Gordon Allport
4163:
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4146:John B. Watson
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3937:Animal testing
3933:
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3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3755:
3753:
3745:
3744:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3640:Cross-cultural
3637:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3620:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3580:
3578:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3536:
3534:
3533:
3526:
3519:
3511:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3498:
3495:List of topics
3491:
3484:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3447:Selection bias
3443:
3441:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3407:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3368:Animal testing
3365:
3360:
3354:
3352:
3348:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3320:Mortality rate
3306:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3280:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3242:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3212:
3210:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3166:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3149:
3135:
3133:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3117:
3116:
3115:
3113:Platform trial
3105:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3082:
3080:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3025:Clinical trial
3021:
3019:
3015:
3014:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2995:
2988:
2980:
2973:
2972:External links
2970:
2969:
2968:
2962:
2949:
2940:
2923:
2909:
2895:
2889:
2876:
2847:
2833:
2819:
2807:10.2307/258557
2787:
2770:
2763:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2700:
2673:
2655:
2648:
2626:
2603:
2584:
2575:
2568:
2548:
2521:(5): 616–644.
2501:
2494:
2474:
2467:
2447:
2436:
2406:
2379:(5): 493–499.
2359:
2346:
2316:
2281:(2): 143–169.
2275:World Politics
2261:
2218:
2211:
2191:
2144:
2137:
2117:
2090:(2): 239–250.
2070:
2063:
2043:
2030:
2009:(1): 455–476.
1989:
1978:
1948:
1941:
1918:
1897:(4): 823–830.
1874:
1847:(1): 120–147.
1841:World Politics
1822:
1816:
1789:
1782:
1759:
1744:
1715:
1700:
1679:
1672:
1637:
1610:(3): 431–465.
1590:
1575:
1557:
1515:
1469:
1451:Safety Science
1440:
1420:
1408:
1373:
1358:
1323:
1313:
1290:
1264:
1258:
1221:
1215:
1180:
1173:
1150:
1143:
1120:
1101:(3): 620–627.
1082:
1051:(2): 281–305.
1024:
976:
969:
949:
942:
917:
910:
890:
884:978-1786437235
883:
865:
850:
843:
829:Yin, Robert K.
817:
810:
792:
785:
762:
735:(4): 351–372.
712:
705:
678:
671:
642:
635:
606:
591:
573:
558:
539:
537:
534:
533:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
500:
497:
452:
449:
410:also makes in
408:Barbara Geddes
400:Robert Keohane
386:
383:
333:Douglass North
323:
320:
297:Robert Keohane
289:
288:
285:
282:
274:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
251:Harry Eckstein
247:Arend Lijphart
241:
240:
237:
230:
227:
224:
221:
218:
181:
178:
142:
139:
89:
86:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4549:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4463:
4460:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4428:Psychologists
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4418:Organizations
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4366:John Anderson
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4296:Ulric Neisser
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4281:Endel Tulving
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4266:Robert Zajonc
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4221:Jerome Bruner
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4186:B. F. Skinner
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4151:Clark L. Hull
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4131:Sigmund Freud
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4121:William James
4119:
4117:
4116:Wilhelm Wundt
4114:
4112:
4109:
4108:Psychologists
4104:
4096:
4095:Psychometrics
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4055:Consciousness
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3987:Psychophysics
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3929:Methodologies
3926:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3889:Psychotherapy
3887:
3885:
3884:Psychometrics
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3746:
3741:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3650:Developmental
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3571:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3539:
3532:
3527:
3525:
3520:
3518:
3513:
3512:
3509:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3426:Meta-analysis
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3394:
3393:Vaccine trial
3391:
3389:
3388:Seeding trial
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3209:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3157:Retrospective
3155:
3154:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3087:
3084:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3077:EBM I to II-1
3073:
3069:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3001:
2996:
2994:
2989:
2987:
2982:
2981:
2978:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2937:0-19-514794-4
2934:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2922:
2921:0-7619-1946-5
2918:
2914:
2910:
2908:
2907:0-521-42188-8
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2832:
2831:0-262-57222-2
2828:
2825:. MIT Press.
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2801:(4): 532–50.
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2720:on 2018-09-13
2719:
2715:
2711:
2704:
2701:
2696:
2684:
2676:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2656:
2651:
2645:
2640:
2639:
2630:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2607:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2585:
2579:
2576:
2571:
2565:
2561:
2560:
2552:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2505:
2502:
2497:
2491:
2487:
2486:
2478:
2475:
2470:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2451:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2437:9780199286546
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2360:
2349:
2347:9780199286546
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2214:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2195:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2145:
2140:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2121:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2074:
2071:
2066:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1879:
1875:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1779:
1775:
1774:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1656:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1538:(6): 511–21.
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1473:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1452:
1444:
1441:
1433:
1432:
1424:
1421:
1411:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1352:. MIT Press.
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994:
987:
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913:
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903:
902:
894:
891:
886:
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866:
861:
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851:
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840:
836:
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824:
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818:
813:
807:
803:
796:
793:
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782:
778:
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769:
767:
763:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
719:
717:
713:
708:
702:
698:
697:
689:
687:
685:
683:
679:
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668:
664:
660:
656:
649:
647:
643:
638:
632:
628:
624:
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613:
611:
607:
602:
598:
594:
592:0-8078-1973-5
588:
584:
577:
574:
569:
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561:
559:0-471-90853-3
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428:
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405:
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397:
393:
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384:
382:
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368:
364:
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354:
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345:
341:
336:
334:
330:
321:
319:
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313:
308:
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302:
298:
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4126:Ivan Pavlov
3982:Observation
3962:Experiments
3909:Suicidology
3804:Educational
3759:Anomalistic
3730:Theoretical
3705:Personality
3635:Comparative
3618:Cognitivism
3609:Behaviorism
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3421:Replication
3316:Infectivity
3238:Association
3189:Case report
3179:Case series
3162:Prospective
2691:|work=
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525:Case report
515:Case method
457:case method
385:Limitations
203:Gary Thomas
167:ontological
137:phenomena.
122:idiographic
114:within-case
98:qualitative
4511:Categories
4476:Wikisource
4321:Paul Ekman
4156:Kurt Lewin
4050:Competence
3972:Interviews
3952:Case study
3829:Humanistic
3809:Ergonomics
3794:Counseling
3769:Assessment
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3700:Perception
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3538:Psychology
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3256:Risk ratio
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3208:Occurrence
3184:Case study
2769:Routledge.
2724:2018-09-12
2710:"About Us"
2353:2021-02-19
2234:(4): 654.
1458:: 129–43.
1415:2021-02-11
536:References
361:, complex
130:nomothetic
110:cross-case
88:Definition
32:case study
4496:Wikibooks
4486:Wikiquote
4356:Ed Diener
4141:Carl Jung
4045:Cognition
3874:Political
3784:Community
3614:Cognitive
3324:Morbidity
3312:Virulence
3214:Incidence
2872:218499108
2693:ignored (
2683:cite book
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2535:0010-4140
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2393:1356-3467
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2186:145230528
2178:0969-2290
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1368:944521872
1077:2198-2627
1019:1094-2939
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396:Gary King
293:Gary King
108:The term
60:world war
4522:Evidence
4491:Wikinews
4448:Timeline
4070:Feelings
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4016:Concepts
3894:Religion
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3774:Clinical
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3645:Cultural
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3488:Glossary
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3199:Measures
3018:Overview
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1984:Archived
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568:12235475
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340:concepts
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3914:Systems
3849:Medical
3675:Gestalt
3549:History
3363:In vivo
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