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411:) into Yellowstone National Park in the United States caused drastic changes to the prevalent scavenging community, resulting in the provision of carrion to many mammalian and avian species. Likewise, the reduction of vulture species in India lead to the increase of opportunistic species such as feral dogs and rats. The presence of both species at carcasses resulted in the increase of diseases such as rabies and bubonic plague in wildlife and livestock, as feral dogs and rats are transmitters of such diseases. Furthermore, the decline of vulture populations in India has been linked to the increased rates of anthrax in humans due to the handling and ingestion of infected livestock carcasses. An increase of disease transmission has been observed in mammalian scavengers in Kenya due to the decrease in vulture populations in the area, as the decrease in vulture populations resulted in an increase of the number of mammalian scavengers at a given carcass along with the time spent at a carcass.
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influenza virus to chickens by domestic ducks from
Indonesian farms permitted to scavenge surrounding areas was observed in 2007. The scavenging of ducks in rice paddy fields in particular resulted in increased contact with other bird species feeding on leftover rice, which may have contributed to increased infection and transmission of the avian influenza virus. The domestic ducks may not have demonstrated symptoms of infection themselves, though were observed to excrete high concentrations of the avian influenza virus.
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Highly efficient scavengers, also known as dominant or apex-scavengers, can have benefits to humans. Increases in dominant scavenger populations, such as vultures, can reduce populations of smaller opportunistic scavengers, such as rats. These smaller scavengers are often pests and disease vectors.
1959:
Human endurance running performance capabilities compare favourably with those of other mammals and probably emerged sometime around 2 million years ago in order to help meat-eating hominids compete with other carnivores. mall teeth, larger bodies and archaeological remains suggest that hominids
441:
outbreak from 2006 to 2007 off the coast
Newfoundland, Canada resulted in the mortality of many marine bird species. The transmission, perpetuation and spread of the outbreak was mainly restricted to gull species who scavenge for food in the area. Similarly, an increase of transmission of avian
393:
Scavenging unites animals which normally would not come into contact, and results in the formation of highly structured and complex communities which engage in nonrandom interactions. Scavenging communities function in the redistribution of energy obtained from carcasses and reducing diseases
350:
carcass would have been worth roughly 6 years of calories for an average allosaur. As a result of this resource oversupply, it is possible that some theropods evolved to get most of their calories by scavenging giant sauropod carcasses, and may not have needed to consistently hunt in order to
397:
Competition for carrion results in the inclusion or exclusion of certain scavengers from access to carrion, shaping the scavenger community. When carrion decomposes at a slower rate during cooler seasons, competitions between scavengers decrease, while the number of scavenger species present
1960:
started to incorporate meat and other animal tissues in the diet at least 2.5Ma, probably by hunting as well as scavenging. might have enabled hominids to scavenge carcasses from lions after they were abandoned but before hyenas arrived, as modern hunter-gatherers still do in East Africa.
525:
vultures in Asia. Habitat loss and food shortage have contributed to the decline of vulture species in West Africa due to the growing human population and over-hunting of vulture food sources, as well as changes in livestock husbandry. Poisoning certain predators to increase the number of
808:
419:
Scavenging may provide a direct and indirect method for transmitting disease between animals. Scavengers of infected carcasses may become hosts for certain pathogens and consequently vectors of disease themselves. An example of this phenomenon is the increased transmission of
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that build nests in grasslands and then collect dead plant material for consumption within the nest. The interaction between scavenging animals and humans is seen today most commonly in suburban settings with animals such as opossums,
351:
survive. The same study suggested that theropods in relatively sauropod-free environments, such as tyrannosaurs, were not exposed to the same type of carrion oversupply, and were therefore forced to hunt in order to survive.
394:
associated with decomposition. Oftentimes, scavenger communities differ in consistency due to carcass size and carcass types, as well as by seasonal effects as consequence of differing invertebrate and microbial activity.
340:
would energetically gain little through scavenging, smaller theropods of approximately 500 kg (1,100 lb) might have gained levels similar to those of hyenas, though not enough for them to rely on scavenging.
