979:(such charter being a treaty to which the United States is a party). According to William J. Lynn III, Deputy Secretary of Defense (March 18, 2010) WHINSEC fosters mutual knowledge, transparency, confidence, and cooperation among the participating nations and promotes democratic values, respect for human rights, and knowledge and understanding of United States customs and traditions. WHINSEC has provided training for more than 10,000 individuals since its existence and over 60,000 US and international students since its original establishment in 1946. Its educational format incorporates guest lecturers and experts from sectors of US and international government, non-government, human rights, law enforcement, academic institutions, and interagency departments to share best practices (as deemed by the USA) in pursuit of improved security cooperation between all nations of the Western Hemisphere.
3426:. 15 p.; Annex (A) to App. (B): Basis for United States Military Participation in Support of the Alliance for Progress. 4 p.; Annex (B) to App. (B): Requirement for Intelligence. 2 p.; Annex (C) to App. (B): The Military Assistance Program in Latin America. 4 p.; Annex (D) to App. (B): Proposed Implementation for a Latin American Military Information and Education Program. 5 p.; Annex (E) to App. (B): A Proposal for Latin American Civilian Conservation Corps Programs. 4 p.; Annex (F) to App. (B): Latin American Military Air Transport in Support of the Alliance for Progress. 3 p.; Annex (G) to App. (B): Nation Building and Civic Actions. 2 p.; App. (C): Part III. Factual Data . 25 p. SECRET to CONFIDENTIAL. SANITIZED copy. Released Mar. 20-23, 1981. Kennedy Library, NSF, Meetings and Memoranda, NSAM 118, JCS Recommendations, Parts I-III, Dec. 1961, Box 333
3347:. 15 p.; Annex (A) to App. (B): Basis for United States Military Participation in Support of the Alliance for Progress. 4 p.; Annex (B) to App. (B): Requirement for Intelligence. 2 p.; Annex (C) to App. (B): The Military Assistance Program in Latin America. 4 p.; Annex (D) to App. (B): Proposed Implementation for a Latin American Military Information and Education Program. 5 p.; Annex (E) to App. (B): A Proposal for Latin American Civilian Conservation Corps Programs. 4 p.; Annex (F) to App. (B): Latin American Military Air Transport in Support of the Alliance for Progress. 3 p.; Annex (G) to App. (B): Nation Building and Civic Actions. 2 p.; App. (C): Part III. Factual Data . 25 p. SECRET to CONFIDENTIAL. SANITIZED copy. Released Mar. 20-23, 1981. Kennedy Library, NSF, Meetings and Memoranda, NSAM 118, JCS Recommendations, Parts I-III, Dec. 1961, Box 333
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in hundreds of villages throughout Latin
America, in thousands of families where human rights abuses have taken place time and time and time again, those who perpetrated those human rights abuses have one thing in common. They were graduates of the School of the Americas. This is a school that is funded by U.S. taxpayers. It has trained the Latin American militaries how to come to this country and learn to kill, torture, and maim more efficiently. It is a school that should never have been associated with U.S. taxpayer funds. It is a school whose time has not only come and gone, but whose time should never have been associated with this country. It is time, I believe, for us to close down the School of the Americas. I ask Members on both sides of the aisle, save the taxpayers money. Close the School of the Americas.
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year, the school promotes democracy, builds stronger relationships with our neighbors, and combats narcotics trafficking. Some handful of the school's graduates have committed terrible crimes, but over 68,000 have been on the front lines of the move toward democracy in Latin
America. The school has undergone a series of investigations and studies, and all confirm that it has been a force for good in our hemisphere. I urge all of my colleagues to visit the school, learn more about the job it is doing, and not to rush to judgment on the basis of false and unfounded accusations made by people who may have good intentions, but who have little regard for the facts. Mr. Speaker, I urge our colleagues to support the truth. Support the School of the Americas.
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graduates of both the SOA and WHINSEC who have been accused of human rights violations and other criminal activity. In regard to the renaming of the institution, SOA Watch claims that the approach taken by the
Department of Defense is not grounded in any critical assessment of the training, procedures, performance, or results (consequences) of the training programs of the SOA. According to critics of the SOA, the name change ignores congressional concern and public outcry over the SOA's past and present link to human rights atrocities.
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deadline and criticized its content as "woefully inadequate". The report divulged that the screening and selection processes of school candidates differed between countries and that each country was responsible for screening and selecting candidates. According to the report, the names of selected candidates were sent to the "appropriate mission offices and agencies", who were expected to run their own background checks on the candidates. It also suggested that the resources required to monitor all 60,000 graduates were not available.
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occurred, received an angry call from a
Congressional staffer who had met with the Honduran colonels who were meeting with Members of Congress in Washington. The colonels purportedly told the staffer they had the center's support. Arcos confronted Downie and Center Deputy Director Ken LaPlante, telling them, "We cannot have this sort of thing happening, where we're supporting coups." LaPlante was a former instructor at the notorious School of the Americas and an ardent defender of that institution while at what is now called the
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jungle, swamp and water. Symbolically following in the footsteps of
Spanish explorers 300 years ago, the crossing began with an amphibious landing on the Pacific side of the Isthmus. The exercise ended with the last student completing the trek by emptying a container of Pacific Ocean Water into the Caribbean. The 9 day exercise emphasized jungle operations and tactics and techniques of combat in this environment. The U.S. Army School of the Americas' Jungle Operations Committee supervised and controlled the maneuver.
260:), and the Medical School (Fort Clayton). Chronic under-enrollment occurred during the school's first few years, as Latin American officials preferred to have personnel trained within the continental United States. Cadets of varying degrees of education and military experience were placed in the same courses. In 1947, discussions of national castes and class divisions in Latin American countries among U.S. officials led to changes in course structure that created separate classes for officers and lower-ranks.
460:. In 1980, the United States increased economic aid to Honduras, which remained relatively stable compared to other Central American countries. Journalist Ray Bonner reported that much of this aid would go toward training military officers at the School of the Americas and to training programs within the continental United States. Hundreds of Hondurans were trained at the school during the 1980s, when the country became increasingly critical to President Ronald Reagan's efforts to overthrow and defeat the
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3593:"Operations in SE Asia; US-Latin American defense exercise; determination of mid-line in Persian Gulf; increased jungle training of Army and Marine units; other subjects. Report for the President. September 14, 1965. 42 p. SECRET to UNCLASSIFIED. SANITIZED copy. Released Jan. 30, 1978. Johnson Library, White House Central File, Confidential File, Subject Reports, DOD, September 1965. United States: Department Of Defense, 14 September 1965. U.S. Declassified Documents Online"
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general counsel. An investigation was undertaken to ensure that the school's contemporary intelligence and counterintelligence materials were in "complete compliance with law, regulations and policy." Rep. Joseph P. Kennedy II stated that the manuals confirmed that "taxpayer dollars have been used to train military officers in executions, extortion, beatings and other acts of intimidation – all clear civil rights abuses which have no place in civilized society." Rep.
427:. According to Major Joseph Blair, a former instructor at the school, "the author of SOA and CIA torture manuals drew from intelligence materials used during the Vietnam War that advocated assassination, torture, extortion, and other 'techniques'." McSherry argues that the authors of the manuals "believed that oversight regulations and prohibitions applied only to U.S. personnel, not to foreign officers." Use of the manuals was suspended under President
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thousands of military officers throughout Latin
America, promoted the use of executions, torture, blackmail, and other forms of coercion. We now have concrete proof of what we had suspected. For almost 10 years, U.S. taxpayer dollars were used to promote an approach that advocates using, and I quote, "fear, payment of bounties for enemy dead, beatings, false imprisonment, executions, and the use of truth serum".
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357:. It also trained military police and maintained a close relationship with the Inter-American Police Academy. As part of an effort to emphasize "nation building and economic growth through military civic action," the school taught "technical skills applicable to civic action programs." These skills included bridge building, well-drilling, radio repair, medical technique, and water purification.
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the
Foreign Operations Appropriations measure for fiscal year 1995. The report required explanation of how the "School of the Americas IMET program" would "contribute to the promotion of human rights, respect for civilian authority and the rule of law, the establishment of legitimate judicial mechanisms for the military, and achieving the goal of right sizing military forces."
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had not carried out past human rights abuse. That same year, Rep. Joseph P. Kennedy II introduced bill H.R. 2652, which sought "to close the School of the
Americas and establish a U.S. Academy for Democracy and Civil-Military Relations." The bill stalled in January 1996 while awaiting executive comment from the Department of Defense.
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removing Zelaya from the country went beyond the scope of the judicial order. "In the moment that we took him out of the country, in the way that he was taken out, there is a crime. Because of the circumstances of the moment this crime occurred, there is going to be a justification and cause for acquittal that will protect us."
1004:. These six members include representatives from the human rights, religious, academic, and business communities. The board reviews and advises on areas such as curriculum, academic instruction, and fiscal affairs of the institute. Their reviews ensure relevance and consistency with US policy, laws, regulations, and doctrine.
280:. The army changed the name of the Latin American Ground School to the U.S. Army Caribbean School. Some courses were taught in Spanish to accommodate requests from Latin American countries that the school served. The school graduated 743 U.S. military personnel and 251 Latin Americans representing ten countries in 1949.
440:"provision international military education and training" to Panama in 1980, Carter argued that not doing so would "endanger the future operation" of the School of the Americas and the Inter-American Air Force Academy. Training manuals suspended under Carter were re-introduced into the school's curriculum under the
652:. from March 2004–March, 2013. During Downie's tenure at CHDS, the institution faced controversy over its continued employment of a former military officer from Chile, who was later indicted by a civilian court for his alleged participation in torture and murder and who was defended by Downie. In addition,
2844:(BNG) from 2014 to 2016. Responsible for killings and torture of Protesters during his tenure as BNG Commander. Sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses against opposition protesters and dissidents, corruption leading to the economic collapse of the country, and drug trafficking charges. Attended
1285:. School of the Americas Watch said in a statement that it matched the names of those in the scandal with its database of attendees at the institute. Alberto Quijano attended courses and was an instructor who taught classes on peacekeeping operations and democratic sustainment at the school from 2003 to 2004.
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School teaches U.S. Army doctrine which is based on over 200 years of success, and includes a variety of military subjects, none of which include criminal misconduct." WHINSEC says that its curriculum includes human rights, and that "no school should be held accountable for the actions of its graduates."
