Desert locust - Knowledge (XXG)

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continued to fall and breeding occurred again during the summer and autumn in Ethiopia and Somalia that led to another invasion of Kenya in December 2020, which was eventually brought under control by spring 2021. Again, unexpected rains fell in late April and early May, this time further north that allowed substantial breeding to occur in eastern Ethiopia and northern Somalia in May and June 2021. New swarms formed in June and July that moved to northeast Ethiopia for a generation of breeding that could not be addressed due to conflict and insecurity, which prolonged the upsurge in the Horn of Africa. The upsurge was finally brought under control by early 2022 as a result of successful and intensive control operations in northern Somalia and poor rainfall. As of 1 April 2022 there are no locust crises anywhere in the world but swarms are expected in October in the

241:. They are found primarily in the deserts and dry areas of northern and eastern Africa, Arabia, and southwest Asia. During population surge years, they may extend north into parts of Southern Europe, south into Eastern Africa, and east in northern India. The desert locust shows periodic changes in its body form and can change in response to environmental conditions, over several generations, from a solitary, shorter-winged, highly fecund, non-migratory form to a gregarious, long-winged, and migratory phase in which they may travel long distances into new areas. In some years, they may thus form locust plagues, invading new areas, where they may consume all vegetation including crops, and at other times, they may live unnoticed in small numbers. 816:

applied in the same way as chemical insecticides, but do not kill as quickly. At recommended doses, the fungus can take up to two weeks to kill up to 90% of the locusts. For that reason, it is recommended for use mainly against hoppers, the wingless early stages of locusts. These are mostly found in the desert, far from cropping areas, where the delay in death does not result in damage. The advantage of the product is that it affects only grasshoppers and locusts, which makes it much safer than chemical insecticides. Specifically, it allows the natural enemies of locusts and grasshoppers to continue their beneficial work. These include birds,

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generations of breeding to take place. While control operations were mounted against the northern movement and subsequent breeding, very little could be done in Yemen due to the ongoing conflict. As a result, new swarms formed that crossed the southern Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden and invaded the Horn of Africa, specifically northeast Ethiopia and northern Somalia in June 2019. Again, good rains allowed further breeding during the summer, followed by another generation of widespread breeding during the autumn in eastern Ethiopia and central Somalia, which was exacerbated by the unusually late occurring

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the Horn of Africa and Yemen in 2020 and 2021. Up to 20 aircraft were deployed simultaneously, supported by hundreds of ground teams, and more than 1.4 million locations were surveyed. These collective efforts averted 4.5 million metric tons (4,400,000 long tons; 5,000,000 short tons) of crop losses, saved 900 million litres (240,000,000 US gallons) of milk production, and secured food for nearly 47 million people. The commercial value of the cereal and milk loss averted is estimated at $ 1.77 billion.

693:). DLIS uses a custom GIS to analyze the field data, satellite imagery, weather predictions and model results to assess the current situation and forecast the timing, scale, and location of breeding and migration up to six weeks in advance. The situation assessments and forecasts are published in monthly locust bulletins that date back to the 1970s. These are supplemented by warnings and alerts to affected countries and the international community. This information is available on the 851:) as biological control agents for grasshoppers and locusts. These insects were considered to be too mobile and to reproduce too fast to be readily controlled by classical biological control. Pathogens have the advantage that many can be produced in artificial culture in large quantities and be used with ordinary spraying equipment. Entomopathogenic fungi were traditionally seen as needing humid conditions to work well. However, the LUBILOSA programme found a way to avoid this by 379: 60: 312:

fastigium deflexed and lack lateral carinae on the pronotum. The hind tibiae have smooth margins with numerous spines, but have no apical spine on the outer margin. The second tarsal segment is half as long as the first. Males in the genus have broad anal cerci and a split subgenital plate. The genus is thought to have originated in Africa and then speciated in the New World after a dispersal event that took place 6 to 7 million years ago.