514:
Many species that scavenge face persecution globally. Vultures, in particular, have faced incredible persecution and threats by humans. Before its ban by regional governments in 2006, the veterinary drug
985:
Castilla, A.M.; Richer, R.; Herrel, A.; Conkey, A.A.T.; Tribuna, J.; Al-Thani, M. (July 2011). "First evidence of scavenging behaviour in the herbivorous lizard
Uromastyx aegyptia microlepis".
716:
215:
Obligate scavenging (subsisting entirely or mainly on dead animals) is rare among vertebrates, due to the difficulty of finding enough carrion without expending too much energy.
378:
Scavengers play a fundamental role in the environment through the removal of decaying organisms, serving as a natural sanitation service. While microscopic and invertebrate
750:
1810:
O'Bryan, Christopher J.; Holden, Matthew H.; Watson, James E. M. (2019). "The mesoscavenger release hypothesis and implications for ecosystem and human well-being".
344:
Other research suggests that carcasses of giant sauropods may have made scavenging much more profitable to carnivores than it is now. For example, a single 40 tonne
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is a species of midge fly whose larvae live as obligate scavengers at the bottom of lakes and whose adults almost never feed and only live up to a few weeks.
1704:
Wille, Michelle; McBurney, Scott; Robertson, Gregory J.; Wilhelm, Sabina I.; Blehert, David S.; Soos, Catherine; Dunphy, Ron; Whitney, Hugh (October 2016).
1332:
Ogada, Darcy L.; Keesing, Felicia; Virani, Munir Z. (16 December 2011). "Dropping dead: causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide".
731:
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was an opportunistic carnivore, acting mostly as a predator but also scavenging when it could sense it. Recent research also shows that while an adult
437:
A major vector of transmission of diseases are various bird species, with outbreak being influenced by such carrier birds and their environment. An
557:
1572:
Maák, István; Tóth, Eszter; Lőrinczi, Gábor; Kiss, Annett; Juhász, Orsolya; Czechowski, Wojciech; Torma, Attila; Lenda, Madalena (October 2020).
530:
is still a common hunting practice in Europe and contributes to the poisoning of vultures when they consume the carcasses of poisoned predators.
1874:
2310:
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1996:
324:, and possibly juvenile sauropods, although some experts have suggested the dinosaur was primarily a scavenger. The debate about whether
129:
Scavengers aid in overcoming fluctuations of food resources in the environment. The process and rate of scavenging is affected by both
2414:
2339:
2053:
885:
Tan, Cedric K.W.; Corlett, Richard T. (2011-03-30). "Scavenging of dead invertebrates along an urbanisation gradient in
Singapore".
501:
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is a notable victim, rather than a perpetrator). Almost all scavengers above insect size are predators and will hunt if not enough
1460:"Direct evidence of an efficient energy transfer pathway from jellyfish carcasses to a commercially important deep-water species"
861:
2156:
Vilaça, Aparecida (January 2000). "Relations between
Funerary Cannibalism and Warfare Cannibalism: The Question of Predation".
275:
is available, as few ecosystems provide enough dead animals year-round to keep its scavengers fed on that alone. Scavenging
1093:
2214:
1645:
Carrasco-Garcia, Ricardo; Barroso, Patricia; Perez-Olivares, Javier; Montoro, Vidal; Vicente, Joaquín (2 March 2018).
593:. In 2010, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman proposed that early carnivorous human ancestors subsequently developed
1223:"Carnosaurs as Apex Scavengers: Agent-based simulations reveal possible vulture analogues in late Jurassic Dinosaurs"
424:
observed when scavengers engage in eating infected carcasses. Likewise, the ingestion of bat carcasses infected with
267:
will scavenge if given the chance. They may also use their size and ferocity to intimidate the original hunters (the
1574:"Behaviours indicating cannibalistic necrophagy in ants are modulated by the perception of pathogen infection level"
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behaviors which improved the ability to scavenge and hunt: they could reach scavenging sites more quickly and also
401:
Alterations in scavenging communities may result in drastic changes to the scavenging community in general, reduce
366:. Animals that collect small particles of dead organic material of both animal and plant origin are referred to as
24:
1706:"A Pelagic Outbreak of Avian Cholera in North American Gulls: Scavenging as a Primary Mechanism for Transmission?"