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A. Latin
America, Military Actions for. Transmittal Memorandum, JCSM-832-61, Gen. Lyman L. Lemnitzer, Chairman, to the President. November 30, 1961. 2 p. App. (A): Part I. Recommendations with Statement of the Problem and Need for Action . 7 p.; App. (B): Part II. Recommendations with Supporting Data
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A. Latin
America, Military Actions for. Transmittal Memorandum, JCSM-832-61, Gen. Lyman L. Lemnitzer, Chairman, to the President. November 30, 1961. 2 p. App. (A): Part I. Recommendations with Statement of the Problem and Need for Action . 7 p.; App. (B): Part II. Recommendations with Supporting Data
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A 1997 CIA study identified the Honduran Anti-Communist Liberation Army, or ELACH, as a "death squad" with close ties to a special security unit reporting to Alvarez. In 1983, a dissident Honduran army officer accused Alvarez of masterminding "death squads." In 1994 a lawyer appointed by the Honduran
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In 2013, researcher Ruth Blakeley concluded after interviews with WHINSEC personnel and anti-SOA/WHINSEC protesters that "there was considerable transparency ... established after the transition from SOA to WHINSEC" and that "a much more rigorous human rights training program was in place than in any
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I am proud of the school. All Americans should be. It has provided professional training to thousands of military and civilian police personnel from throughout Latin America, including extensive indoctrination in the principles of human rights and representative democracy. For less than $ 4 million a
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Again in 1996, the committee urged the Department of Defense to continue efforts to incorporate human rights training into the regular curriculum and to monitor the human rights performance of its graduates. A report regarding the school's selection process and monitoring of human rights practices of
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During the 1940s and 1950s, the school sought to prove that the quality of training provided matched or exceeded training provided by institutions within the U.S. When a group of Argentine officers attended a three-month course in 1948, the school painstakingly structured the program to convince them
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to centralize the "administrative tasks involved in training the increasing number of Latin Americans attending U.S. service schools in the canal zone." The school trained Latin American military personnel to use artillery and advanced weapons purchased from the United States and provided instruction
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Latin America, United States Objectives and Courses of Action with Respect to. Transmittal Memorandum, Elmer B. Staats, Exec. Officer, Operations Coordinating Board, to James S. Lay, Jr., Exec. Secy, NSC. Feb. 3, 1955. 2 p. Att: Same title . Progress Report on NSC 5432/1. Jan. 19, 1955. 4 p.; Annex:
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Since 1990, Washington, DC,-based nonprofit human rights organization School of the Americas Watch has worked to monitor graduates of the institution and to close the former SOA, now WHINSEC, through legislative action, grassroots organizing and nonviolent direct action. It maintains a database with
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Mr. Speaker, in the next couple of hours, this House will have the opportunity of closing down the School of the Americas. This is one of the worst vestiges of this country's foreign policies over the course of the last couple of decades. While the cold war has ended, the association of this country
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For years, some of us have had serious questions about the Army's School of the Americas and its connection to some of the worst human rights violators in our hemisphere. Last weekend, information released by the Pentagon confirmed our worst suspicions: U.S. Army intelligence manuals, distributed to
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in 1961, the school's curriculum was constructed and reorganized into two departments. The Department of Internal Defense dealt with "national internal defense", while the Counterinsurgency Committee provided counterinsurgency training in ten-week and two-week courses. According to the Department of
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Congress continued to debate whether or not to close the school throughout 1997. In February, Representative Kennedy introduced another bill, H.R. 611, that sought to close the school. Instead of pressing for the establishment of the U.S. Academy for Democracy and Civil-Military Relations, the bill
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with the intent to close the school by eliminating the amount of funding dedicated to running the school. Despite the rejection of the 1994 bill, legislative action that year required a report on the school's promotion of respect for human rights and civilian authority. This request was included in
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techniques and other dirty war methods". Further, the school leveraged instructors returning from service in Vietnam to "insure currency of the instruction". As new techniques were developed and adopted, the military became increasingly protective of course content. According to one scholar, by the
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During the mid-1960s, the school was one of several institutions through which the U.S. Army augmented "training in jungle warfare". In the first years of the decade, the Army made the Jungle Operations Committee part of the School of the Americas. This addition resulted in a surge in attendance by
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During this period, the army utilized the school for translation. In 1955, the Department of the Army established the Spanish Translation Review Board within the school to "review new and old translations of U.S. Army Field Manuals prior to publishing to correct grammatical and technical errors and
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Report for the President. Aug. 9, 1966. 69 p. SECRET to UNCLASSIFIED. FORMERLY RESTRICTED DATA. HANDLE AS RESTRICTED DATA IN FOREIGN DISSEMINATION. ATOMIC ENERGY ACT OF 1954. SANITIZED copy. Released Aug. 10, 1978. Johnson Library, White House Central File, Confidential File, Subject Reports, DOD,
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introduced a similar bill, S.980, into the senate in June. That same month, the Department of Defense submitted the report previously requested to address screening and monitoring of the school's students. The House Appropriations Committee noted that the report was delivered six months beyond its
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In 1995, the House Appropriations Committee urged the Department of Defense to continue its ongoing efforts to incorporate human rights training into the School of the Americas regular training curriculum, as well as to employ stringent screening processes to potential students to ensure that they
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Heightened tensions in Southeast Asia increased demand for "jungle operations techniques". In 1966, the army ordered the Commander, U.S. Army Forces Southern Command, to augment the school's Jungle Operations Course to accommodate more students. Specifically, these new students were to be soldiers
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Despite Carter's worries about the school's training materials, he believed that the international military education and training provided by the School of the Americas, among other institutions, was critical to furthering "the national interests of the United States". He considered the training
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a company of 103 students from Panama and 4 other Latin American countries enrolled in the Jungle Operations Course, U.S. Army School of the Americas, Fort Gulick, Canal Zone, recently completed a 9 day tactical exercise crossing the Isthmus of Panama, a ground distance of about 55 miles, through
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Denied that the forced removal of President Zelaya was a coup by saying “It was a fast operation. It was over in minutes, and there were no injuries, no deaths. We said, ‘Sir, we have a judicial order to detain you.’ We did it with respect.” Later he admitted to the Miami Herald that the act of
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Guatemalan Army official and CIA intelligence asset. In 1992, Alpirez received $ 44,000, nearly forty-six times the average yearly income in Guatemala, from the CIA for his intelligence work. He allegedly oversaw the murder of American citizen Michael Divine and Guatemalan citizen Efrain Bamaca.
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When the National Defense Authorization Act for 2001 was signed into law, WHINSEC was created. The law called for a federal advisory committee – the Board of Visitors (BoV) – to maintain independent review, observation, and recommendations regarding operations of the institute. The 14-member BoV
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made training manuals used by the School of the Americas available to the public and confirmed publicly that tactics conveyed in the manuals "violated American policy and principles." The Pentagon declared that all copies of the manuals had been destroyed apart from a single copy retained by its
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In 1989, the school established a policy on human rights instruction and revised its curriculum to integrate human rights training. According to the school, cadets received between four and forty hours of human rights training depending on their length of attendance. Instructors received sixteen
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Mutual defense assistance agreements bound the U.S. Army to the militaries of Latin America by the middle of the 1950s, with only Mexico and Argentina as exceptions. By 1954, the school's pupils were overwhelmingly from Latin American countries due to a decrease in U.S. military personnel in the
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The institute itself explicitly denies accusations of teaching torture as of at least 1999: in that year the School of the Americas FAQ had several answers denying accusations of torture, such as "Q: What about the accusations that the School teaches torture and murder? A: Absolutely false. The
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and other revolutionary guerrilla movements in the region. The surge in trainees during the 1980s marked the second wave of Hondurans to be trained by the school. The first wave took place between 1950 and 1969, when 1000 Honduran cadets were trained at the school or other facilities within the
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reported that Honduran plotters in the illegal 2009 military coup received "behind-the-scenes assistance" from CHDS officials working for Downie. The detailed August 2017 article noted that Cresencio Arcos, a former U.S. ambassador to Honduras who was working at the Center at the time the coup
2807:(MPPRIJP) from 2015 to 2016. Current director of the National Intelligence Service (SEBIN). Sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses against opposition protesters and dissidents, corruption leading to the economic collapse of the country, and drug trafficking charges. Attended
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and instilled in its personnel "attitudes favorable to the United States". Further, he believed the training served to "increase respect for United States foreign policy goals and the United States concept of military-civilian relationships at the national level". To justify his decision to
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During the 1970s, the quantity of trainees sent by Latin American dictatorships backed by the United States increased greatly. Between 1970 and 1979, cadets from Chile, Colombia, Bolivia, Panama, Peru, and Honduras made up sixty-three percent of the school's students. In the late 1970s,
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Detailed Development of Major Actions. Report. 25 p. TOP SECRET. Declassified Dec. 8, 1980. Eisenhower Library, White House Office, Office of the Spec. Asst. for Nat. Security Affairs: Records, 1952-61, NSC Series; Policy Papers Subseries, Box 13, NSC 5432/1, Policy toward Latin America
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parliament to investigate human rights abuse blamed the Honduran army for 174 disappearances and kidnappings in the 1980s. Most of the incidents took place before the 1984 ouster of Alvarez. In 1984 Alvarez was accused by his fellow generals of abuse of power and sent into exile.
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In 1993, a released list of 60,000 graduates confirmed that "dictators, death squad operatives, and assassins" had been educated at the SOA. Two bills to cut funding to the school were rejected by the House of Representatives in 1993 and 1994. These bills were introduced by Rep.
675:. In 2014–2015, the principal "Command & General Staff Officer" course had 65 graduates (60 male and five female) representing 13 nations: Belize, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and the U.S.
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training to military personnel from Latin America. Broadly, the U.S. offered training to Latin Americans in riot and mob control, special warfare, jungle warfare, intelligence and counterintelligence, civil affairs, and public information. According to anthropologist
701:, decided to stop sending Costa Rican police to the WHINSEC, although he later reneged, saying the training would be beneficial for counter-narcotics operations. Costa Rica has no military but has sent some 2,600 police officers to the school. Bolivian President
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Scholar Lesley Gill has argued that the Ground School not only trained students, but incorporated them "into the ideology of the 'American way of life' by steeping them in a vision of empire that identified their aspirations with those of the United States."
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that the U.S. was "enterprising, efficient, and powerful." Administrators leveraged preconceived notions around Argentine racial superiority in Latin America to cultivate feelings of equality between the Argentine officers and their U.S. counterparts.
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countries in Latin America." In 1956, English was eliminated as an instructional language and the school adopted Spanish as its official language. Accordingly, the majority of U.S. personnel the school trained between 1956 and 1964 were Puerto Rican.
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Maj. Joseph Blair, a former director of instruction at the school, said in 2002 that "there are no substantive changes besides the name. ...They teach the identical courses that I taught and changed the course names and use the same manuals."
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However, the first WHINSEC Director, Richard Downie, became the controversial director of the Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies (CHDS), the educational institution of both the U.S. Northern and U.S. Southern Commands (SOUTHCOM), at the
1338:, were sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses against opposition protesters and dissidents, corruption leading to the economic collapse of the country, and drug trafficking charges. They were found to have been students of
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and from 1997 to 2001, as a constitutional President. Under Banzer's seven-year dictatorship, hundreds of Bolivians were murdered, deported, and/or tortured, while more than 4,000 were imprisoned or detained as political prisoners.
