363:
numbers of satellite cells to activate. The activation of satellite cells from their dormant state is controlled through signals from the muscle niche. This signaling induces an inflammatory response in the muscle tissue. The behavior of satellite cells is a highly regulated process to accommodate the balance between dormant and active states. In times of injury, satellite cells in myofibers receive signals to proliferate from proteins in the crushed skeletal muscle. Myofibers are fundamental elements in muscle made up of actin and myosin myofibrils. The proteins responsible for signaling the activation of satellite cells are called mitogens. A mitogen is a small protein that induces a cell to enter the cell cycle. When the cells receive signals from the neurons, it causes the myofibers to depolarize and release calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The release of calcium induces the actin and myosin filaments to move and contract the muscle. Studies found that transplanted satellite cells onto myofibers supported multiple regenerations of new muscle tissue. These findings support the hypothesis that satellite cells are the stem cells in muscles. Dependent on their relative position to daughter cells on myofibers, satellite cells undergo asymmetric and symmetric division. The niche and location determines the behavior of satellite cells in their proliferation and differentiation. In general, mammalian skeletal muscle is relatively stable with little myonuclei turnover. Minor injuries from daily activities can be repaired without inflammation or cell death. Major injuries contribute to myofiber necrosis, inflammation, and cause satellite cells to activate and proliferate. The process of myofiber necrosis to myofiber formation results in muscle regeneration.
350:
367:
sarcolemma leads to an increase in myofiber permeability. The disruption in myofiber integrity is seen in increased plasma levels in muscle proteins. The death of myofibers drives a calcium influx from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to induce tissue degradation. An inflammatory response follows the necrosis of myofibers. During times of muscle growth and regeneration, satellite cells can travel over between myofibers and muscle and over connective tissue barriers. Signals from the damaged environment induce these behavioral changes in satellite cells.
323:(FGF) enhance satellite cell proliferation rate following activation. Studies have demonstrated that intense exercise generally increases IGF-1 production, though individual responses vary significantly. More specifically, IGF-1 exists in two isoforms: mechano growth factor (MGF) and IGF-IEa. While the former induces activation and proliferation, the latter causes differentiation of proliferating satellite cells.
230:. Satellite cells in the head musculature have a unique developmental program, and are Pax3-negative. Moreover, both quiescent and activated human satellite cells can be identified by the membrane-bound neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM/CD56/Leu-19), a cell-surface glycoprotein. Myocyte nuclear factor (MNF), and c-met proto-oncogene (receptor for hepatocyte growth factor (
408:, which effectively cured the disease. However, the sample size used was relatively small and the study has since been criticized for a lack of appropriate controls for the use of immunosuppressive drugs. Recently, it has been reported that Pax7 expressing cells contribute to dermal wound repair by adopting a fibrotic phenotype through a Wnt/β-catenin mediated process.
495:, a device used to grow microorganisms or cells in a media that can be easily controlled. Whatever media chosen will simulate the cells being in prime condition to proliferate within an organism. After proliferation the cells are shaped using a scaffold. These scaffolds can be an organic structure like decellularized plant or animal tissues, inorganic such as
298:
hallmark. One of the first roles described for IGF-1 was its involvement in the proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells. In addition, IGF-1 expression in skeletal muscle extends the capacity to activate satellite cell proliferation (Charkravarthy, et al., 2000), increasing and prolonging the beneficial effects to the aging muscle.
170:
location between sarcolemma and basal lamina, a high nuclear-to-cytoplasmic volume ratio, few organelles (e.g. ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi complexes), small nuclear size, and a large quantity of nuclear heterochromatin relative to myonuclei. On the other hand, activated satellite cells have an increased number of
286:. They become activated and re-enter the cell cycle. These dividing cells are known as the "transit amplifying pool" before undergoing myogenic differentiation to form new (post-mitotic) myotubes. There is also evidence suggesting that these cells are capable of fusing with existing myofibers to facilitate growth and repair.