1647:"Consumption of Big Game Remains by Scavengers: A Potential Risk as Regards Disease Transmission in Central Spain"
239:
Most scavenging animals are facultative scavengers that gain most of their food through other methods, especially
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831:
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613:
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390:, and are able to disperse the energy and nutrients farther away from the site of the carrion than decomposers.
1753:
Henning, Joerg; Wibawa, Hendra; Morton, John; Usman, Tri Bhakti; Junaidi, Akhmad; Meers, Joanne (August 2010).
232:
230:. Fly larvae are also common scavengers for organic materials at the bottom of freshwater bodies. For example,
2381:
1035:
Turner, Kelsey L.; Abernethy, Erin F.; Conner, L. Mike; Rhodes, Olin E.; Beasley, James C. (September 2017).
2913:
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1988:
636:) used to dispose of the human body. A similar funerary practice that features excarnation can be found in
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640:; in order to prevent the pollution of the sacred elements (fire, earth, and water) from contact with
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1262:"Big boned: How fat storage and other adaptations influenced large theropod foraging ecology"
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Fausto, Carlos (August 2007). "Feasting on People: Eating
Animals and Humans in Amazonia".
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2746:
2087:""Thus Are Our Bodies, Thus Was Our Custom": Mortuary Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society"
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200:
1755:"Scavenging Ducks and Transmission of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza, Java, Indonesia"
1823:
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1037:"Abiotic and biotic factors modulate carrion fate and vertebrate scavenging communities"
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to carrion birds and/or other scavenging animals – is the distinctive characteristic of
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930:"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer–resource modelling"
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386:, scavengers help conserve energy and nutrients obtained from carrion within the upper
219:
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and have detrimental effects on animal and humans. The reintroduction of gray wolves (
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among funerary practices and as the preferred means of disposal of the dead in some
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693:, where necrophagy and human cannibalism emerged as a survival behavior, although
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break down dead organisms into simple organic matter which are used by nearby
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303:. In some African towns and villages, scavenging from hyenas is also common.
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or have been killed by other predators. While scavenging generally refers to
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1458:
Dunlop, Kathy M.; Jones, Daniel O. B.; Sweetman, Andrew K. (December 2017).
1393:"Carcass Type Affects Local Scavenger Guilds More than Habitat Connectivity"
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Olson, Z. H.; Beasley, J. C.; DeVault, T. L.; Rhodes, O. E. (31 May 2011).
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was an apex predator or scavenger was among the longest ongoing feuds in
284:
208:
1722:
1705:
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2358:"Tasmanian devil | Habitat, Population, Size, & Facts | Britannica"
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1872:(December 1985). "Human Ancestors: Changing Views of Their Behavior".
1831:
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occur rarely in most human societies. Many instances have occurred in
2861:
2851:
2392:
2033:
1528:"Scavenger community response to the removal of a dominant scavenger"
1061:
1036:
756:
690:
669:, although rare, has been observed as a survival behavior in several
599:
pursue a single animal until it could be safely killed at close range
434:) resulted in increased infection of these organisms with the virus.
425:
252:
1391:
Olson, Zachary H.; Beasley, James C.; Rhodes, Olin E. (2016-02-17).
255:, but also animals rarely thought of as scavengers, such as African
126:
complete this process, by consuming the remains left by scavengers.
2222:
1181:
2071:
2006:
742:
556:
355:
248:
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factors, such as carcass size, habitat, temperature, and seasons.
46:
29:
1907:
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280:
256:
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2331:
Hunter and Hunted: Relationships
Between Carnivores and People
760:
686:
449:
218:
Well-known invertebrate scavengers of animal material include
2022:"Archaeological Evidence of Zoroastrian Funerary Practices"
1163:"Body Size as a Driver of Scavenging in Theropod Dinosaurs"
1110:
10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0469:TRFTUC]2.0.CO;2
1940:
The
Evolution of Marathon Running: Capabilities in Humans
802:
scavenging on fish scraps left over from another predator
16:
Organism that feeds on dead animal and/or plants material
2305:. Kristan Lawson. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin.