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headquarters allowed the Army to ensure that "lessons learned" in Vietnam were incorporated into the curriculum. Scholar J. Patrice McSherry has argued that methods derived from Vietnam and incorporated into the curriculum included
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The counterinsurgency manuals that the school used for instruction were produced during the Army's Project X, established under the Foreign Intelligence Assistance Program in 1965–66, which relied on knowledge produced during the
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and the civil war years in Central America – in which the armed forces within several Latin American countries ruled or had disproportionate government influence and committed serious human rights violations in those countries."
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The School of the Americas has been blamed for human rights violations committed by former students. By the early 1980s, Latin American critics accused the school of teaching techniques of repression to be used toward civilians.
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urged the Department of Defense to create an Inter-American Center for Defense Studies in order to "provide professional training and education relevant to defense management in a democratic constitutional context." Senator
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Since 1990, SOA Watch has sponsored an annual public demonstration of protest of SOA/WHINSEC at Ft. Benning. In 2005, the demonstration drew 19,000 people. The protests are timed to coincide with the anniversary of the
475:. Prior to this expulsion, politicians and journalists in Panama had complained that civilian graduates from the school engaged in repressive and antidemocratic behavior. The army considered relocating the school to
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By 2000, the School of the Americas was under increasing criticism in the United States for training students who later participated in undemocratic governments and committed human rights abuses. In 2000, the
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its graduates, as well as examples in which graduates made significant contributions to democracy-building and improved human rights practices, was requested by the House Appropriations Committee in 1996.
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2774:. Sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses against opposition protesters and dissidents, corruption leading to the economic collapse of the country, and drug trafficking charges. Attended
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In July 1999, the House of Representatives voted 230–197 to reduce funding for the school by two million dollars. A House-Senate committee voted 8–7 to overturn the vote in the weeks that followed.
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252:) and divided it into three departments: engineering, communications, and weapons and tactics. The school was affiliated with army training schools in Panama that included the Food Service School (
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By its closure in 2000, The USARSA had graduated 60,428 officers, cadets, noncommissioned officers, police and civilian defense officials from 22 Latin American countries and the United States.
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Grimmett, Richard F., and Mark P. Sullivan. "US Army School of the Americas: Background and Congressional Concerns." LIBRARY OF CONGRESS WASHINGTON DC CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, 2001. 2-9.
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In July, the House Appropriations Commission reported that the House version of the foreign operations appropriation bill required major reforms before funding would be provided to the school.
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The Office of the Special Prosecutor for Human Rights accused Marmol Yanes of cover-up and abuse of authority in the killing of 15-year-old Ebed Jassiel Yanes Caceres in 2012 (2013 report).
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Grimmett, Richard F., and Mark P. Sullivan. "US Army School of the Americas: Background and Congressional Concerns." LIBRARY OF CONGRESS WASHINGTON DC CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE, 2001.
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Charged with drug trafficking and related weapons offenses in April 2020 by the U.S. He was also accused of killing for President Juan Orlando Hernández in a cocaine trafficking scheme.
6233:"Teaching Torture: Despite a lot of talk about torture being "un-American", Congress is quietly keeping alive the School of the Americas, our country's infamous torture-training school"
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Was one of those charged with the cover up of Ebed Yanes’ death. According to one soldier they were ordered by Giron to pick up the shell casings and to not speak of what happened.
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The institute was founded in 1946; by 2000, more than 60,000 Latin American military, law enforcement, and security personnel had attended the school. The school was located in the
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In 2013 he was accused of withholding information about the killing of Ebed Yanes. He allegedly ordered that the weapons used in the incident be exchanged to cover up the killing.
4054:"U.S. training manuals urged abusive tactics; Bribery, blackmail advocated in 1980s in Latin America Sun staff writers Gary Cohn and Ginger Thompson contributed to this article".
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regime, including in the Chilean intelligence agency, DINA. He was responsible for the interrogation, torture, and disappearance of political prisoners at the detention center,
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In 2004, Venezuela ceased all training of its soldiers at WHINSEC after a long period of chilling relations between the United States and Venezuela. On March 28, 2006, the
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5055:(paperback) by Andreas Muller (editor), Arno Tausch (editor), Paul M. Zulehner (editor), Henry Wickens (editor), Hauppauge/Huntington, New York: Nova Science Publishers,
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suggested that Latin American students could be utilized to "review translations to insure conformance with individual country language and practical applicability."
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1210:, Joaquín López y López, Juan Ramón Moreno, and Amado López), along with their housekeeper Elba Ramos and her daughter Celia Marisela Ramos, were murdered by the
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720:. In June 2007, the McGovern/Lewis Amendment to shut off funding for the Institute failed by six votes. This effort to close the institute was endorsed by the
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4745:"10 USC Chapter 108-Armed Forces, Subtitle A-General Military Law, Part III-Training and Education, Chapter 108-Department of Defense Schools, Section. 2166"
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requests, records were released regarding graduates of the school. In August 2007, according to an Associated Press report, Colonel Alberto Quijano of the
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in Cuba, the U.S. Military adopted a national security doctrine under the perceived threat of an "international communist conspiracy." In 1961, President
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522:'". Now, all elements of the School of the Americas are located at Fort Moore with the exception of the Helicopter School Battalion which is located at
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Paper regarding justification for presidential determination to authorize international military education and training for Panama in fiscal year 1980
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Though the Mexican and US Governments have never released a full list, several sources claimed that many of the initial 34 founders of Los Zetas were
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in 2001, WHINSEC is responsible for providing professional education and training on the context of the democratic principles in the Charter of the
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region, an increased utilization of the school by governments in Latin America, and an agreement that the United States would pay "transportation,
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2866:
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6350:
1240:
1195:
6585:
6484:
6311:
6218:
6189:
6159:
5475:
5451:
5053:
Global Capitalism, Liberation Theology, and the Social Sciences: An Analysis of the Contradictions of Modernity at the Turn of the Millennium
3973:
3847:
3802:
3763:
3457:
3165:
3141:
3104:
1961:
1881:
1714:
1675:
1345:
For the Fiscal Year 2021 a total of 1,193 students trained at WHINSEC with the highest number of those students coming from Colombia (697).
1097:, Director, Kimberly Green Latin American and Caribbean Center and Professor in the Department of Politics & International Relations at
2696:
2692:
2165:
1052:
389:
5074:
3447:
6550:
5883:
4262:
3350:
2223:
1904:
1027:
625:
511:
381:
192:
85:
4828:
4796:
1147:, "The School of the Americas had been questioned for years, as it trained many military personnel before and during the years of the '
6339:
6278:
4077:
3701:
3490:
1041:
1001:
968:
204:
4640:
4320:
921:
5497:
5060:
4723:
3668:
3240:
997:
954:
705:
formally announced on February 18, 2008, that he would not send Bolivian military or police officers to WHINSEC. In 2012, President
5768:
6196:
5968:
4156:
2861:
2627:
2582:
1969:
1274:
1098:
1048:
415:
mid-to-late 1960s "trainees required security clearances even to view the course descriptions of military intelligence courses."
5159:
4216:
3508:
JCS report on participation of U.S. and Latin American armed forces in attainment of common objectives in Latin America detailed
5186:
4443:
3897:
Quiles Meléndez, Inés María. "EL PLAN 20: UNA NUEVA ESTRATEGIA DE DESARROLLO PARA PUERTO RICO Y SU VINCULACION CON EL CARIBE."
3863:
McCoy, Katherine E. (2005). "Trained to Torture? The Human Rights Effects of Military Training at the School of the Americas".
2763:
2220:
2095:
1949:
1235:
The U.S. Army School of the Americas is a school that has run more dictators than any other school in the history of the world.
1144:
1000:, U.S. Southern Command, U.S. Northern Command, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, and six members designated by the
976:
585:
In September, numerous senators entered statements in the congressional record to support or close the School of the Americas.
5994:
2626:
from 1983 to 1989. He had longstanding ties to United States intelligence agencies; however, he was removed from power by the
2585:, but instead held titles including "Leader of the Panamanian Revolution" and "Chief of Government." Torrijos took power in a
373:
In 1963, officials renamed the facility the U.S. Army School of the Americas "to better reflect its hemispheric orientation."
6495:
6025:"Estados Unidos anuncia el cierre de la Escuela de las Américas, en la que se han graduado 44.000 militares latinoamericanos"
5216:
4744:
3301:
2970:
721:
348:
To accommodate objectives of cooperation between the United States and Latin America established by President Kennedy in the
4358:
4120:
3399:
2295:
1613:
1198:
in El Salvador in November 1989 by graduates of the School of the Americas. On November 16, 1989, these six Jesuit priests (
802:
749:
6070:
1884:. Evidence linked him to various human rights violations between 1977 and 1989, including kidnapping, torture, and murder.
1323:, training statistics show that Argentina, a country that engaged in much anti-Communist sentiment and violence during the
1108:, United States diplomat and career foreign service officer. She served as the U.S. Ambassador to Zambia from 2005 to 2008.
435:
conducted in Panama to be essential because it enhanced American "access to the politically influential leadership" of the
5041:
4770:
4412:
4101:
CLOSE THE ARMY SCHOOL OF THE AMERICAS; Congressional Record Vol. 142, No. 138 (Extensions of Remarks - September 30, 1996)
1282:
354:
5534:
4952:
4503:
4380:
4385:
2960:
1179:
1066:
2997:
2798:
1335:
3576:
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1957:
645:
441:
420:
353:
Defense, the school provided intelligence and counter-intelligence training to "foreign military personnel" under the
289:
5574:
4024:"PUBLIC BILLS AND RESOLUTIONS; Congressional Record Vol. 141, No. 182 (House of Representatives - November 16, 1995)"
405:"enroute to assignments in units serving in the Republic of Vietnam." A feedback-loop created between the school and
5012:
4982:
4926:
365:
276:
In February 1949, the army consolidated the training schools in the Panama Canal Zone and transferred operations to
6565:
6355:
6232:
2169:
1965:
480:
337:
4288:
1170:
says that "training alone, even when it includes human rights instruction, does not prevent human rights abuses."
713:
would withdraw all their troops from the military school at Ft. Benning, citing links to human rights violations.
6580:
6469:
5305:
Ramsey, Russell W., and Antonion Raimondo. "Human Rights Instruction at the U. S. Army School of the Americas*."
4473:
3196:
2841:
2758:
2345:
1331:
1309:
436:
6445:
5624:
5284:
1207:
925:
6499:
6151:
4887:
2487:
During the 2009 coup as head of the Honduran Air Force he arranged for President Zelaya to be flown into exile
1123:
476:
4197:
5945:
5331:
297:
to assist in the standardization of military terms" employed in Spanish-language curricula. In 1961, General
4555:
2266:
2235:
2126:
1785:
1758:
1305:
1255:
679:
518:, with "narcoguerillas" replacing "communists". This term was later replaced by "the more ominous sounding '
457:
6024:
5823:
5691:
5598:
Sonnleitner, Willibald. "Dos Décadas De Elecciones En Guatemala: En Las Fronteras De La Democratización."