346:, free ribosomes, and mitochondria of the stimulated muscle groups. Additionally, satellite cells have been shown to fuse with muscle fibers, developing new muscle fibers. Other ultrastructural evidence for activated satellite cells include increased concentration of Golgi apparatus and pinocytotic vesicles.
306:
Satellite cell activation is measured by the extent of proliferation and differentiation. Typically, satellite cell content is expressed per muscle fiber or as a percentage of total nuclear content, the sum of satellite cell nuclei and myonuclei. While the adaptive response to exercise largely varies
297:
Satellite cells proliferate following muscle trauma and form new myofibers through a process similar to fetal muscle development. After several cell divisions, the satellite cells begin to fuse with the damaged myotubes and undergo further differentiations and maturation, with peripheral nuclei as in
395:
have all been shown to be able to contribute to muscle repair in a similar manner to the endogenous satellite cell. The advantage of using these cell types for therapy in muscle diseases is that they can be systemically delivered, autonomously migrating to the site of injury. Particularly successful
386:
Unfortunately, it seems that transplanted satellite cells have a limited capacity for migration, and are only able to regenerate muscle in the region of the delivery site. As such, systemic treatments or even the treatment of an entire muscle in this way is not possible. However, other cells in the
362:
Satellite cells have a crucial role in muscle regeneration due to their ability to proliferate, differentiate, and self-renew. Prior to a severe injury to the muscle, satellite cells are in a dormant state. Slight proliferation can occur in times of light injuries but major injuries require greater
326:
Human studies have shown that both high resistance training and endurance training have yielded an increased number of satellite cells. These results suggest that a light, endurance training regimen may be useful to counteract the age-correlated satellite cell decrease. In high-resistance training,
366:
Muscle regeneration occurs in three overlapping stages. The inflammatory response, activation and differentiation of satellite cells, and maturation of the new myofibers are essential for muscle regeneration. This process begins with the death of damaged muscle fibers where dissolution of myofiber
490:
An overview of the culturing process first involves the selection of a cell source. This initial stage is where the selection of a meat type happens, for example if the desired product is beef then cells are taken from a cow. The next part involves isolating and sorting out the myosatellite cells
169:
of muscle fibers, and can lie in grooves either parallel or transversely to the longitudinal axis of the fibre. Their distribution across the fibre can vary significantly. Non-proliferative, quiescent myosatellite cells, which adjoin resting skeletal muscles, can be identified by their distinct
244:
markers specifically define the majority of quiescent satellite cells. Activated satellite cells prove problematic to identify, especially as their markers change with the degree of activation; for example, greater activation results in the progressive loss of Pax7 expression as they enter the
479:, it was theorized that if these cells could be grown in a lab and placed on scaffolds to make fibers, the muscle cells could then be used for food production. This theory has been proven true with many companies sprouting around the globe in the field of cultured meat including
289:
The process of muscle regeneration involves considerable remodeling of extracellular matrix and, where extensive damage occurs, is incomplete. Fibroblasts within the muscle deposit scar tissue, which can impair muscle function, and is a significant part of the pathology of
472:. These satellite cells are the main source of most muscle cell formation postnatally, with embryonic myoblasts being responsible for prenatal muscle generation. A single satellite cell can proliferate and become a larger amount of muscle cells.
268:
and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, which gives no information about cell lineage or behaviour. As such, the satellite cell niche is relatively ill-defined and it is likely that it consists of multiple sub-populations.
499:, or a mix of both. Once the cells have attached themselves to the scaffold and fully matured, they have become a raw meat product. The final step will include any necessary food processes needed for the desired final product.
1238:
Hellsten Y, Hansson HA, Johnson L, Frandsen U, Sjödin B (June 1996). "Increased expression of xanthine oxidase and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) immunoreactivity in skeletal muscle after strenuous exercise in humans".