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stop the cycle. During the upsurge, nearly 130,000 square kilometres (50,000 square miles) were treated by ground and aerial operations in 23 countries. The costs of fighting this upsurge have been estimated by the FAO to have exceeded US$ 400 million, and harvest losses were valued at up to US$ 2.5 billion, which had disastrous effects on food security in West Africa. The countries affected by the 2004-2005 upsurge were

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also coloured so as to blend into their surroundings, the immature adults being grey or beige and the mature adults being a pale yellowish colour. In the gregarious phase, the hoppers bunch together and in the later instars develop a bold colouring with black markings on a yellow background. The immatures are pink and the mature adults are bright yellow and fly during the day in dense swarms.

266:(FAO) Desert Locust Information Service (DLIS), which provides global and national assessments, forecasts, and early warning to affected countries and the international community. The desert locust's migratory nature and capacity for rapid population growth present major challenges for control, particularly in remote semiarid areas, which characterize much of their range. 375: in) long and the lower end is about 10 cm (4 in) below the surface of the ground. The eggs are surrounded by foam and this hardens into a membrane and plugs the hole above the egg pod. The eggs absorb moisture from the surrounding soil. The incubation period before the eggs hatch may be two weeks, or much longer, depending on the temperature. 42: 604: 270:

outbreaks and regional upsurges with increasingly high densities, to plagues consisting of numerous swarms. They have two to five generations per year. The desert locust risk increases with a one-to-two-year continuum of favourable weather (greater frequency of rains) and habitats that support population increases leading to upsurges and plagues.

248:. A typical swarm can be made up of 150 million locusts per square kilometre (390,000,000 per square mile) and fly in the direction of the prevailing wind, up to 150 kilometres (93 mi) in one day. Even a very small, 1-square-kilometre (0.39 sq mi) locust swarm can eat the same amount of food in a day as about 35,000 people. 419: 1138:

In southwest Asia, the upsurge was brought under control much earlier because of a massive effort undertaken by India and Pakistan along both sides of their common border during the summer of 2020 that followed from earlier control operations during the spring of 2019 and 2020 by Iran and during the

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The situation improved in Kenya and elsewhere by the summer of 2020 due to large-scale aerial control operations, made available by generous assistance from international partners. Nevertheless, food security and livelihoods were impacted throughout the region. Despite the control efforts, good rains

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that brought heavy rains again to the same area in October. This allowed conditions to be favourable for three generations of breeding, which caused an estimated 8,000-fold increase in Desert Locust numbers that went unchecked because the area was so remote it could not be accessed by national locust

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in October allowed breeding conditions to remain favourable for the next 6 months and the desert locusts rapidly increased. Lack of rain and cold temperatures in the winter breeding area of northwest Africa in early 2005 slowed the development of the locusts and allowed the locust control agencies to

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Locust swarms fly with the wind at roughly the speed of the wind. They can cover from 100 to 200 km (62 to 124 mi) in a day, and fly up to about 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above sea level (the temperature becomes too cold at higher altitudes). Therefore, swarms cannot cross tall mountain

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is pumped into the wings, which stiffens them. Maturation can occur in 2–4 weeks when the food supply and weather conditions are suitable but may take as long as 6 months when they are less ideal. Males start maturing first and give off an odour that stimulates maturation in the females. On maturing,

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Locusts differ from other grasshoppers in their ability to change from a solitary living form into gregarious, highly mobile, adult swarms and hopper bands, as their numbers and densities increase. They exist in different states known as recessions (with low and intermediate numbers), rising to local

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Fortunately, the international community responded quickly and generously despite other urgent situations such as COVID-19, and the $ 230 million appeal by FAO was fully funded. This allowed ground and aerial operations to treat 2.3 million hectares (5.7 million acres) of desert locust in

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In response to the upsurge, the Director-General of FAO declared a Level 3 corporate-wide emergency, the highest level in the UN system, on 17 January 2020 and appealed for immediate international assistance to rapidly upscale monitoring and control activities in the Horn of Africa. One month later,

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In early 2019, waves of swarms migrated from this remote and inaccessible area north to the interior of Saudi Arabia and southern Iran, and southwest to the interior of Yemen. Both areas received good rains, including heavy flooding in southwest Iran (the worst in 50 years), that allowed another two