3178:
3056:
2886:, a 2003 feature-length documentary film produced by Andrés Thomas Conteris, Vivi Letsou, and John Smihula
2159:
1937:
1811:
Forced peasant children to lead his patrol through a minefield. Two children were killed and one wounded.
1491:
1455:
1380:
1278:
1250:
A number of graduates of the SOA and WHINSEC have been accused and sentenced for human rights violations,
621:
257:
6042:
6321:
6270:
6206:
Disturbing the Peace: The Story of Father Roy Bourgeois and the Movement to Close the School of Americas
6124:
6118:
5724:
4059:
3482:
3213:
2650:
2091:
1721:
1682:
1499:
1482:
1105:
468:
During the 1980s, Mexico, El Salvador, and Colombia made-up seventy two percent of the school's cadets.
349:
2005:
1522:
1289:
1211:
1948:
soldier, politician and death-squad leader. In 1981, he co-founded and became the first leader of the
6360:
2909:
2890:
2682:
2099:
1531:
1327:
during the Cold War era, had a relatively small number of military personnel educated at the school.
1243:
1199:
599:
540:
492:
453:
406:
110:
3371:
1588:
6377:
5940:
1638:
1565:
1412:
1320:
1073:
472:
6351:"SOA protesters headed for prison: Sister, students among 14 charged with trespass at Army school"
6299:
Instruments of Statecraft: U.S. Guerilla Warfare, Counter-Insurgency, Counter-Terrorism, 1940–1990
671:
Since its opening in 2001, WHINSEC has trained more than 19,000 students from 36 countries of the
6398:
5603:
5423:
5397:
5164:
4577:"WHINSEC Remains Open: Congress Narrowly Fails to Halt Funding the Former School of the Americas"
3902:
3880:
3819:
3023:
2655:
2568:
2036:
2009:
1999:
1487:
1297:
1293:
1167:
672:
632:
388:
that 180 students from the Continental U.S. Base had been trained in 1965, including 60 from the
317:
228:
5850:
5042:
Truth Commissions: Reports: El Salvador – The Hague Justice Portal. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
4701:"Commandant of the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation: Who Is Robert Alvaro?"
3528:
Appendix of report on guerrilla and counter-guerrilla training conducted by U.S. military forces
1559:
683:
5084:
1308:. Honduran General Luis Alonso Discua was also a graduate of the school who later on commanded
6480:
6335:
6307:
6284:
6274:
6214:
6185:
6155:
6101:
5858:
5503:
5493:
5471:
5447:
5114:
5079:
5056:
3969:
3843:
3798:
3759:
3707:
3697:
3664:
3486:
3453:
3372:"Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Cuba, Volume VI - Office of the Historian"
3307:
3297:
3264:
3246:
3236:
3209:
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3161:
3137:
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3096:
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2771:
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2700:
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2227:
2132:
2082:
1666:
1446:
1389:
1094:
385:
240:
211:
200:
5969:"U.S.-trained ex-soldiers form core of "Zetas" - SOA Watch: Close the School of the Americas"
5376:
4198:"For years, Pentagon paid professor despite revoked visa and accusations of torture in Chile"
6169:
5224:
4803:
4671:"Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation (WHINSEC) Change of Command Ceremony"
3872:
3656:
2955:
2703:
2035:
Commander of the Salvadoran Arce Immediate Reaction Infantry Battalion that carried out the
1744:
1718:
1705:
1679:
1618:
Bolivian politician and military officer. Mayor of Cochabamba and classmate of Hugo Banzer.
1119:
305:
5716:
5418:
SANTINA, PETER. "Army of Terror: The Legacy of US-Backed Human Rights Abuses in Colombia."
4836:
4648:
4551:
4328:
3814:
Sieder, Rachel. "Honduras: The Politics of Exception and Military Reformism (1972-1978)."
2915:
1087:
649:
424:
309:
298:
245:
3294:
State terrorism and the United States : from countersurgency to the war on terrorism
2289:
1976:
5742:
5490:
The El Mozote Massacre Human Rights and Global Implications Revised and Expanded Edition
6534:
6402:
6373:"U.S. Instructed Latins On Executions, Torture; Manuals Used 1982–91, Pentagon Reveals"
6303:
6174:
6145:
5972:
5665:"An Ex-Cop Allegedly Killed for the Honduran President. Now the US Wants Him in Prison"
5392:
Amorós, Mario. "Testimonios Sobre La Tortura En Chile. «La Llama Aún Está Encendida»."
5217:"US trained Colombian soldiers jailed for working with cartel, says human rights group"
2945:
2831:
2726:
2611:
2262:
1754:
1419:
1385:
1301:
1266:
1223:
1203:
1034:
694:
690:
affirmed that it would continue its current policy of not sending soldiers to WHINSEC.
586:
313:
170:
17:
6544:
6297:
6263:
6204:
5115:"Guatemala: Memory of Silence, Report of the Commission for Historical Clarification"
4240:
4110:
PRIDE IN THE SCHOOL OF THE AMERICAS, (House of Representatives - September 04, 1997).
3962:
3884:
3476:
3089:
2870:
2562:
1942:
1156:
716:
In 2005, a bill to abolish the institute, with 134 cosponsors, was introduced to the
706:
654:
380:
U.S. military personnel. By 1967, the school had graduated 22,265 U.S. soldiers. The
6265:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
5468:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
5444:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
5194:
4861:
4451:
4078:"RL30532 -- U.S. Army School of the Americas: Background and Congressional Concerns"
3964:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3840:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3795:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3756:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3478:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3449:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3158:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3134:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
3091:
The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas
6228:
6181:
6002:
5101:
3233:
Spies, wiretaps, and secret operations : an encyclopedia of American espionage
3194:
Cohn, Marjorie (April 11, 2013). "Teaching Torture at the School of the Americas".
2976:
2103:
1710:
1671:
1459:
1219:
1059:
936:
843:
561:
556:
523:
515:
428:
253:
6503:
6071:"Exclusive: U.S. to charge Venezuela's National Guard chief with drug trafficking"
6043:"Exclusive: U.S. to charge Venezuela's National Guard chief with drug trafficking"
4748:
4181:
Ruth Blakeley (2013). "Chapter 13: Elite interviews". In Laura J. Shepherd (ed.).
3549:"United States Army School of the Americas: Background and Congressional Concerns"
972:
471:
On September 21, 1984, the school was expelled from Panama under the terms of the
6325:
5728:
5377:
Reinventando la nación en Bolivia: movimientos sociales, Estado y poscolonialidad
4127:
3776:
Bonner, Ray (February 24, 1980). "Honduras is Central America's oasis of peace".
3660:
3403:
3217:
1330:
In 2018, two of the highest officers of the Venezuelan Army, Minister of Defense
1222:, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government. A
6368:
6331:
6258:
6210:
5463:
5439:
4263:"No Good Deed Goes Unpunished: The Story of Whistleblower Martin Edwin Andersen"
4063:
3957:
3835:
3790:
3751:
3472:
3153:
3129:
3084:
2935:
2905:
2053:
2026:
1993:
1953:
1931:
1313:
839:
702:
575:
484:
461:
322:
277:
236:
4675:
Official Digital Archive of Fort Benning and the Maneouver Center of Excellence
329:
was a “highly elastic category that could accommodate almost any critic of the
5910:"One year after Cáceres murder, US ties to Honduras endure, killings continue"
5228:
5075:"CGU Student Josh Harris to Spend Two Months in Federal Prison for Protesting"
4511:
4420:
4390:
2542:
Special Forces Operators trained at SOA throughout the late 80s to early 90s.
2371:
Former Honduran Chief of Staff linked to Colombian drug smuggling operations.
1945:
1020:
698:
686:, decided to stop sending soldiers to train at WHINSEC, and the government of
488:
395:
The Jungle Operations Course included in-field exercises. For example, in 1966
330:
196:
104:
6288:
5862:
5507:
4960:
3876:
3711:
3311:
3250:
3050:"U.S. Army School of the Americas (USARSA) Profile of a Training Institution"
142:
129:
27:
United States Department of Defense school at Fort Moore in Columbus, Georgia
6476:
6237:
2825:
2792:
2752:
2532:
2210:
2186:
2153:
2120:
2088:
2076:
1495:
1476:
1451:
1440:
1423:
1406:
1374:
1324:
1152:
1007:
Members of the Board are not compensated by reason of service on the Board.
781:(According to another source, Cecil Himes was commandant from 1958 to 1961.)
519:
449:
326:
6120:
Repression, Human Rights, and US Training of Military Forces from the South
5098:
Who Benefits from Global Violence and War: Uncovering A Destructive System
4504:"Bolivian Military Withdraws from Controversial U.S. Army Training School"
4481:
3179:
US Army School of the Americas (USARSA): Profile of a Training Institution
2894:, a 2007 documentary film produced by Youngheart Entertainment PTY Limited
1788:, a paramilitary group responsible for 147 murders between 1987 and 1990.
39:
5020:
4930:
3739:
3635:
3535:
3515:
3433:
3358:
3333:
2618:
2573:
2501:
2478:
2454:
2431:
2408:
2385:
2362:
2335:
2312:
2136:
1910:
1871:
1848:
1825:
1802:
1775:
1750:
1535:
1251:
1115:
507:
285:
6430:
6242:
6095:
5607:
5427:
5401:
4862:"Columbia: The Ties That Bind: Colombia and Military-Paramilitary Links"
4183:
Critical Approaches to Security: An Introduction to Theories and Methods
3906:
2900:
The Empire Files: The U.S. School That Trains Dictators and Death Squads
1757:. After Pinochet's demise, Krassnoff was convicted by Chilean courts of
6047:
5824:"Renuncia subjefe de la Fuerzas Armadas de Honduras » Criterio.hn"
5353:
5013:"Critique of the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation"
4126:. United States Department of Defense. October 30, 2000. Archived from
1914:
1898:
1643:
1632:
1607:
1582:
1553:
1527:
1516:
710:
687:
527:
411:
369:
The grounds of the school in Panama, photographed post-closure in 2006.
248:. The army soon renamed the division the Latin American Ground School (
5884:"Top Honduran military lawyer: We broke the law - Diario Judío México"
4121:"Public Law 106–398: National Defense Authorization, Fiscal Year 2001"
3823:
6528:
6451:
5535:"Identities of students at Fort Benning can stay secret, court rules"
4990:
2623:
2605:
2578:
2556:
2525:
2098:
from February 1, 1987, to May 20, 1990, during the long years of the
164:
4236:"How Pentagon Officials May Have Encouraged a 2009 coup in Honduras"
2039:. Involved in a kindapping-for-profit ring active in the mid-1980s.
1226:
panel concluded that nineteen of the 27 killers were SOA graduates.
95:
7301 Baltzell Ave, Bradley Hall, Bldg 396, Fort Moore, Georgia 31905
5136:
4795:
William J. Lynn III, Deputy Secretary of Defense (March 18, 2010).