479:
184:
meaning "to look at", and modern
English "show" (with
2755:
2679:
2658:
2595:
2551:
2515:
2439:
2430:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1260:Pahl, Cameron C.; Ruedas, Luis A. (2023-11-01).
2408:
2334:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1030:
1028:
1026:
1024:
116:by consuming dead animal and plant material.
8:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1521:
1519:
1140:"Tyrannosaurus rex: predator or media hype?"
620:, which involves the dismemberment of human
1981:Tibetan Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction
1937:Lieberman, Daniel; Bramble, Dennis (2007).
112:. Scavengers play an important role in the
2436:
2415:
2401:
2393:
2382:Stitching a Life From the Scraps of Others
2290:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1334:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
519:has resulted in at least a 95% decline of
332:; however, most scientists now agree that
290:Scavengers of dead plant material include
2262:. Robert Leo Smith (9 ed.). Harlow.
1943:. Adis Data Information BV. p. 288.
1786:
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961:
502:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:meaning "customs", from Old North French
763:carcass in winter in Lamar Valley, near
877:
843:
712:
648:to be eaten by vultures and wild dogs.
569:), on Manfred-von-Richthofen-Straße in
467:not related to the topic of the article
2283:
1875:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
1094:"When Tyrannosaurus Chomped Sauropods"
93:that have died from causes other than
2137:from the original on 11 December 2019
852:cannibalistic necrophagy among humans
306:In the prehistoric eras, the species
226:, which are obligate scavengers, and
7:
2032:. Numen Book Series. Vol. 102.
725:feeding on a carcass of a wildebeest
644:, human cadavers are exposed on the
601:due to exhaustion and hyperthermia.
561:Men scavenging a dead horse during
2085:Conklin, Beth A. (February 1995).
1138:Hutchinson, John (July 15, 2013).
1098:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
14:
1092:Switeck, Brian (April 13, 2012).
887:Insect Conservation and Diversity
2586:
1949:10.2165/00007256-200737040-00004
1544:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19771.x
1354:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06293.x
954:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x
899:10.1111/j.1752-4598.2011.00143.x
862:List of incidents of cannibalism
807:
791:
771:
749:
730:
715:
454:
19:For a person who scavenges, see
2158:Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology
1651:Frontiers in Veterinary Science
1247:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2021.109706
850:For further informations about
624:of whom the remains are fed to
2030:Zoroastrian Rituals in Context
1007:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.02.005
470: and should be moved to
145:Scavenger is an alteration of
1:
2112:10.1525/AE.1995.22.1.02A00040
628:, and traditionally the main
614:exposure of dead human bodies
482:or discuss this issue on the
247:that hunt regularly, such as
192:Types of scavengers (animals)
1892:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90009-1
1759:Emerging Infectious Diseases
1710:Journal of Wildlife Diseases
1418:10.1371/journal.pone.0147798
1287:10.1371/journal.pone.0290459
987:Journal of Arid Environments
585:primarily obtained meat via
2215:University of Chicago Press
1142:. What's in John's Freezer?
165:meaning "inspection", from
2978:
1605:10.1038/s41598-020-74870-8
1484:10.1038/s41598-017-17557-x
1161:Kane; et al. (2016).
675:anatomically modern humans
546:
207:) eating the carcass of a
43:, feeding on decaying meat
25:Scavenger (disambiguation)
18:
2934:Category:Eating behaviors
2909:
2584:
2302:The Scavengers' Manifesto
2299:Rufus, Anneli S. (2009).
2046:10.1163/9789047412502_027
832:Consumer-resource systems
765:Yellowstone National Park
685:, especially in times of
169:meaning "to inspect", of
89:are animals that consume
1664:10.3389/fvets.2018.00004
1221:Pahl and Ruedas (2021).
741:feeding on a small dead
233:Tokunagayusurika akamusi
2914:Antipredator adaptation
2174:10.1080/001418400360652
2020:Huff, Dietrich (2004).