257:– all responsible for the induction of myocyte-specific genes. HGF testing is also used to identify active satellite cells. Activated satellite cells also begin expressing muscle-specific filament proteins such as
310:
It is suggested that exercise triggers the release of signaling molecules including inflammatory substances, cytokines and growth factors from surrounding connective tissues and active skeletal muscles. Notably,
245:
proliferative stage. However, Pax7 is expressed prominently after satellite cell differentiation. Greater activation also results in increased expression of myogenic basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors
424:
currently form the definitive satellite markers, Pax genes are notoriously poor transcriptional activators. The dynamics of activation and quiesence and the induction of the myogenic program through the
315:, a cytokine, is transferred from the extracellular matrix into muscles through the nitric-oxide dependent pathway. It is thought that HGF activates satellite cells, while insulin-like growth factor-I (
943:
Crameri R, Aagaard P, Qvortrup K, Kjaer M (2004). "N-CAM and Pax7 immunoreactive cells are expressed differently in the human vastus lateralis after a single bout of exhaustive eccentric exercise".
594:
Kadi F, Charifi N, Denis C, Lexell J, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, et al. (November 2005). "The behaviour of satellite cells in response to exercise: what have we learned from human studies?".
1203:
Bamman MM, Shipp JR, Jiang J, Gower BA, Hunter GR, Goodman A, et al. (March 2001). "Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-I and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans".
508:
513:
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from whatever the selected cell source was. After being separated into the cellular components, the myosatellite cells need to be proliferated through the use of a
307:
on an individual basis on factors such as genetics, age, diet, acclimatization to exercise, and exercise volume, human studies have demonstrated general trends.
1363:
Appell HJ, Forsberg S, Hollmann W (August 1988). "Satellite cell activation in human skeletal muscle after training: evidence for muscle fiber neoformation".
349:
2037:
1277:
Yang SY, Goldspink G (July 2002). "Different roles of the IGF-I Ec peptide (MGF) and mature IGF-I in myoblast proliferation and differentiation".
1996:
264:
The field of satellite cell biology suffers from the same technical difficulties as other stem cell fields. Studies rely almost exclusively on
1320:
Charifi N, Kadi F, FĂ©asson L, Denis C (July 2003). "Effects of endurance training on satellite cell frequency in skeletal muscle of old men".
2106:
2423:
2454:
174:, cytoplasmic organelles, and decreased levels of heterochromatin. Satellite cells are able to differentiate and fuse to augment existing
335:
mRNA levels. This is consistent with the fact that cyclin D1 and p21 upregulation correlates to division and differentiation of cells.
2010:
2006:
781:
Relaix F, Rocancourt D, Mansouri A, Buckingham M (June 2005). "A Pax3/Pax7-dependent population of skeletal muscle progenitor cells".
146:
cells, able to give rise to satellite cells or differentiated skeletal muscle cells. They have the potential to provide additional
1055:
Parker MH, Seale P, Rudnicki MA (July 2003). "Looking back to the embryo: defining transcriptional networks in adult myogenesis".
2001:
98:
1917:
1543:
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state. More specifically, upon activation, satellite cells can re-enter the cell cycle to proliferate and differentiate into
2124:
1400:"Skeletal muscle satellite cell characteristics in young and older men and women after heavy resistance strength training"
1098:
Mourkioti F, Rosenthal N (October 2005). "IGF-1, inflammation and stem cells: interactions during muscle regeneration".
1168:
Anderson JE, Wozniak AC (May 2004). "Satellite cell activation on fibers: modeling events in vivo--an invited review".
2030:
405:
1749:"Culturing characteristics of Hanwoo myosatellite cells and C2C12 cells incubated at 37°C and 39°C for cultured meat"
1602:"Pax7 expressing cells contribute to dermal wound repair, regulating scar size through a β-catenin mediated process"
2459:
468:
Myosatellite cells contribute the most to muscle regeneration and repair. This makes them a prime target for the
193:; they neither differentiate nor undergo cell division. In response to mechanical strain, satellite cells become
2090:
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31:
343:
38:
1944:"Cell Sources for Cultivated Meat: Applications and Considerations throughout the Production Workflow"
642:"The effects of heavy resistance training and detraining on satellite cells in human skeletal muscles"
91:
2054:
1558:
1542:
Sampaolesi M, Blot S, D'Antona G, Granger N, Tonlorenzi R, Innocenzi A, et al. (November 2006).