4321:"The Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation History"
3998:"U.S. School of the Americas:Background and Congressional Concerns"
1051:
designates a Deputy Assistant Secretary of State, usually from the
3548:
2283:
2252:
1973:
1738:
1699:
1660:
1072:
Commanding General, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, Gen.
364:
4797:"Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation (WHINSEC)"
4606:
4217:"Chilean accused of murder, torture taught 13 years for Pentagon"
3997:
1568:
to power. Arce served as García Meza's Minister of the Interior.
1534:. He held the Bolivian presidency twice: from 1971 to 1978, as a
589:, whose district includes the school, argued for keeping it open:
6437:
4747:. U.S. House of Representatives. January 3, 2012. Archived from
2731:
2720:
2688:
2676:
2644:
2539:
2168:
and participant in the 1960 military uprising against president
1593:
Minister of the Presidency under Evo Morales from 2006 to 2009.
1458:
from 22 December 1981 to 18 June 1982, during the last military
1037:, or his designee; (Rep. Austin Scott is the current designee.)
4351:"WHINSEC Command & General Staff Officer Course graduates"
3400:"U.S. Army School of the Americas: Frequently Asked Questions"
2131:
Former President of Guatemala who took power as a result of a
1273:
was arrested for providing security and mobilizing troops for
905:
789:
736:
724:, which described the Institute as a "black eye" for America.
431:
over concerns about their correlation to human rights abuses.
6147:
Torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Terror
6128:
4002:
CRS (Congressional Research Service) Issue Brief for Congress
2768:
National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
233:
Centro de Entrenamiento Latino Americano, Division Terrestre)
5995:"Los Zetas fueron entrenados por la Escuela de las Américas"
5936:"washingtonpost.com: Negroponte's Time In Honduras at Issue"
1296:
and other members of his group who were responsible for the
231:
founded the Latin American Training Center-Ground Division (
53:
Libertad, Paz y Fraternidad (Freedom, Peace, and Fraternity)
503:
hours of human rights training before they began to teach.
5888:
Diario Judío: Diario de la Vida Judía en México y el Mundo
1564:
Bolivian colonel who backed the coup that brought General
5522:
The Washington Post (pre-1997 Fulltext); Washington, D.C.
2838:
Minister of Popular Power for Interior, Justice and Peace
2805:
Minister of Popular Power for Interior, Justice and Peace
5851:"Leader's Ouster Not a Coup, Says the Honduran Military"
5374:
Monasterios, Karin, Pablo Stefanoni, and Hervé do Alto.
4474:"Costa Rica to Cease Police Training at the SOA/WHINSEC"
2102:(1960–1996). Responsible for rape and torture of Sister
602:
entered a counterargument into the congressional record:
4927:"Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation"
4724:"Inside look at school on Fort Benning facing protests"
4607:"Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation"
2616:
Panamanian politician and military officer who was the
1972:
as having ordered the assassination of then-Archbishop
806:
753:
661:
William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies
5769:"Dictan medidas a oficiales acusados de encubrimiento"
4909:
Pittsburgh Press (1887-1992); Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
4281:"ARMY SCHOOL DENIES CLAIMS IT TEACHES TORTURE TACTICS"
2294:
Dictator of Haiti, leader of military junta after the
1646:
politician, businessman, and former military officer.
624:, through the FY01 National Defense Act, withdrew the
6576:
History of the foreign relations of the United States
5799:"Dad seeks justice for son killed in broken Honduras"
4802:. United States Department of Defense. Archived from
2581:
from 1968 to 1981. Torrijos was never officially the
1288:
Other former students include Salvadoran Colonel and
1258:
and other criminal activity in their home countries.
631:
The next year, the institute was renamed to WHINSEC.
495:, where it re-opened in December 1984 as part of the
181:
Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation
33:
Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation
5690:
Miller, T. Christian; Farley, Maggie (May 7, 2001).
5248:
5246:
5160:"Guatemalan Army Waged 'Genocide,' New Report Finds"
3231:
Hastedt, Glenn P. (2011). "School of the Americas".
2966:
United States Army Command and General Staff College
1388:
officer, and a leading participant in the Argentine
6327:
School of Assassins: Guns, Greed, and Globalization
2139:and crimes against humanity in a Guatemalan court.
1857:Commander of soldiers who beat unarmed protestors.
158:
121:
99:
91:
81:
73:
65:
57:
49:
6468:
6262:
6173:
3961:
3088:
838:Col. Michael J. Sierra (1984–1985) (transfer from
6561:Anti-communist organizations in the United States
6403:"The Case for Closing the School of the Americas"
4929:. Center for International Policy. Archived from
4215:Taylor, Marisa; Hall, Kevin G. (March 27, 2015).
4196:Taylor, Marisa; Hall, Kevin G. (March 28, 2015).
3651:"Predatory Rule and Illegal Economic Practices",
2998:"WHINSEC Commandant honored by the Peruvian Army"
1081:Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies
967:Authorized by the United States Congress through
5692:"Timing of Envoy's Deportation Raises Questions"
2919:, a 2023 Chilean fictional film by Pablo Larrain
2219:Member of the group of army officers who backed
2135:on March 23, 1982. In 2012, he was indicted for
1019:Chairman, Senate Armed Services Committee, Sen.
564:addressed the issue in the congressional record:
6001:(in Spanish). December 20, 2004. Archived from
4303:"U.S. INSTRUCTED LATINS ON EXECUTIONS, TORTURE"
3577:and U.S. National Interests in the 20th Century
3292:Gareau, Frederick H. (Frederick Henry) (2004).
3024:"Controversial 'School of the Americas' Closes"
1233:
1118:, Associate Dean for Leadership Development at
1033:Chairman, House Armed Services Committee, Rep.
6432:Father Roy: Inside the School of the Assassins
5575:"A Guatemalan Colonel And a C.I.A. Connection"
5255:"Infamous US military school still draws fire"
2996:Rodriguez, Milton Mariani (January 25, 2021).
1342:courses at SOA in 1995 and 1991 respectively.
1304:, which was alleged to be responsible for the
223:Latin American Training Center-Ground Division
4635:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4627:
3265:"US Army School of the Americas (USARSA/SOA)"
1917:from February 15, 1972, to January 11, 1976.
8:
6571:Educational institutions established in 1946
6381:. pp. Section: A p. A01. Archived from
5328:"Bolivarianos de la Escuela de las Américas"
2931:Army Foreign Intelligence Assistance Program
2865:, a 1994 short documentary film produced by
1717:(DINA), the Chilean secret police under the
1674:general and a former deputy director of the
1079:Dr. Dafna H. Rand, Adjunct Professor at the
288:and course costs for military trainees from
32:
5104:, 2008, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 147.
4888:"US Intelligence Oversight Board cites SOA"
4155:Bill Wallace; Jim Houston (July 13, 2002).
3428:. Department Of Defense, 30 November 1961.
2591:and instituted a number of social reforms.
1749:Held several high-ranking positions in the
514:shifted focus from "anti-communism" to the
6533:
5380:. La Paz, Bolivia: CLACSO, 2007. pp. 96-97
4381:"National Venezuela Solidarity Conference"
4157:"Bay Area protesters sentenced in Georgia"
4150:
4148:
3402:. United States Army. 1999. Archived from
3394:
3392:
3328:. National Security Council, 3 Feb. 1955.
2662:during the dictatorship from 1968 to 1975
2062:Implicated in the 1983 Las Hojas massacre
1960:from 1982 to 1983. He was a candidate for
1498:from 29 March to 11 December 1981 under a
1347:
1300:, and Franck Romain, former leader of the
1040:Ranking minority member of the HASC, Rep.
1026:Ranking minority member of the SASC, Sen.
1015:As of August 2018, Board members include:
935:. Please do not remove this message until
829:Col. John O. Ford (June 1968-January 1971)
169:
31:
6471:America's Other War: Terrorizing Colombia
6031:. August 18, 1984 – via elpais.com.
4921:
4919:
4917:
4004:. Federation of American Scientists (FAS)
3136:. Duke University Press. pp. 65-70.
955:Learn how and when to remove this message
312:ordered the school to focus on teaching "
6556:1946 establishments in the United States
5792:
5790:
4835:. The United States Army. Archived from
3996:Grimmett, Richard F.; Sullivan, Mark P.
2658:Peruvian General who served as the 58th
1111:Hon. Dan Trimble, U.S. Immigration Judge
931:Relevant discussion may be found on the
487:, ultimately choosing Fort Benning (now
5446:. Duke University Press. pp. 111.
5388:
5386:
3952:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3934:
3932:
3930:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3696:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
3079:
3077:
2988:
1230:Graduates of the School of the Americas
1065:Commander, U.S. Northern Command, Gen.
1058:Commander, U.S. Southern Command, Adm.
497:U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command
6349:O'Neill, Patrick (February 18, 2005).
5470:. Duke University Press. pp. xv.
5414:
5412:
5410:
4856:
4854:
4771:"Charter of the OAS including members"
4413:"Argentina & Uruguay abandon SOA!"
4049:
4047:
4045:
3858:
3856:
3842:. Duke University Press. pp. 83.
3797:. Duke University Press. pp. 17.
3758:. Duke University Press. pp. 78.
3740:http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/C9rQDX
3687:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3646:
3644:
3636:http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CA4NJ6
3630:. Department Of Defense, 9 Aug. 1966.
3536:http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/C9iHy8
3516:http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/C9iJJ0
3434:http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/C9pba3
3359:http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/C9pba3
3334:http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/C9oXm5
3287:
3285:
3160:. Duke University Press. pp. 65.
1877:Lt. Col. Luis Bernardo Urbina Sánchez
1678:, the Chilean secret police under the
1135:Accusations of human rights violations
1090:, Archbishop for the Military Services
340:made occasional visits to the school.
5158:Navarro, Mireya (February 26, 1999).
3727:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3622:
3620:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3587:
3585:
3503:
3501:
3499:
3452:. Duke University Press. p. 10.
3125:
3123:
2951:Latin America–United States relations
2265:accused of being responsible for the
1968:. He was named by the UN-established
1882:Department of Administrative Security
1834:Linked to paramilitary death squads.
1781:General Hernán José Guzmán Rodríguez
1277:(aka "Don Diego"), the leader of the
392:deployed in the Republic of Vietnam.
7:
6494:Wells, Leah C. (November 18, 2003).
6176:Truth, Torture, and the American Way
4442:Mulvaney, Patrick (March 31, 2006).
3778:S.F. Sunday Examiner & Chronicle
3574:The U.S. Army School of the Americas
3189:
3187:
3043:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3022:Starr, Barbara (December 15, 2000).
2460:Herberth Bayardo Inestroza Membreño
2166:Revolutionary Movement 13th November
1053:Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs
996:along with representatives from the
6203:Hodge, James; Linda Cooper (2004).