1989:Oxford University Press
1170:The American Naturalist
677:; however, episodes of
1771:10.3201/eid1608.091540
574:
354:Animals which consume
212:
83:
72:Leptoptilos crumenifer
44:
23:. For other uses, see
2256:Smith, T. M. (2015).
723:White-backed vultures
595:long-distance running
560:
465:may contain material
362:, are referred to as
199:
60:lappet-faced vultures
50:
33:
2328:Kruuk, Hans (2002).
2206:Current Anthropology
2166:Taylor & Francis
2095:American Ethnologist
2040:. pp. 593–630.
1973:Kapstein, Matthew T.
1227:Ecological Modelling
697:report the usage of
480:improve this section
415:Disease transmission
149:from Middle English
74:) feeding on a dead
52:White-backed vulture
2929:Carnivorous protist
2783:Intraguild predator
2259:Elements of ecology
1824:2019EcolL..22.1340O
1723:10.7589/2015-12-342
1596:2020NatSR..1017906M
1476:2017NatSR...717455D
1409:2016PLoSO..1147798O
1346:2012NYASA1249...57O
1278:2023PLoSO..1890459P
1239:2021EcMod.45809706P
1053:2017Ecol...98.2413T
999:2011JArEn..75..671C
946:2011EcolL..14..113G
854:, see the articles
819:giant African snail
565:(at the end of the
428:by striped skunks (
374:Ecological function
283:frequently exploit
64:Torgos tracheliotos
2924:Carnivorous fungus
2574:Sexual cannibalism
2559:Animal cannibalism
2424:Feeding behaviours
2387:The New York Times
2362:www.britannica.com
2026:Stausberg, Michael
1579:Scientific Reports
1464:Scientific Reports
817:feeding on a dead
699:ritual cannibalism
653:behavioral ecology
642:decomposing bodies
575:
534:Benefits to humans
403:ecosystem services
213:
84:
45:
2942:
2941:
2919:Carnivorous plant
2795:Aquatic predation
2582:
2581:
2564:Human cannibalism
2312:978-1-58542-717-8
2269:978-1-292-07740-6
1998:978-0-19-973512-9
1977:"Funeral customs"
1870:Binford, Lewis R.
1832:10.1111/ele.13288
800:Ibiza wall lizard
679:human cannibalism
646:Towers of Silence
549:Human cannibalism
512:
511:
504:
431:Mephitis mephitis
312:may have been an
309:Tyrannosaurus rex
157:collector", from
36:Sarcophaga nodosa
2967:
2788:Pursuit predator
2590:
2569:Self-cannibalism
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2038:Brill Publishers
2017:
2011:
2010:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1934:
1928:
1927:
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1860:
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1818:(9): 1340–1348.
1807:
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1765:(8): 1244–1250.
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1047:(9): 2413–2424.
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928:Getz, W (2011).
925:
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882:
865:
848:
811:
795:
782:scavenging on a
775:
753:
734:
719:
703:tribal societies
662:have shown that
632:rite (alongside
608:the practice of
606:Tibetan Buddhism
567:Battle of Berlin
553:Roadkill cuisine
507:
500:
496:
493:
487:
458:
457:
450:
201:Griffon vultures
173:origin; akin to
110:feeding behavior
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2768:Ambush predator
2751:
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2591:
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2426:
2421:
2384:– slideshow by
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2250:Further reading
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2019:
2018:
2014:
1999:
1991:. p. 100.