893:"Expression of CD34 and Myf5 defines the majority of quiescent adult skeletal muscle satellite cells"
790:
338:
Satellite cell activation has also been demonstrated on an ultrastructural level following exercise.
291:
691:"Muscle satellite cell proliferation and association: new insights from myofiber time-lapse imaging"
640:
Kadi F, Schjerling P, Andersen LL, Charifi N, Madsen JL, Christensen LR, Andersen JL (August 2004).
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There is some research indicating that satellite cells are negatively regulated by a protein called
182:
niche, and are involved in the normal growth of muscle, as well as regeneration following injury or
2239:
842:
Harel I, Nathan E, Tirosh-Finkel L, Zigdon H, GuimarĂŁes-Camboa N, Evans SM, Tzahor E (June 2009).
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1302:
1080:
993:
824:
619:
563:
1893:
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Hawke TJ, Garry DJ (August 2001). "Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology".
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Marchildon F, Lala N, Li G, St-Louis C, Lamothe D, Keller C, Wiper-Bergeron N (December 2012).
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555:
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Birbrair A, Delbono O (August 2015). "Pericytes are
Essential for Skeletal Muscle Formation".
283:
162:
964:"CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta is expressed in satellite cells and controls myogenesis"
891:
Beauchamp JR, Heslop L, Yu DS, Tajbakhsh S, Kelly RG, Wernig A, et al. (December 2000).
2188:
1965:
1955:
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When muscle cells undergo injury, quiescent satellite cells are released from beneath the
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Roth SM, Martel GF, Ivey FM, Lemmer JT, Tracy BL, Metter EJ, et al. (June 2001).
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175:
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Amini-Nik S, Glancy D, Boimer C, Whetstone H, Keller C, Alman BA (September 2011).
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79:
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The
Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences
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1813:
742:"The skeletal muscle satellite cell: the stem cell that came in from the cold"
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551:
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17:
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1111:
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758:
741:
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388:
328:
179:
147:
135:
1979:
1782:
1733:
1700:"Myostatin negatively regulates satellite cell activation and self-renewal"
1684:
1651:"Myostatin negatively regulates satellite cell activation and self-renewal"
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559:
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activation and proliferation of satellite cells are evidenced by increased
1764:
1715:
1698:
McCroskery S, Thomas M, Maxwell L, Sharma M, Kambadur R (September 2003).
1666:
1649:
McCroskery S, Thomas M, Maxwell L, Sharma M, Kambadur R (September 2003).
1384:
1260:
707:
475:
With the understanding that myosatellite cells are the progenitor of most
2632:
2603:
2563:
2368:
1960:
1544:"Mesoangioblast stem cells ameliorate muscle function in dystrophic dogs"
438:
250:
198:
171:
155:
1570:
802:
104:
2647:
2352:
2276:
1441:"The skeletal muscle satellite cell: still young and fascinating at 50"
1029:
1013:"Adult stem cell specification by Wnt signaling in muscle regeneration"
1012:
183:
1333:
980:
963:
844:"Distinct origins and genetic programs of head muscle satellite cells"
416:
Little is known of the regulation of satellite cells. Whilst together
2588:
2342:
1747:
Oh S, Park S, Park Y, Kim YA, Park G, Cui X, et al. (May 2023).
1618:
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and to form new fibers. These cells represent the oldest known adult
139:
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1894:"Bioreactors — Introduction to Chemical and Biological Engineering"
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2015:
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2019:
457:
332:
197:. Activated satellite cells initially proliferate as skeletal
740:
Zammit PS, Partridge TA, Yablonka-Reuveni Z (November 2006).
1205:
American
Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism
460:
and thereby inhibit the differentiation of satellite cells.
1869:
1798:"Prospectus of cultured meat—advancing meat alternatives"
189:
In undamaged muscle, the majority of satellite cells are
1845:
353:
Schematic of myosatellite cell transition into myofiber.
222:. Current thinking is that most satellite cells express
689:
Siegel AL, Kuhlmann PK, Cornelison DD (February 2011).