3446:Gill, Lesley (September 13, 2004).
1952:(ARENA) and served as President of
1713:officer and the former head of the
1196:assassination of six Jesuit priests
883:Col. Glenn R. Huber Jr. (2010–2014)
776:Col. Edgar W. Schroeder (1961–1963)
512:foreign policy of the United States
193:United States Department of Defense
86:United States Department of Defense
5717:"Running A 'School For Dictators'"
4234:Johnston, Jake (August 29, 2017).
4058:. September 22, 1996. p. 1A.
3736:U.S. Declassified Documents Online
3632:U.S. Declassified Documents Online
3532:U.S. Declassified Documents Online
3512:U.S. Declassified Documents Online
3430:U.S. Declassified Documents Online
3355:U.S. Declassified Documents Online
3330:U.S. Declassified Documents Online
3095:. Duke University Press. pp.
2734:politician who served as the 65th
1784:Offered protection and support to
1189:Protests and public demonstrations
877:Col. Gilberto R. Pérez (2004–2008)
874:Col. Richard D. Downie (2001–2004)
534:Congressional criticism and debate
250:Escuela Latino Americana Terrestre
205:National Defense Authorization Act
25:
5073:Krickl, Tony (February 3, 2007).
4722:Jason Dennis (November 7, 2019).
3816:Journal of Latin American Studies
2904:, a 2015 documentary produced by
2697:Servicio de Inteligencia Nacional
2341:General Luis Alonso Discua Elvir
1715:National Intelligence Directorate
1530:politician, military general and
889:Col. Robert F. Alvaro (2017–2019)
886:Col. Keith W. Anthony (2014–2017)
864:Col. Glenn R. Weidner (1999–2000)
849:Col. Miguel A. García (1985–1988)
510:drew to a close around 1991, the
5621:"Notorious Graduates from Haiti"
5281:"Notorious Graduates from Haiti"
3597:Gale U.S. Declassified Documents
3055:. pp. 83–85. Archived from
2862:School of the Americas Assassins
2818:
2785:
2745:
2713:
2669:
2637:
2598:
2549:
2518:
2494:
2471:
2447:
2424:
2401:
2378:
2355:
2344:First commanding officer of the
2328:
2305:
2276:
2245:
2203:
2179:
2146:
2113:
2069:
2046:
2019:
1986:
1970:Truth Commission for El Salvador
1964:, losing in the second round to
1924:
1891:
1864:
1841:
1818:
1795:
1768:
1731:
1692:
1653:
1625:
1600:
1575:
1546:
1509:
1469:
1433:
1399:
1367:
1099:Florida International University
910:
793:
740:
640:other US military institution".
628:'s authority to operate USARSA.
38:
5944:. June 29, 2011. Archived from
5830:(in Spanish). February 22, 2019
5647:"School of the Americas Closes"
4983:"SOA/WHINSEC Grads in the News"
4677:. July 19, 2017. Archived from
2318:Juan Carlos Bonilla Valladares
1950:Nationalist Republican Alliance
1145:Center for International Policy
994:House Armed Services Committees
977:Organization of American States
880:Col. Félix Santiago (2008–2010)
861:Col. Roy R. Trumble (1995–1999)
855:Col. José Feliciano (1991–1993)
852:Col. William DePalo (1989–1991)
832:Col. Joseph Villa (around 1973)
256:), the Motor Mechanics School (
5488:Binford, Leigh (May 5, 2016).
5317:. Retrieved November 20, 2017.
5253:Jake Hess (December 9, 2014).
4611:Council on Hemispheric Affairs
4583:. July 6, 2007. Archived from
4581:Council on Hemispheric Affairs
4357:. May 28, 2015. Archived from
3692:McSherry, J. Patrice. (2012).
3530:. Department Of Defense, n.d.
3510:. Department Of Defense, n.d.
3493:. Retrieved November 12, 2019.
3235:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 683–684.
2971:United States Southern Command
1880:The former head of Colombia's
1490:officer who briefly served as
892:Col. John D. Suggs jr. (2019-)
722:Council on Hemispheric Affairs
718:House Armed Services Committee
1:
6475:. London & New York, NY:
3742:. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
3638:. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
3538:. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
3518:. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
3436:. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
3361:. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
3336:. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
2687:Former long-standing head of
2032:Col. Roberto Mauricio Staben
1283:FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives
1216:University of Central America
1083:, National Defense University
858:Col. José Álvarez (1993–1995)
773:Col. Cecil Himes (1959–1961).
214:until its expulsion in 1984.
6586:Torture in the United States
6296:McClintock, Michael (1992).
5849:Lacey, Marc (July 1, 2009).
5420:Harvard International Review
5257:. Al Jazeera. Archived from
5221:School of the Americas Watch
5191:School of the Americas Watch
5017:School of the Americas Watch
4987:School of the Americas Watch
4957:School of the Americas Watch
4508:School of the Americas Watch
4478:School of the Americas Watch
4417:School of the Americas Watch
4386:School of the Americas Watch
3734:. Department Of State, n.d.
3661:10.5040/9781474215572.ch-004
3653:States and Illegal Practices
2961:School of the Americas Watch
2567:Commander of the Panamanian
2059:Col. Francisco del Cid Díaz
1180:School of the Americas Watch
5623:. SOA Watch. Archived from
5602:27, no. 80 (2009): 509-49.
5309:2, no. 3 (April 2001): 92.
5283:. SOA Watch. Archived from
3901:15, no. 60 (1984): 215-29.
3865:Latin American Perspectives
3197:Thomas Jefferson Law Review
2192:Col. Julio Roberto Alpirez
1831:General Rito Alejo del Rio
1589:Juan Ramón Quintana Taborga
1319:According to an article in
937:conditions to do so are met
646:National Defense University
421:Central Intelligence Agency
69:$ 11.2 million (As of 2018)
6602:
6551:United States Army schools
6356:National Catholic Reporter
5914:National Catholic Reporter
5890:(in Spanish). July 8, 2009
3818:27, no. 1 (1995): 99-127.
2869:. It was nominated for an
2840:. Former Commander of the
1275:Diego León Montoya Sánchez
1263:Freedom of Information Act
1177:
1149:national security doctrine
272:U.S. Army Caribbean School
6407:BYU Journal of Public Law
5422:21, no. 1 (1998): 40-43.
3968:. Duke University Press.
3655:, Hart Publishing, 1999,
3048:Ormsbee, William (1984).
2842:Venezuelan National Guard
2507:Gustavo Alvarez Martínez
2484:Luis Javier Prince Suazo
1067:Terrence J. O'Shaughnessy
437:Panamanian National Guard
355:Mutual Assistance Program
187:), formerly known as the
61:Colonel Michael Rogowski
37:
6500:Common Dreams NewsCenter
6152:New York Review of Books
5396:, no. 17 (2005): 68-75.
5354:"Our Students | WHINSEC"
3899:Problemas Del Desarrollo
3877:10.1177/0094582x05281113
2848:courses at SOA in 1996.
2846:psychological operations
2811:courses at SOA in 1991.
2809:psychological operations
2778:courses at SOA in 1995.
2776:psychological operations
2296:1991 Haitian coup d'état
2012:in El Salvador in 1981.
1808:Captain Gilberto Ibarra
1614:Hernán Terrazas Céspedes
1418:Senior commander in the
1340:psychological operations
1124:Goizueta Business School
988:includes members of the
983:Independent Review Board
143:32.365028°N 84.9559028°W
6496:"Hidden in Plain Sight"
6117:Blakeley, Ruth (2006).
5478:. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
5454:. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
5311:Academic Search Premier
4556:The Library of Congress
4161:San Francisco Chronicle
3850:. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
3805:. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
3766:. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
3296:. Zed. pp. 23–42.
3168:. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
3144:. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
2628:U.S. invasion of Panama
2414:Juan Rubén Girón Reyes
2267:St. Jean Bosco massacre
2004:Salvadoran Colonel and
1786:Muerte a Secuestradores
1759:crimes against humanity
1306:St. Jean Bosco massacre
1256:crimes against humanity
680:government of Argentina
555:In September 1996, the
458:Central American crisis
6444:Smihula, John (2003).
6371:(September 21, 1996).
6322:Nelson-Pallmeyer, Jack
4082:www.everycrsreport.com
3572:Fox, Carlton T, Jr.,
3269:www.globalsecurity.org
2875:Best Documentary Short
2799:Gustavo González López
2759:Vladimir Padrino López
2160:Marco Antonio Yon Sosa
1456:President of Argentina
1381:Emilio Eduardo Massera
1336:Gustavo González López
1332:Vladimir Padrino López
1279:Norte del Valle Cartel
1248:
786:School of the Americas
682:, headed by President
609:
596:
571:
462:Nicaraguan Sandinistas
407:General Westmoreland's
402:
384:reported to President
370:
361:School of the Americas
203:, renamed in the 2001
189:School of the Americas
148:32.365028; -84.9559028
18:School of the Americas
6467:Stokes, Doug (2004).
6450:(DVD). Archived from
6447:Hidden in Plain Sight
6271:Duke University Press
6144:Danner, Mark (2004).
6125:University of Bristol
6097:Hidden in Plain Sight
5600:Estudios Sociológicos
5356:(in European Spanish)
5261:on September 13, 2017
5187:"Notorious Graduates"
4839:on September 15, 2012
4809:on September 15, 2012
4751:on September 13, 2012
4540:on September 7, 2012.
4309:. September 21, 1996.
4133:on September 16, 2012
3483:Duke University Press
3351:Department Of Defense
3177:Ormsbee, William H.,
2882:Hidden in Plain Sight
2651:Juan Velasco Alvarado
2391:Jesus A Marmol Yanes
2261:Former leader of the
1722:military dictatorship
1683:military dictatorship
1500:military dictatorship
1483:Roberto Eduardo Viola
1214:on the campus of the
1106:Carmen Maria Martinez
626:Secretary of the Army
604:
591:
566:
454:communist revolutions
442:Reagan Administration
397:
382:Department of Defense
368:
350:Alliance for Progress
6454:on February 22, 2016
6170:Harbury, Jennifer K.
6005:on February 25, 2021
5559:"The New Strategy".
4993:on February 24, 2008
4361:on November 17, 2015
4331:on November 17, 2015
4291:on October 14, 2018.
3353:, 30 November 1961.
2891:The War on Democracy
2855:Media representation
2683:Vladimiro Montesinos
2100:Guatemalan Civil War
1966:José Napoleón Duarte
1958:Constituent Assembly
1532:President of Bolivia
1244:Joseph P. Kennedy II
1002:Secretary of Defense
897:Current organization
807:adding missing items
754:adding missing items
600:Joseph P. Kennedy II
541:Joseph P. Kennedy II
390:1st Cavalry Division
336:Nicaraguan Dictator
6378:The Washington Post
6051:. December 16, 2016
5941:The Washington Post
5334:on October 27, 2015
5307:Human Rights Review
5231:on October 16, 2007
4454:on January 31, 2019
4444:"¡No Más! No More!"