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From October 2003 to May 2005, West Africa faced the largest and most numerous desert locust infestations in 15 years. The upsurge started as small, independent outbreaks that developed in Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and Sudan in the autumn of 2003. Two days of unusually heavy rains that stretched from

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Pekel, J., Ceccato, P., Vancutsem, C., Cressman, K., Vanbogaert, E. and Defourny, P. 2010. Development and application of multi-temporal colorimetric transformation to monitor vegetation in the Desert Locust habitat. IEEE J. of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 4 (2):

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Antonio Buj, « International Experimentations and Control of the Locust Plague – Africa in the First Half of the 20th Century », in Yvon Chatelin, Christophe Bonneuil (eds.), Les sciences hors d’Occident au XXe siècle, Vol. 3 : Nature et environment, Paris, Orstom Editions, 1995, pp.

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The two types of biopesticides are biochemical and microbial. Biochemical pesticides are similar to naturally occurring chemicals and are nontoxic, such as insect pheromones used to locate mates, while microbial biopesticides, come from bacteria, fungi, algae, or viruses that either occur naturally

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formation. The nymphal pheromone is different from the adult one. When exposed to the adult pheromone, hoppers become confused and disoriented, because they can apparently no longer "smell" each other, though the visual and tactile stimuli remain. After a few days, the hopper bands disintegrate and

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and behaviour are seen between the two phases. In the solitary phase, the hoppers do not group together into bands but move about independently. Their colouring in the later instars tends to be greenish or brownish to match the colour of their surrounding vegetation. The adults fly at night and are

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known as a hopper, and the winged adult. Copulation takes place when a mature male hops onto the back of a mature female and grips her body with his legs. Sperm is transferred from the tip of his abdomen to the tip of hers, where it is stored. The process takes several hours and one insemination is

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The product is available in Australia under the name Green Guard and in Africa, it used to be available as Green Muscle. However, since Green Muscle seems to have disappeared from the market, another product, NOVACRID, was developed for Africa, Central Asia, and the Middle East. These products are

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Farmers often try mechanical means of killing locusts, such as digging trenches and burying hopper bands, but this is very labour-intensive and is difficult to undertake when large infestations are scattered over a wide area. Farmers also try to scare locust swarms away from their fields by making

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in northeast Somalia in early December. The swarms that subsequently formed invaded Kenya in late December 2019 and spread throughout the country where they bred in between the rainy seasons because of unusual rainfall. Kenya had only witnessed swarm invasions twice in the past 75 years (1955 and

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Early warning and preventive control is the strategy adopted by locust-affected countries in Africa and Asia to try to stop locust plagues from developing and spreading. In the 1920s-1930s, locust control became a major field for international cooperation. The International Agricultural Institute

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in 10 days during the 1987–89 plague. A single swarm can cover up to 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi) and can contain between 40 and 80 million locusts per square kilometre (100,000,000 and 210,000,000 per square mile) (a total of around 50 to 100 billion locusts per swarm,

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imagery to actively monitor rainfall, vegetation and soil moisture conditions in the locust breeding area from West Africa to India. This is supplemented by sub-seasonal and seasonal temperature and rainfall predictions up to six months in advance as well as other weather forecasts and data from

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and behavioral changes that causes the insects to transform from the solitary to the gregarious phase. When the hoppers become gregarious, their colouration changes from largely green to yellow and black, and the adults change from brown to pink (immature) or yellow (mature). Their bodies become

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The change from an innocuous solitary insect to a voracious gregarious one normally follows a period of drought, when rain falls and vegetation flushes occur in major desert locust breeding locations. The population builds up rapidly and the competition for food increases. As hoppers get more

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The female locust then seeks suitable soft soil in which to lay her eggs. It needs to be the right temperature and degree of dampness and be in close proximity to other egg-laying females. She probes the soil with her abdomen and digs a hole into which an egg pod containing up to 100 eggs is

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consists of more than 30 species, distributed in Africa, Asia, and North and South America, and many species are difficult to identify due to the presence of variable morphs. It is the only genus within the Cyrtacanthacridinae that occurs in both the New and Old World. Most species have the

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representing 100,000 to 200,000 metric tons (98,000 to 197,000 long tons; 110,000 to 220,000 short tons), considering an average mass of 2 g per locust). The locust can live between 3 and 6 months, and a 10- to 16-fold increase in locust numbers occurs from one generation to the next.