533:
531:
529:
509:
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers
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2201:
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2114:
2100:
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2053:
514:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
85:
73:
61:
56:
51:
46:
342:has been shown to significantly increase granular
383:will undergo a myogenic differentiation program.
358:Satellite cell activation and muscle regeneration
1495:"Satellite cells and the muscle stem cell niche"
218:Satellite cells express a number of distinctive
1918:"Cultivated meat scaffolding | Deep dive | GFI"
1445:The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry
1170:Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
746:The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry
452:. Increased levels of myostatin up-regulate a
37:"MuSC" redirects here. Not to be confused with
2031:
150:to their parent muscle fiber, or return to a
8:
1942:Reiss J, Robertson S, Suzuki M (July 2021).
1493:Yin H, Price F, Rudnicki MA (January 2013).
1948:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
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1486:
1484:
1050:
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1011:Seale P, Polesskaya A, Rudnicki MA (2003).
161:Myosatellite cells are located between the
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2111:
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2086:
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2024:
2016:
375:Upon minimal stimulation, satellite cells
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1959:
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1753:Journal of Animal Science and Technology
1365:International Journal of Sports Medicine
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635:
633:
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27:Precursor cell of skeletal muscle cells
1802:Journal of Food Science and Technology
589:
587:
585:
583:
581:
579:
577:
102:
43:
7:
2424:Connective tissue in skeletal muscle
1439:Yablonka-Reuveni Z (December 2011).
1253:10.1046/j.1365-201X.1996.492235000.x
464:Myosatellite cells and cultured meat
142:. Satellite cells are precursors to
30:For the glial progenitor cells, see
234:)) are less commonly used markers.
2011:Neuroscience Information Framework
396:recently has been the delivery of
25:
99:Anatomical terms of microanatomy
2455:Excitation–contraction coupling
1796:Bhat ZF, Fayaz H (2011-04-01).
1217:10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.3.E383
1241:Acta Physiologica Scandinavica
812:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-E8E0-9
1:
1291:10.1016/s0014-5793(02)02918-6
1135:Journal of Applied Physiology
540:Stem Cell Reviews and Reports
860:10.1016/j.devcel.2009.05.007
658:10.1113/jphysiol.2004.065904
2007:NIF Search - Satellite Cell
1704:The Journal of Cell Biology
1655:The Journal of Cell Biology
1147:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.2.534
897:The Journal of Cell Biology
427:myogenic regulatory factors
406:Duchenne muscular dystrophy
201:before undergoing myogenic
2694:
2460:Sliding filament mechanism
1511:10.1152/physrev.00043.2011
445:remains to be determined.
36:
29:
2208:
2179:
1814:10.1007/s13197-010-0198-7
646:The Journal of Physiology
608:10.1007/s00424-005-1406-6
552:10.1007/s12015-015-9588-6
97:
1997:Image at neuro.wustl.edu
1457:10.1369/0022155411426780
1417:10.1093/gerona/56.6.B240
1112:10.1016/j.it.2005.08.002
1057:Nature Reviews. Genetics
483:in the Netherlands, and
393:hematopoietic stem cells
321:fibroblast growth factor
2653:Fukutin-related protein
759:10.1369/jhc.6r6995.2006
454:cyclin-dependent kinase
261:as they differentiate.
134:cells with very little
2611:Sarcoplasmic reticulum
2440:Neuromuscular junction
2348:elastic filament/titin
2070:Vascular smooth muscle
1898:www.engr.colostate.edu
1377:10.1055/s-2007-1025026
909:10.1083/jcb.151.6.1221
354:
32:Satellite cell (glial)
2343:thick filament/myosin
2002:Overview at brown.edu
1765:10.5187/jast.2023.e10
1716:10.1083/jcb.200207056
1667:10.1083/jcb.200207056
1499:Physiological Reviews
708:10.1186/2044-5040-1-7
477:skeletal muscle cells
352:
344:endoplasmic reticulum
1961:10.3390/ijms22147513
1100:Trends in Immunology
470:meat culturing field
292:muscular dystrophies
2338:thin filament/actin
2324:(a, i, and h bands;
1571:10.1038/nature05282
1563:2006Natur.444..574S
803:10.1038/nature03594
795:2005Natur.435..948R
652:(Pt 3): 1005–1012.