4030:on December 6, 2019
3485:, 2004, pp. 76-77.
3062:on November 6, 2019
2764:Minister of Defense
2738:from 2011 to 2016.
2583:president of Panama
2437:Reynel Funes Ponce
2008:leader who led the
1938:Roberto D'Aubuisson
1905:Guillermo Rodríguez
1639:Manfred Reyes Villa
1426:from 1976 to 1981.
1413:Jorge Rafael Videla
1350:
1334:and SEBIN director
1321:Human Rights Review
1208:Ignacio Martín-Baró
1074:Stephen J. Townsend
924:of this section is
587:Rep. Sanford Bishop
473:Panama Canal Treaty
139: /
34:
6077:. October 22, 2020
5855:The New York Times
5723:. August 8, 1993.
5579:The New York Times
5520:Morley, Jefferson.
5165:The New York Times
4866:Human Rights Watch
4307:washingtonpost.com
2368:Humberto Regalado
2216:Otto Pérez Molina
2037:El Mozote Massacre
2010:El Mozote massacre
2006:Atlácatl Battalion
2000:Domingo Monterrosa
1523:Hugo Banzer Suárez
1488:Argentine military
1349:Notable Graduates
1348:
1298:El Mozote massacre
1294:Domingo Monterrosa
1290:Atlácatl Battalion
1212:Atlácatl Battalion
1168:Human Rights Watch
1049:Secretary of State
1044:, or his designee.
805:; you can help by
752:; you can help by
673:Western Hemisphere
371:
229:United States Army
195:school located at
6566:Counterinsurgency
6506:on April 20, 2006
6486:978-1-842-77546-2
6330:. Maryknoll, NY:
6313:978-0-394-55945-2
6245:on April 18, 2012
6231:(July 22, 2004).
6220:978-1-57075-434-0
6209:. Maryknoll, NY:
6191:978-0-8070-0307-7
6161:978-1-59017-152-3
6131:on March 13, 2016
5999:La Crónica de Hoy
5975:on April 18, 2017
5696:Los Angeles Times
5563:. April 23, 1965.
5539:www.ncronline.org
5524:15 Nov 1992: c01.
5476:978-0-8223-3392-0
5452:978-0-8223-3392-0
5197:on April 19, 2007
5137:"Comision Verdad"
5080:Claremont Courier
5023:on April 19, 2007
4953:"About SOA Watch"
4890:. SOA Watch. 1996
4681:on March 12, 2018
4651:on March 12, 2018
4056:The Baltimore Sun
3975:978-0-8223-3392-0
3848:978-0-8223-3392-0
3803:978-0-8223-3392-0
3764:978-0-8223-3392-0
3459:978-0-8223-8600-1
3406:on April 28, 1999
3376:history.state.gov
3166:978-0-8223-3392-0
3142:978-0-8223-3392-0
3106:978-0-8223-3392-0
2941:Dorothy Hennessey
2908:and broadcast on
2852:
2851:
2736:President of Peru
2660:President of Peru
2236:Efraín Ríos Montt
2127:Efraín Ríos Montt
1962:President in 1984
1447:Leopoldo Galtieri
1200:Ignacio Ellacuría
1143:According to the
1076:, or his designee
1030:, or his designee
1023:, or his designee
1011:Board of Visitors
965:
964:
957:
823:
822:
770:
769:
386:Lyndon B. Johnson
318:counterinsurgency
241:Panama Canal Zone
212:Panama Canal Zone
201:Columbus, Georgia
177:
176:
16:(Redirected from
6593:
6581:Operation Condor
6537:
6532:
6531:
6529:Official website
6515:
6513:
6511:
6502:. Archived from
6490:
6474:
6463:
6461:
6459:
6436:
6422:
6420:
6418:
6394:
6392:
6390:
6385:on March 4, 2016
6364:
6363:on May 30, 2008.
6359:. Archived from
6345:
6317:
6302:. New York, NY:
6292:
6268:
6254:
6252:
6250:
6241:. Archived from
6224:
6195:
6179:
6165:
6140:
6138:
6136:
6127:. Archived from
6104:
6093:
6087:
6086:
6084:
6082:
6067:
6061:
6060:
6058:
6056:
6039:
6033:
6032:
6021:
6015:
6014:
6012:
6010:
5991:
5985:
5984:
5982:
5980:
5971:. Archived from
5967:Udu-gama, Nico.
5964:
5958:
5957:
5955:
5953:
5948:on June 29, 2011
5932:
5926:
5925:
5923:
5921:
5916:. March 30, 2017
5906:
5900:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5880:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5846:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5835:
5820:
5814:
5813:
5811:
5809:
5794:
5785:
5784:
5782:
5780:
5773:www.elheraldo.hn
5765:
5759:
5758:
5756:
5754:
5739:
5733:
5732:
5713:
5707:
5706:
5704:
5702:
5687:
5681:
5680:
5678:
5676:
5661:
5655:
5654:
5643:
5637:
5636:
5634:
5632:
5627:on March 9, 2012
5617:
5611:
5596:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5585:
5571:
5565:
5564:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5547:
5545:
5531:
5525:
5518:
5512:
5511:
5485:
5479:
5461:
5455:
5437:
5431:
5416:
5405:
5390:
5381:
5372:
5366:
5365:
5363:
5361:
5350:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5330:. Archived from
5324:
5318:
5303:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5287:on March 9, 2012
5277:
5271:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5250:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5236:
5227:. Archived from
5225:Associated Press
5213:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5202:
5193:. Archived from
5183:
5177:
5176:
5174:
5172:
5155:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5144:
5133:
5127:
5126:
5124:
5122:
5111:
5105:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5087:on June 1, 2008.
5083:. Archived from
5070:
5064:
5050:
5044:
5039:
5033:
5032:
5030:
5028:
5019:. Archived from
5009:
5003:
5002:
5000:
4998:
4989:. Archived from
4979:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4959:. Archived from
4949:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4923:
4912:
4911:04 Apr 1982: 48.
4906:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4895:
4884:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4858:
4849:
4848:
4846:
4844:
4825:
4819:
4818:
4816:
4814:
4808:
4801:
4792:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4767:
4761:
4760:
4758:
4756:
4741:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4719:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4708:
4703:. April 12, 2018
4697:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4667:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4656:
4647:. Archived from
4637:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4603:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4587:on July 24, 2008
4573:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4562:
4548:
4542:
4541:
4536:. Archived from
4530:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4519:
4514:on March 7, 2008
4510:. Archived from
4500:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4489:
4480:. Archived from
4470:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4450:. Archived from
4439:
4433:
4432:
4430:
4428:
4419:. Archived from
4409:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4389:. Archived from
4377:
4371:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4347:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4336:
4327:. Archived from
4317:
4311:
4310:
4299:
4293:
4292:
4287:. Archived from
4277:
4271:
4270:
4269:. July 13, 2018.
4259:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4248:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4212:
4206:
4205:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4167:
4152:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4132:
4125:
4117:
4111:
4108:
4102:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4051:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4035:
4026:. Archived from
4020:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4009:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3982:
3967:
3954:
3939:
3936:
3919:
3916:
3910:
3895:
3889:
3888:
3860:
3851:
3833:
3827:
3812:
3806:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3773:
3767:
3749:
3743:
3729:
3716:
3715:
3694:Predatory States
3689:
3674:
3673:
3648:
3639:
3624:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3599:. September 1965
3589:
3580:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3545:
3539:
3525:
3519:
3505:
3494:
3470:
3464:
3463:
3443:
3437:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3411:
3396:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3382:
3368:
3362:
3343:
3337:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3289:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3191:
3182:
3175:
3169:
3151:
3145:
3127:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3113:
3094:
3081:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3061:
3054:
3045:
3032:
3031:
3019:
3013:
3012:
3010:
3008:
2993:
2956:Operation Condor
2902:
2901:
2884:
2883:
2828:
2824:
2822:
2821:
2795:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2755:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2723:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2704:Alberto Fujimori
2679:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2647:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2608:
2604:
2602:
2601:
2559:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2528:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2504:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2481:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2457:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2434:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2411:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2388:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2365:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2338:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2315:
2311:
2309:
2308:
2286:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2255:
2251:
2249:
2248:
2221:Defence Minister
2213:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2189:
2185:
2183:
2182:
2156:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2123:
2119:
2117:
2116:
2096:Defense Minister
2079:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2056:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2029:
2025:
2023:
2022:
1996:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1934:
1930:
1928:
1927:
1901:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1874:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1851:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1828:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1805:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1778:
1774:
1772:
1771:
1745:Miguel Krassnoff
1741:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1719:Augusto Pinochet
1706:Manuel Contreras
1702:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1680:Augusto Pinochet
1663:
1659:
1657:
1656:
1635:
1631:
1629:
1628:
1610:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1585:
1581:
1579:
1578:
1566:Luis García Meza
1556:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1519:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1479:
1475:
1473:
1472:
1443:
1439:
1437:
1436:
1422:and dictator of
1409:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1377:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1351:
1246:
1120:Emory University
998:State Department
960:
953:
949:
946:
940:
914:
913:
906:
818:
815:
797:
796:
790:
765:
762:
744:
743:
737:
456:intensified the
338:Anastasio Somoza
173:
168:
167:
165:Official website
154:
153:
151:
150:
149:
144:
140:
137:
136:
135:
132:
42:
35:
21:
6601:
6600:
6596:
6595:
6594:
6592:
6591:
6590:
6541:
6540:
6527:
6526:
6523:
6518:
6509:
6507:
6493:
6487:
6466:
6457:
6455:
6443:
6427:Richter, Robert
6425:
6416:
6414:
6401:(May 1, 2005).
6397:
6388:
6386:
6367:
6348:
6342:
6320:
6314:
6295:
6281:
6257:
6248:
6246:
6227:
6221:
6202:
6192:
6168:
6162:
6143:
6134:
6132:
6116:
6112:
6110:Further reading
6107:
6094:
6090:
6080:
6078:
6069:
6068:
6064:
6054:
6052:
6041:
6040:
6036:
6023:
6022:
6018:
6008:
6006:
5993:
5992:
5988:
5978:
5976:
5966:
5965:
5961:
5951:
5949:
5934:
5933:
5929:
5919:
5917:
5908:
5907:
5903:
5893:
5891:
5882:
5881:
5877:
5867:
5865:
5848:
5847:
5843:
5833:
5831:
5822:
5821:
5817:
5807:
5805:
5797:Arce, Alberto.