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frequency when scored at the later stages (diplotene-diakinesis stages) of meiosis. These results indicated that the formation of chiasmata is not an isolated event but the end product of an interrelated series of processes initiated at some earlier stage of meiosis.

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extract, and pheromones. The effectiveness of many biopesticides equals that of conventional chemical pesticides, but two distinct differences exist. Biopesticides in general take longer to kill insects, plant diseases, or weeds, usually between 2 and 10 days.

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in Rome monitors the weather, ecological conditions, and the locust situation on a daily basis. DLIS receives results of survey and control operations carried out by national teams in affected countries. The teams use a variety of innovative digital devices,

835:. Though natural enemies cannot prevent plagues, they can limit the frequency of outbreaks and contribute to their control. Biopesticides are also safer to use in environmentally sensitive areas such as national parks or near rivers and other water bodies. 656:

in 1938. Colonial empires were heavily involved in these attempts to control locust pests, which affected heavily the Middle East and parts of Africa. The USSR also used locust control as a way to expand its influence in the Middle East and Central Asia.

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and the desert locust nymph undergoes five moults before becoming a winged adult. Immature and mature individuals in the gregarious phase form bands that feed, bask, and move as cohesive units, while solitary-phase individuals do not seek conspecifics.

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The desert locust is a difficult pest to control, and control measures are further compounded by the large and often remote areas (16–30 million square kilometres (6.2–11.6 million square miles)) where locusts can be found. Undeveloped basic

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Ceccato, P., K. Cressman, A. Giannini, S. Trzaska. 2007. The desert locust upsurge in West Africa (2003–2005): Information on the desert locust early warning system and the prospects for seasonal climate forecasting. Intl J Pest Management 53(1):

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programme, which was initiated in 1989 in response to environmental concerns over the heavy use of chemical insecticides to control locusts and grasshoppers during the 1987-89 plague. The project focused on the use of beneficial disease-causing

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in some affected countries, limited resources for locust monitoring and control, and political turmoil within and between affected countries further reduce the capacity of a country to undertake the necessary monitoring and control activities.

867:. During trials in Algeria and Mauritania in 2005 and 2006, various natural enemies, but especially birds, were abundant enough to eliminate treated hopper bands in about a week, because the diseased hoppers became sluggish and easy to catch. 445:. Solitary locusts nymphs and adults can behave gregariously within a few hours of being placed in a crowded situation, while gregarious locusts need one or more generations to become solitary when reared in isolation. Differences in 2508:

Waldner, F., Defourny, P., Babah Ebbe, M. A., and Cressman, K. 2015. Operational Monitoring of the Desert Locust Habitat with Earth Observation: An Assessment. Int. J. Geo-Inf. 4 (1): 2379-2400 DOI 10.3390/ijgi4042379

519:, and as far east as India and southwest Asia. As many as 60 countries can be affected within an area of 32 million square kilometres (12 million square miles), or about 20% of the Earth's land surface. 2396:

Cressman, K. 2013. Climate change and locusts in the WANA Region. In M.V.K Sivakumar et al (eds.), Climate Change and Food Security in West Asia and North Africa. (pp. 131–143). Netherlands: Springer. DOI

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Given the long history of desert locust, it is to be expected that references of the world's most dangerous migratory pest have crept into popular film and literature as well as many of the world's religions.