302:Effects of exercise
1322:Muscle & Nerve
1030:10.4161/cc.2.5.498
848:Developmental Cell
355:
116:Myosatellite cells
92:H2.00.05.2.01020
2665:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2619:
2618:
2573:Myosatellite cell
2489:Intercalated disc
2468:
2467:
2396:Connective tissue
2314:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2277:Synemin/desmuslin
2197:
2196:
1557:(7119): 574–579.
1451:(12): 1041–1059.
1334:10.1002/mus.10394
981:10.1002/stem.1248
974:(12): 2619–2630.
789:(7044): 948–953.
752:(11): 1177–1191.
456:inhibitor called
284:basement membrane
163:basement membrane
124:muscle stem cells
113:
112:
108:
68:myosatellitocytus
47:Myosatellite cell
16:(Redirected from
2685:
2507:
2290:
2206:
2189:Laminin, alpha 2
2121:
2112:
2098:
2087:
2040:
2033:
2026:
2017:
1984:
1983:
1973:
1963:
1939:
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1836:
1835:
1833:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1776:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1727:
1710:(6): 1135–1147.
1695:
1689:
1688:
1678:
1661:(6): 1135–1147.
1646:
1640:
1639:
1621:
1619:10.1002/stem.688
1612:(9): 1371–1379.
1597:
1591:
1590:
1548:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1522:
1490:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1419:
1410:(6): B240–B247.
1395:
1389:
1388:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1285:(1–3): 156–160.
1274:
1265:
1264:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1211:(3): E383–E390.
1200:
1194:
1193:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1052:
1043:
1042:
1032:
1008:
1002:
1001:
983:
959:
953:
952:
940:
931:
930:
920:
903:(6): 1221–1234.
888:
882:
881:
871:
839:
833:
832:
814:
778:
772:
771:
761:
737:
731:
730:
720:
710:
686:
680:
679:
669:
637:
628:
627:
591:
572:
571:
535:
402:Golden Retriever
340:Aerobic exercise
138:found in mature
118:, also known as
105:edit on Wikidata
44:
21:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2668:
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2666:
2657:
2625:
2615:
2577:
2552:
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2428:
2390:
2325:
2323:
2306:
2286:
2281:
2193:
2175:
2116:
2105:
2092:
2081:
2074:
2056:
2049:
2044:
1993:
1988:
1987:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1927:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1902:
1900:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1878:
1876:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1854:
1852:
1844:
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1839:
1795:
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1648:
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1599:
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1492:
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1482:
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1397:
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1357:
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1314:
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1268:
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1232:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1182:10.1139/y04-020
1167:
1166:
1162:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1106:(10): 535–542.
1097:
1096:
1092:
1069:10.1038/nrg1109
1054:
1053:
1046:
1010:
1009:
1005:
961:
960:
956:
942:
941:
934:
890:
889:
885:
841:
840:
836:
780:
779:
775:
739:
738:
734:
695:Skeletal Muscle
688:
687:
683:
639:
638:
631:
596:PflĂĽgers Archiv
593:
592:
575:
537:
536:
527:
522:
505:
466:
414:
400:cells into the
373:
360:
304:
280:
275:
220:genetic markers
216:
214:Genetic markers
211:
203:differentiation
144:skeletal muscle
120:satellite cells
109:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2691:
2689:
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2450:Muscle spindle
2447:
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2326:z and m lines)
2316:
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2299:
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2257:
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2232:
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2230:
2225:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2130:
2128:
2118:
2109:
2095:
2084:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2051:
2050:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2035:
2028:
2020:
2014:
2013:
2004:
1999:
1992:
1991:External links
1989:
1986:
1985:
1934:
1909:
1885:
1870:"UPSIDE Foods"
1861:
1837:
1808:(2): 125–140.