5796:
5795:
5788:
5778:
5776:
5767:
5766:
5762:
5752:
5750:
5749:. March 9, 2015
5747:www.justice.gov
5741:
5740:
5736:
5715:
5714:
5710:
5700:
5698:
5689:
5688:
5684:
5674:
5672:
5663:
5662:
5658:
5651:Washington Post
5645:
5644:
5640:
5630:
5628:
5619:
5618:
5614:
5597:
5593:
5583:
5581:
5573:
5572:
5568:
5558:
5557:
5553:
5543:
5541:
5533:
5532:
5528:
5519:
5515:
5500:
5487:
5486:
5482:
5462:
5458:
5438:
5434:
5417:
5408:
5391:
5384:
5373:
5369:
5359:
5357:
5352:
5351:
5347:
5337:
5335:
5326:
5325:
5321:
5304:
5300:
5290:
5288:
5279:
5278:
5274:
5264:
5262:
5252:
5251:
5244:
5234:
5232:
5215:
5214:
5210:
5200:
5198:
5185:
5184:
5180:
5170:
5168:
5157:
5156:
5152:
5142:
5140:
5135:
5134:
5130:
5120:
5118:
5113:
5112:
5108:
5096:
5092:
5072:
5071:
5067:
5051:
5047:
5040:
5036:
5026:
5024:
5011:
5010:
5006:
4996:
4994:
4981:
4980:
4976:
4966:
4964:
4951:
4950:
4946:
4936:
4934:
4925:
4924:
4915:
4907:
4903:
4893:
4891:
4886:
4885:
4881:
4871:
4869:
4868:. February 2000
4860:
4859:
4852:
4842:
4840:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4812:
4810:
4806:
4799:
4794:
4793:
4789:
4779:
4777:
4769:
4768:
4764:
4754:
4752:
4743:
4742:
4738:
4728:
4726:
4721:
4720:
4716:
4706:
4704:
4699:
4698:
4694:
4684:
4682:
4669:
4668:
4664:
4654:
4652:
4639:
4638:
4625:
4615:
4613:
4605:
4604:
4600:
4590:
4588:
4575:
4574:
4570:
4560:
4558:
4550:
4549:
4545:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4517:
4515:
4502:
4501:
4497:
4487:
4485:
4484:on June 9, 2007
4472:
4471:
4467:
4457:
4455:
4441:
4440:
4436:
4426:
4424:
4411:
4410:
4406:
4396:
4394:
4379:
4378:
4374:
4364:
4362:
4349:
4348:
4344:
4334:
4332:
4319:
4318:
4314:
4301:
4300:
4296:
4279:
4278:
4274:
4267:progressive.org
4261:
4260:
4256:
4246:
4244:
4233:
4232:
4228:
4214:
4213:
4209:
4195:
4194:
4190:
4180:
4179:
4175:
4165:
4163:
4154:
4153:
4146:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4123:
4119:
4118:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4086:
4084:
4076:
4075:
4071:
4053:
4052:
4043:
4033:
4031:
4022:
4021:
4017:
4007:
4005:
3995:
3994:
3990:
3980:
3978:
3976:
3956:
3955:
3942:
3937:
3922:
3917:
3913:
3896:
3892:
3862:
3861:
3854:
3834:
3830:
3813:
3809:
3789:
3785:
3775:
3774:
3770:
3750:
3746:
3730:
3719:
3704:
3691:
3690:
3677:
3671:
3650:
3649:
3642:
3625:
3612:
3602:
3600:
3591:
3590:
3583:
3571:
3567:
3557:
3555:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3526:
3522:
3506:
3497:
3471:
3467:
3460:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3423:
3419:
3409:
3407:
3398:
3397:
3390:
3380:
3378:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3344:
3340:
3323:
3319:
3304:
3291:
3290:
3283:
3273:
3271:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3243:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3193:
3192:
3185:
3176:
3172:
3152:
3148:
3128:
3121:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3083:
3082:
3075:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3052:
3047:
3046:
3035:
3021:
3020:
3016:
3006:
3004:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2981:
2926:
2899:
2898:
2881:
2880:
2857:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2786:
2784:
2783:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2670:
2668:
2667:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2495:
2493:
2492:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2448:
2446:
2445:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2402:
2400:
2399:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2356:
2354:
2353:
2329:
2327:
2326:
2306:
2304:
2303:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2170:Miguel Ydígoras
2147:
2145:
2144:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2087:General in the
2070:
2068:
2067:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2020:
2018:
2017:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1854:Nestor Ramirez
1842:
1840:
1839:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1693:
1691:
1690:
1654:
1652:
1651:
1626:
1624:
1623:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1560:Luis Arce Gómez
1547:
1545:
1544:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1415:
1400:
1398:
1397:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1281:and one of the
1261:In response to
1247:
1239:
1232:
1191:
1182:
1176:
1137:
1132:
1088:Timothy Broglio
1069:or his designee
1062:or his designee
1013:
985:
961:
950:
944:
941:
930:
915:
911:
904:
899:
871:
819:
813:
810:
794:
788:
766:
760:
757:
741:
735:
730:
709:announced that
697:, president of
684:Néstor Kirchner
669:
617:
536:
465:United States.
425:Phoenix Program
363:
346:
310:John F. Kennedy
304:After the 1959
299:Lyman Lemnitzer
274:
246:nation-building
225:
220:
163:
162:
147:
145:
141:
138:
133:
130:
128:
126:
125:
117:
113:
107:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6599:
6597:
6589:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6553:
6543:
6542:
6539:
6538:
6522:
6521:External links
6519:
6517:
6516:
6491:
6485:
6464:
6441:
6423:
6395:
6365:
6346:
6341:978-1570753855
6340:
6318:
6312:
6304:Pantheon Books
6293:
6280:978-0822333821
6279:
6255:
6225:
6219:
6200:
6190:
6166:
6160:
6141:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6105:
6088:
6075:Open Democracy
6062:
6034:
6016:
5986:
5959:
5927:
5901:
5875:
5841:
5815:
5786:
5760:
5734:
5708:
5682:
5671:. May 13, 2021
5656:
5638:
5612:
5591:
5566:
5551:
5526:
5513:
5498:
5480:
5456:
5432:
5406:
5382:
5367:
5345:
5319:
5298:
5272:
5242:
5208:
5178:
5150:
5128:
5117:. Shr.aaas.org
5106:
5090:
5065:
5045:
5034:
5004:
4974:
4963:on May 4, 2006
4944:
4933:on May 4, 2006
4913:
4901:
4879:
4850:
4820:
4787:
4762:
4736:
4714:
4692:
4662:
4623:
4598:
4568:
4543:
4525:
4495:
4465:
4434:
4423:on May 4, 2006
4404:
4393:on May 4, 2006
4372:
4342:
4312:
4294:
4285:dailypress.com
4272:
4254:
4226:
4207:
4188:
4173:
4144:
4112:
4103:
4094:
4069:
4041:
4015:
3988:
3974:
3940:
3920:
3911:
3890:
3852:
3828:
3807:
3783:
3768:
3744:
3717:
3703:978-1283599610
3702:
3675:
3669:
3640:
3610:
3581:
3565:
3540:
3520:
3495:
3491:978-0822333920
3465:
3458:
3438:
3417:
3388:
3363:
3338:
3317:
3302:
3281:
3256:
3241:
3223:
3183:
3170:
3146:
3119:
3105:
3073:
3033:
3014:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2946:Gwen Hennessey
2943:
2938:
2933:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2912:
2895:
2887:
2877:
2867:Robert Richter
2856:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2834:
2832:Nestor Reverol
2829:
2813:
2812:
2801:
2796:
2780:
2779:
2772:Nicolás Maduro
2761:
2756:
2740:
2739:
2729:
2727:Ollanta Humala
2724:
2708:
2707:
2685:
2680:
2664:
2663:
2653:
2648:
2632:
2631:
2614:
2612:Manuel Noriega
2609:
2593:
2592:
2569:National Guard
2565:
2560:
2544:
2543:
2536:
2529:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2505:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2458:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2419:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2396:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2350:
2349:
2342:
2339:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2300:
2299:
2292:
2287:
2271:
2270:
2263:Tonton Macoute
2259:
2258:Franck Romain
2256:
2240:
2239:
2217:
2214:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2174:
2173:
2164:Leader of the
2162:
2157:
2141:
2140:
2129:
2124:
2108:
2107:
2094:who served as
2085:
2083:Hector Gramajo
2080:
2064:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2041:
2040:
2033:
2030:
2014:
2013:
2002:
1997:
1981:
1980:
1940:
1935:
1919:
1918:
1907:
1902:
1886:
1885:
1878:
1875:
1859:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1790:
1789:
1782:
1779:
1763:
1762:
1755:Villa Grimaldi
1747:
1742:
1726:
1725:
1708:
1703:
1687:
1686:
1669:
1667:Raúl Iturriaga
1664:
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1620:
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1611:
1595:
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1520:
1504:
1503:
1485:
1480:
1464:
1463:
1449:
1444:
1428:
1427:
1420:Argentine Army
1416:
1410:
1394:
1393:
1386:Argentine Navy
1383:
1378:
1362:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1310:Battalion 3-16
1302:Tonton Macoute
1271:Special Forces
1267:Colombian Army
1237:
1231:
1228:
1224:United Nations
1204:Segundo Montes
1190:
1187:
1178:Main article:
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1128:
1127:
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1035:Mac Thornberry
1031:
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1009:
984:
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969:10 U.S.C.
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733:USCARIB School
731:
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650:Washington, DC
616:
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535:
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359:
345:
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314:anti-communist
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6399:Quigley, Bill
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6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6343:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6328:
6324:(1997–2001).
6323:
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5561:Time Magazine
5555:
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5499:9780816533664
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5355:
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5338:September 27,
5333:
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5299:
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4241:The Intercept
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3666:
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3405:
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3381:September 17,
3377:
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3257:
3252:
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3242:9781851098071
3238:
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2871:Academy Award
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2699:(SIN), under
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2563:Omar Torrijos
2561:
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2397:
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2390:
2387:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2352:
2351:
2348:death squad.
2347:
2346:Battalion 316
2343:
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2325:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2314:
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2034:
2031:
2028:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1943:Extreme-right
1941:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1888:
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1343:
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1337:
1333:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1315:
1312:, a military
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
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1201:
1197:
1188:
1186:
1181:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1157:Southern Cone
1155:years in the
1154:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1082:
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1068:
1064:
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1057:
1054:
1050:
1046:
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1036:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
982:
980:
978:
974:
970:
959:
956:
948:
945:November 2012
938:
934:
928:
927:
923:
917:
908:
907:
901:
896:
891:
888:
885:
882:
879:
876:
873:
872:
868:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
848:
845:
841:
837:
835:? (1973–1984)
834:
831:
828:
826:? (1964–1972)
825:
824:
817:
808:
804:
801:This list is
799:
792:
791:
785:
783:
782:
775:
772:
771:
764:
755:
751:
748:This list is
746:
739:
738:
732:
727:
725:
723:
719:
714:
712:
708:
707:Rafael Correa
704:
700:
696:
691:
689:
685:
681:
676:
674:
667:Participation
666:
664:
662:
657:
656:
655:The Intercept
651:
647:
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637:
634:
629:
627:
623:
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4448:The Nation
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