701:, including drones, to improve monitoring and early warning. FAO also provides information and training to affected countries and coordinates funding from donor agencies in case of major upsurges and plagues. 2403:

Dinku, T., Ceccato, P., Cressman, K., and Connor, S.J. 2010. Evaluating detection skills of satellite rainfall estimates over Desert Locust recession regions. J Applied Meteorology and Climatology 49 (6):

744:. These may be effective at keeping solitary populations in check but are of limited effects against gregarious desert locusts because of the enormous numbers of insects in the swarms and hopper bands. 623:. Since the early 20th century, desert locust plagues occurred in 1926–1934, 1940–1948, 1949–1963, 1967–1969, 1987–1989, 2003–2005, and 2019–2020. In March–October 1915, a plague of locusts stripped 259:

production and livelihoods in many countries in Africa, the Near East, and southwest Asia, their populations have been routinely monitored through a collaborative effort between countries and the

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Van Huis, A. 1997. Can we prevent desert locust plagues? In: New strategies in locust control (Eds.: S. Krall, R. Preveling and D.B. Diallo), pp. 453–459. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel. 522 pp.

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Van Huis, A. 1994. Desert locust control with existing techniques: an evaluation of strategies. Proceedings of the Seminar held in Wageningen, the Netherlands, 6–11 December 1993. 132 pp.

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During plague years, desert locusts can cause widespread damage to crops, as they are highly mobile and feed on large quantities of any kind of green vegetation, including crops, pasture, and

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Vallebona C, Genesio L, Crisci A, Pasqui M, Di Vecchia A, Maracchi G (2008). Large-scale climatic patterns forcing desert locust upsurges in West Africa. CLIMATE RESEARCH (2008) 37:35–41.

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Wertheim, Bregje; van Baalen, Erik-Jan A.; Dicke, Marcel; Vet, Louise E.M. (2005-01-01). "Pheromone-Mediated Aggregation in Nonsocial Arthropods: An Evolutionary Ecological Perspective".

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declared a state of emergency. Similarly, Pakistan also declared a state of emergency. The UN continued to warn that the Horn of Africa was facing a dangerous situation.

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Cressman, K. 2016. Desert Locust. In: J.F. Shroder, R. Sivanpillai (eds.), Biological and Environmental Hazards, Risks, and Disasters (pp. 87–105). USA: Elsevier.

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After the fifth moult, the insect is not yet mature. It is at first soft and pink with drooping wings, but over the course of a few days, the cuticle hardens and

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The newly hatched nymph soon begins to feed, and if it is a gregarious individual, is attracted to other hoppers and they group together. As it grows, it needs to

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Symmons, P. & A. van Huis, 1997. Desert Locust Control campaign studies: operations guidebook. Wageningen University. 167 pp. & CD-Rom, 19 floppy disks.

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of almost all vegetation. The significant crop loss caused by swarming desert locusts exacerbates problems of food shortage, and is a threat to food security.

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morph) are greenish in early instars, while older adults are greyish. The solitary phase grasshoppers lack black patterning as present in the gregarious (or

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During quiet periods, called recessions, desert locusts are confined to a 16-million-square-kilometre (6.2-million-square-mile) belt that extends from

752:, or other methods. This tends to shift the problem to neighbouring farms, and locust swarms can easily return to reinfest previously visited fields. 2747: 278: 1283:

Owing to the destructive habits of locusts, they have been a representation of famine in many Middle Eastern cultures, and are seen in the movies

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Symmons, P.M. and K. Cressman. 2001. Desert Locust Guidelines: I. Survey. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

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2007). Some swarms also invaded Uganda, South Sudan, Tanzania and one small swarm reached northeast D.R. Congo, the first time since 1945.

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Cressman, K. 2013. Role of remote sensing in desert locust early warning. J. Appl. Remote Sens. 7 (1): 075098; DOI 10.1117/1.JRS.7.075098

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rates of application. The insecticide is acquired by the insect directly, meaning that control must be precise. Control is undertaken by

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Lindstedt, Stan; Nishikawa, Kiisa (2017-02-10). "Huxleys' Missing Filament: Form and Function of Titin in Vertebrate Striated Muscle".

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Desert locusts consume an estimated equivalent of their body weight (2 g (0.07 oz)) each day in green vegetation. They are

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developed several programmes aimed at exchanging data about the desert locust and international conferences were held in the 1930s:

263: 252: 2898: 397:). Its hard cuticle splits and its body expands, while the new exoskeleton is still soft. The stages between moulting are called 2390:

Cressman, K. 2008. The use of new technologies in Desert Locust early warning. Outlooks on Pest Management (April, 2008): 55–59.