1788:
1759:(3): 664–678.
1739:
1690:
1641:
1592:
1534:
1480:
1431:
1390:
1371:(4): 297–299.
1355:
1312:
1266:
1247:(2): 191–197.
1230:
1195:
1176:(5): 300–310.
1160:
1141:(2): 534–551.
1125:
1090:
1063:(7): 497–507.
1044:
1023:(5): 418–419.
1003:
954:
932:
883:
854:(6): 822–832.
834:
773:
732:
681:
629:
602:(2): 319–327.
573:
546:(4): 547–548.
524:
523:
521:
518:
517:
516:
511:
504:
501:
497:polyacrylamide
465:
462:
413:
410:
398:mesoangioblast
372:
369:
359:
356:
303:
300:
279:
276:
274:
271:
266:Flow cytometry
215:
212:
210:
207:
111:
110:
101:
95:
94:
89:
83:
82:
77:
71:
70:
65:
59:
58:
54:
53:
49:
48:
26:
24:
18:Satellite cell
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2690:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2654:
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2574:
2571:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2539:Microfilament
2537:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2512:
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2248:
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2241:
2238:
2237:
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2233:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2202:Intracellular
2200:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2119:
2117:extracellular
2113:
2110:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2052:
2048:
2047:Muscle tissue
2041:
2036:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2021:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1935:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1910:
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1875:
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1865:
1862:
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1847:
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1823:
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1709:
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1677:
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1611:
1607:
1603:
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1521:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
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1476:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
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1442:
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1432:
1427:
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1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
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1359:
1356:
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1327:
1323:
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1199:
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1191:
1187:
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1078:
1074:
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1058:
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1040:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1007:
1004:
999:
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987:
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
958:
955:
950:
946:
939:
937:
933:
928:
924:
919:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
887:
884:
879:
875:
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865:
861:
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849:
845:
838:
835:
830:
826:
822:
818:
813:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
777:
774:
769:
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760:
755:
751:
747:
743:
736:
733:
728:
724:
719:
714:
709:
704:
700:
696:
692:
685:
682:
677:
673:
668:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
636:
634:
630:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
578:
574:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
534:
532:
530:
526:
519:
515:
512:
510:
507:
506:
502:
500:
498:
494:
488:
486:
482:
478:
473:
471:
463:
461:
459:
455:
451:
446:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
423:
419:
411:
409:
407:
404:dog model of
403:
399:
394:
390:
387:body such as
384:
382:
378:
370:
368:
364:
357:
351:
347:
345:
341:
336:
334:
330:
324:
322:
318:
314:
308:
301:
299:
295:
293:
287:
285:
278:Muscle repair
277:
272:
270:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
243:
239:
235:
233:
229:
225:
221:
213:
208:
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
181:
177:
176:muscle fibers
173:
168:
164:
159:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
106:
100:
96:
93:
90:
88:
84:
81:
78:
76:
72:
69:
66:
64:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
33:
19:
2572:
2517:Muscle fiber
2287:
2218:Dystrobrevin
2171:Dystroglycan
1954:(14): 7513.
1951:
1947:
1937:
1926:. Retrieved
1924:. 2021-01-29
1921:
1912:
1901:. Retrieved
1897:
1888:
1877:. Retrieved
1874:UPSIDE Foods
1873:
1864:
1853:. Retrieved
1849:
1840:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1756:
1752:
1742:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1658:
1654:
1644:
1609:
1605:
1595:
1554:
1550:
1537:
1505:(1): 23–67.
1502:
1498:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1328:(1): 87–92.
1325:
1321:
1315:
1282:
1279:FEBS Letters
1278:
1244:
1240:
1233:
1208:
1204:
1198:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1060:
1056:
1020:
1016:
1006:
971:
967:
957:
948:
944:
900:
896:
886:
851:
847:
837:
786:
782:
776:
749:
745:
735:
698:
694:
684:
649:
645:
599:
595:
543:
539:
489:
487:in the USA.