1971:
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1951:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1812:Ecology Letters
1809:
1808:
1804:
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1698:
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1639:
1588:Nature Research
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934:Ecology Letters
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857:Homo antecessor
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815:Red weaver ants
812:
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796:
787:
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735:
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695:anthropologists
612:– that is, the
581:suggested that
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448:
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316:, preying upon
220:burying beetles
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105:, it is also a
80:Crocuta crocuta
39:, a species of
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2871:Hypercarnivore
2868:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2854:
2847:Cattle feeding
2844:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2830:Feeding frenzy
2827:
2822:
2817:
2815:Suction feeder
2812:
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2376:External links
2374:
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671:social species
638:Zoroastrianism
589:, not through
577:In the 1980s,
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388:trophic levels
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186:semantic drift
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91:dead organisms
68:marabou storks
56:Gyps africanus
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2876:Hypocarnivore
2874:
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2538:Breastfeeding
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2533:Placentophagy
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573:borough, 1945
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492:November 2018
485:
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475:
474:
469:
468:
463:This section
461:
452:
451:
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440:
439:avian cholera
435:
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334:Tyrannosaurus
331:
327:
326:Tyrannosaurus
323:
319:
315:
314:apex predator
311:
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243:. Many large
242:
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228:yellowjackets
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76:spotted hyena
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
42:
38:
37:
32:
26:
22:
2901:Trophallaxis
2890:
2805:Pivot feeder
2800:Lunge feeder
2778:Egg predator
2666:Phagocytosis
2516:reproductive
2487:Myrmecophagy
2477:Molluscivore
2385:
2365:. Retrieved
2361:
2330:
2301:
2258:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2139:. Retrieved
2099:
2093:
2080:
2029:
2015:
1980:
1967:
1958:
1952:. Retrieved
1939:
1932:
1879:
1873:
1864:
1815:
1811:
1805:
1762:
1758:
1748:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1654:
1650:
1640:
1583:
1577:
1538:(1): 77–84.
1535:
1531:
1470:(1): 17455.
1467:
1463:
1453:
1400:
1396:
1386:
1340:(1): 57–71.
1337:
1333:
1269:
1265:
1255:
1230:
1226:
1216:
1173:
1169:
1156:
1144:. Retrieved
1133:
1121:. Retrieved
1101:
1097:
1087:
1044:
1040:
990:
986:
980:
937:
933:
923:
890:
886:
880:
855:
846:
673:, including
660:epidemiology
650:
603:
583:early humans
576:
563:World War II
537:
528:game animals
520:
513:
498:
489:
478:Please help
471:
464:
436:
429:
422:tuberculosis
418:
406:
400:
396:
392:
377:
368:detritivores
360:dung beetles
353:
345:
343:
337:
333:
330:paleontology
325:
322:ceratopsians
307:
305:
289:
238:
231:
217:
214:
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181:
177:
166:
162:
158:
150:
146:
144:
128:
124:detritivores
118:
86:
85:
79:
71:
63:
55:
34:
21:Waste picker
2722:Planktivore
2707:Detritivore
2702:Coprophagia
2692:Bacterivore
2687:Microbivory
2671:Myzocytosis
2630:Nectarivore
2620:Graminivore
2467:Lepidophagy
2462:Insectivore
2457:Hematophagy
2217:: 497–530.
1886:: 292–327.
1191:10023/10617
739:jungle crow
651:Studies in
610:excarnation
408:Canis lupus
398:increases.
380:decomposers
347:Apatosaurus
205:Gyps fulvus
180:and German
175:Old English
119:Decomposers
107:herbivorous
101:feeding on
2960:Scavengers
2949:Categories
2886:Parasitism
2820:Bait balls
2810:Ram feeder
2742:Plastivore
2737:Lithotroph
2727:Saprophagy
2650:Osteophagy
2640:Palynivore
2597:Herbivores
2528:Paedophagy
2502:Spongivore
2492:Ophiophagy
2432:Carnivores
2367:2022-10-03
2168:: 83–106.
2106:: 75–101.
2072:2003055913
2007:2013006676
1954:2017-03-15
1233:: 109706.
1146:August 26,
1123:August 24,
872:References
780:polar bear
667:necrophagy
657:ecological
618:sky burial
587:scavenging
547:See also:
517:Diclofenac
384:autotrophs
364:coprovores
358:, such as
318:hadrosaurs
245:carnivores
99:carnivores
87:Scavengers
2891:Scavenger
2763:Predation
2732:Xenophagy
2712:Geophagia
2697:Fungivore
2645:Xylophagy
2635:Mellivory
2615:Frugivore
2610:Florivore
2507:Vermivore
2497:Piscivore
2482:Mucophagy
2472:Man-eater
2321:262428497
2286:cite book
2278:915123443
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