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derived from the males of the species (including guaiacol) speed up the maturation process of both immature males and females.

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Lomer, C.J.; Bateman, R.P.; Johnson, D.L.; Langwald, J.; Thomas, M. (2001). "Biological Control of Locusts and Grasshoppers".

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Westerman, M. The effect of X-irradiation on male meiosis in Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål). Chromosoma 22, 401–416 (1967).

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is produced in the gut of desert locusts by the breakdown of plant material. This process is undertaken by the gut bacterium

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and feed on leaves, shoots, flowers, fruit, seeds, stems, and bark. Nearly all crops and noncrop plants are eaten, including

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Lecoq, M. 2022. Schistocerca gregaria (Desert locust). In: Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

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Stefanski, R. and K. Cressman. 2015. Weather and Desert Locust. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

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Jahn, G. C. 1993. Supplementary environmental assessment of the Eritrean Locust Control Program. USAID, Washington DC.

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Simpson, S.J.; McCaffery, A.R.; Hagele, B.F. (1999). "A behavioural analysis of phase change in the desert locust".

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in the region. The 2019–2021 upsurge caused similar losses in northeast Africa, the Near East, and southwest Asia.

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Cressman, K. 1996. Current methods of desert locust forecasting at FAO. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 26: 577–585.

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helped spread swarms across the northern states of India where a few reached the Himalayan foothills in Nepal.

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Werf, W. van der, G. Woldewahid, T. Abate, M. Butrous, O. Abdalla, A.M. Khidir, B. Mustafa, I. Magzoub, O.

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are widespread throughout the world, infecting many groups of insects, but show low risk to humans, other

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those that escape predation become solitary again. This effect could aid locust control in the future.

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crowded, the close physical contact causes the insects' hind legs to bump against one another. This

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agencies in locust-affected countries or by specialized regional aerial organizations such as the

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The desert locust is potentially the most dangerous of the locust pests because of the ability of

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Forsskål, Peter; Niebuhr, Carsten; Pre-1801 Imprint Collection (Library of Congress) DLC (1775).

1262: 962: 906: 779: 189: 54: 2499: 378: 2778: 1971:"The Locust Plague - The American Colony in Jerusalem | Exhibitions - Library of Congress" 2825: 2669: 2638: 2495: 2440: 2342: 2272: 2264: 2223: 2215: 2163: 1788: 1782: 1755: 1663: 1645: 1594: 1291: 496: 434: 180: 812:, to which these locusts belong, so has been chosen as the active ingredient of the product. 410:

the insects turn yellow and the abdomens of the females start swelling with developing eggs.

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contains the latest situation and forecasts as well as a full, detailed description of the

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of Africa nor into central Europe. However, locust adults and swarms regularly cross the

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generally suppress pests by mycosis - causing a disease that is specific to the insect.

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that causes them to be attracted to each other, enhancing hopper band and subsequently

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was one of the organisms examined by McNeill and Hoyle 1967 and found to have thinner

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Abdin, A. Stein & A. van Huis, 2001. Spatial distribution of the desert locust,

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Song, Hojun; Mariño-Pérez, Ricardo; Woller, Derek A.; Cigliano, Maria Marta (2018).

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between Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, and are even reported to have crossed the

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Lovejoy, N.R; Mullen, S.P; Sword, G.A; Chapman, R.F; Harrison, R.G (2006-04-07).

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At present, the primary method of controlling desert locust infestations is with

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Guershon, M. & A. Ayali, 2012. Innate phase behavior in the desert locust,

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applied in small, concentrated doses by vehicle-mounted and aerial sprayers at

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morph) phase, where the body is pinkish in early instars and yellow in adults.