485:Upside Foods
474:
467:
447:
426:
415:
385:
380:
376:
374:
365:
361:
337:
325:
309:
305:
296:
288:
281:
263:
236:
217:
194:
190:
188:
160:
130:, are small
127:
123:
119:
115:
114:
67:
2568:Muscle cell
2543:Myofilament
2362:Tropomyosin
2333:Myofilament
2134:Sarcoglycan
1846:"Mosa Meat"
132:multipotent
57:Identifiers
2638:Telethonin
2599:Sarcolemma
2594:Sarcoplasm
2527:extrafusal
2522:intrafusal
2484:Myocardium
2445:Motor unit
2419:Endomysium
2414:Perimysium
2302:Caveolin 3
2235:Syntrophin
2213:Dystrophin
2065:Calmodulin
1928:2023-11-17
1903:2023-11-17
1879:2023-11-17
1855:2023-11-17
1606:Stem Cells
1017:Cell Cycle
968:Stem Cells
520:References
493:bioreactor
412:Regulation
331:mRNA, and
167:sarcolemma
2678:Myoblasts
2643:Dysferlin
2626:ungrouped
2548:Sarcomere
2534:Myofibril
2494:Nebulette
2404:Epimysium
2320:Sarcomere
2272:Dysbindin
2267:Syncoilin
2184:Sarcospan
2115:Membrane/
2102:Costamere
1850:Mosa Meat
1822:0975-8402
1636:206518139
945:J Physiol
481:Mosa Meat
450:myostatin
389:pericytes
329:cyclin D1
209:Structure
199:myoblasts
195:activated
191:quiescent
180:stem cell
156:myoblasts
152:quiescent
148:myonuclei
136:cytoplasm
2672:Category
2633:Myotilin
2604:T-tubule
2564:Myoblast
2409:Fascicle
2369:Troponin
2288:related:
2091:Skeletal
2080:Striated
2009:via the
1980:34299132
1783:37332290
1774:10271921
1734:12963705
1685:12963705
1628:21739529
1587:62808421
1579:17108972
1529:23303905
1475:22147605
1426:11382785
1350:20002383
1342:12811778
1307:46646257
1299:12095637
1225:11171591
1190:15213729
1155:11457764
1120:16109502
1077:12838342
1039:12963830
990:23034923
927:11121437
878:19531353
821:15843801
768:16899758
727:21798086
701:(1): 7.
676:15218062
624:21822010
616:16091958
568:12812499
560:25896402
503:See also
439:myogenin
377:in vitro
371:Research
273:Function
251:myogenin
172:caveolae
165:and the
2648:Fukutin
2474:Cardiac
2433:General
2353:nebulin
1971:8307620
1922:gfi.org
1831:3551074
1725:2172861
1676:2172861
1559:Bibcode
1520:4073943
1466:3283088
1385:3182162
1261:8800359
1085:1800309
998:1219256
918:2190588
869:3684422
829:4415583
791:Bibcode
718:3157006
667:1665027
381:in vivo
184:disease
80:D032496
52:Details
2624:Other/
2589:Desmin
2476:muscle
2093:muscle
2082:muscle
2057:muscle
2055:Smooth
1978:
1968:
1828:
1820:
1781:
1771:
1732:
1722:
1683:
1673:
1634:
1626:
1585:
1577:
1551:Nature
1527:
1517:
1473:
1463:
1424:
1383:
1348:
1340:
1305:
1297:
1259:
1223:
1188:
1153:
1118:
1083:
1075:
1037:
996:
988:
951:: 165.
925:
915:
876:
866:
827:
819:
783:Nature
766:
725:
715:
674:
664:
622:
614:
566:
558:
441:, and
319:) and
259:desmin
253:, and
140:muscle
2582:Other
2557:Cells
2510:Fiber
1632:S2CID
1583:S2CID
1547:(PDF)
1346:S2CID
1303:S2CID
1081:S2CID
994:S2CID
825:S2CID
620:S2CID
564:S2CID
317:IGF-1
128:MuSCs
103:[
63:Latin
2503:Both
2297:NOS1
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