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than those before found. This contributed greatly to the development of the

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Large-scale climatic patterns forcing desert locust upsurges in West Africa

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Nature Magazine Article on combating desert locust through natural enemies

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Descriptiones animalium, avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium;

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The lifecycle of the desert locust consists of three stages, the egg, the

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AFROL News, Stronger efforts to fight West Africa's locusts Oct. 1, 2004

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The desert locust has natural enemies such as predatory wasps and flies,

653: 390: 2380:, in the plains of the Red Sea coast of Sudan during the winter of 1999. 1606: 1394: 2752: 2459:"Preventing desert locust plagues: optimizing management interventions" 2359:

Programme on biological control of locusts and grasshoppers (LUBILOSA)

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Desert locusts have a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, a type of

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Van Huis, A. 1995. Desert locust plagues. Endeavour, 19(3): 118–124.

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Since the early 1960s, there have been two desert locust plagues (

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OECD, The Desert Locust Outbreak in West Africa – Sept. 23, 2004

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Walford, G. F. 1963. Arabian Locust Hunter. London, Robert Hale.

2088:"A newspaper article on the possibilities of the Desert Locust ( 1969:

Spafford, Horatio; Geographic, The National (January 12, 2005).

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Draper, J. (1980). "The Direction of Desert Locust Migration".

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Dillon, Rod J.; Vennard, Chris T.; Charnley, A. Keith (2000).

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afrol News - Stronger efforts to fight West Africa's locusts

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are based on a naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungus,

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Desert Locust Control Organization for East Africa (DLCO-EA)

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Desert Locust Meteorological Monitoring, at Sahel Resources

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products have been under development since the late 1990s;

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Solitary (top) and gregarious (bottom) desert locust nymphs

1261:-early zygotene stages) caused a significant increase in 2522:

Desert Locust crisis in the Horn of Africa - FAO Website

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

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Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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that cause locust swarming. Pheromones also accelerate

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Modelling insect wings using the finite element method

2187: 2185: 1787:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 430. 726: 697:. DLIS continuously adopts the latest technologies as 2314:

FAO Locust Watch (Desert Locust Information Service)

1208:, 1993 find that an undifferentiated mix of several 1139:

summer of 2019 by Pakistan and India. In June 2020,

2593: 1573:Scudder, Samuel H. (1899). "The Orthopteran Genus 2554:Columbia University IRI Climate and Desert Locust 2549:Why Locusts Swarm: A Study Finds 'Tipping Point' 2355:The Desert Locust Outbreak in West Africa – OECD 2288: 2286: 1432:. Ghent University. Hauniæ, ex officina Mölleri. 1196:. Guaiacol is one of the main components of the 457:Desert locusts preparatory to mating, London Zoo 2116:"Somalia declares emergency over locust swarms" 1324:1939 - The Day of the Locust by Nathanael West. 1303:This species has been identified as one of the 2457:Van Huis, A.; Cressman, K.; Magor, J. (2007). 1998:Forestier-Peyrat, Etienne (October 25, 2014). 1840: 1838: 1105:of the Arabian Peninsula that was followed by 925:of the region and sharpened the misery of all 2067:"Desert Locust situation update 1 April 2022" 8: 2422:https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.49833 2413:Innate phase behavior in the desert locust, 2142:"Exploitation of gut bacteria in the locust" 2041:"The Locust Plague of 1915 Photograph Album" 343:sufficient for a number of batches of eggs. 277:to fly rapidly across great distances. The 1812: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1804: 1442:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2581: 1880: 1878: 1876: 347:deposited. The egg pod is 3 to 4 cm ( 40: 31: 2474: 2157: 1893:. University of Minnesota. Archived from 1749: 1708: 1698: 1657: 1490: 1488: 1371:(Forskål, 1775): Orthoptera Species File" 437:by Emil Schmidt (Brehm, A.E., Bd. 9: 551) 237:, short-horned grasshopper in the family 2571:Cultivation of locusts for the pet trade 1307:mentioned in Leviticus 11:22 by several 665:Desert Locust Information Service (DLIS) 611:Crop loss from locusts was noted in the 600:, banana plants, vegetables, and weeds. 2463:Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 1358: 1435: 1101:brought unprecedented rainfall to the 279:major desert locust upsurge in 2004–05 2261:10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034152 2212:10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123329 893:1915 Ottoman Syria locust infestation 887:1915 Ottoman Syria locust infestation 838:Green Muscle was developed under the 285:losses in West Africa and diminished 7: 2740:27baa2fc-b5aa-4949-b300-f889c6a088ca 2092:) swarm entering West Bengal, India" 631:Early warning and preventive control 49:A migratory phase adult laying eggs 2047:from the original on 7 January 2011 1338: 875:In the 1900s, there were six major 2294:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00286545 1859:10.1111/j.1469-185x.1999.tb00038.x 1234:Westerman showed that exposure of 945:) and six desert locust upsurges ( 871:Desert locust plagues and upsurges 25: 2072:Food and Agriculture Organization 1920:Food and Agriculture Organization 1311:authorities among Middle Eastern 264:Food and Agriculture Organization 2476:10.1111/j.1570-7458.2006.00517.x 1885:Showler, Allan T. (2013-03-04). 1687:Insect Systematics and Diversity 808:has specialised in short-horned 689:) and dispersion (UK Met Office 58: 2838:Orthoptera Species File (old): 1916:"Biological control of locusts" 1253:and during the early stages of 1093:2019–2021 desert locust upsurge 973:2004–2005 upsurge (West Africa) 879:, one of which lasted almost 13 535:. They do not venture into the 315:The solitary phase insects (or 1922:. 31 July 2006. Archived from 1891:Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook 1824:. Humanity Development Library 326:The second and third pairs of 1: 2339:10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.667 905:stripped areas in and around 471:shorter, and they give off a 897:From March to October 1915, 772:or are genetically altered. 2397:10.1007/978-94-007-6751-5_7 2327:Annual Review of Entomology 2244:Annual Review of Physiology 2195:Annual Review of Entomology 736:, predatory beetle larvae, 2915: 1818:"Desert locust: Lifecycle" 1375:orthoptera.speciesfile.org 976: 890: 2879:Agricultural pest insects 2874:Insects described in 1775 2319:Lindsey, R. 2002. Locust! 1459:Journal of Animal Ecology 1332: 1305:kosher species of locusts 1246:(DNA synthesis phase) of 831:, and certain species of 804:, and birds. The species 763:include fungi, bacteria, 195: 188: 170: 163: 55:Scientific classification 53: 48: 39: 34: 1781:Gillot, Cedric (2013) . 855:fungal spores in an oil 695:FAO Locust Watch website 301:A gregarious phase adult 2899:Insect pests of millets 2043:. Library of Congress. 1724:Roonwal, M. L. (1945). 1229:sliding filament theory 2019:10.3197/ge.2014.070211 1642:10.1098/rspb.2005.3381 1051:Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 865:Senegalese grasshopper 774:Entomopathogenic fungi 608: 466:triggers a cascade of 458: 438: 423: 386: 330:are permanently open. 302: 27:Species of grasshopper 2639:Schistocerca_gregaria 2625:Schistocerca gregaria 2595:Schistocerca gregaria 2534:FAO Locust Watch site 2415:Schistocerca gregaria 2409:Schistocerca gregaria 2378:Schistocerca gregaria 2090:Schistocerca gregaria 2074:of the United Nations 1397:Schistocerca gregaria 1369:Schistocerca gregaria 1204:development. Mahamat 1133:India–Pakistan border 891:Further information: 877:desert locust plagues 606: 499:, and into northwest 456: 429: 421: 382:Dense hopper band in 381: 300: 226:Schistocerca gregaria 174:Schistocerca gregaria 18:Schistocerca gregaria 2869:Orthoptera of Africa 2735:Fauna Europaea (new) 979:2004 locust outbreak 414:Ecology and swarming 251:As an international 1742:1945Natur.155..792R 1238:males to a dose of 863:pests, such as the 793:Metarhizium acridum 588:, pasture grasses, 523:ranges such as the 281:caused significant 2894:Orthoptera of Asia 2559:2012-12-21 at the 2527:2021-08-18 at the 2411:. Insect Science. 2007:Global Environment 1926:on 5 November 2019 1847:Biological Reviews 1700:10.1093/isd/ixy008 1342: The Insect 780:Biological control 609: 511:, as far south as 459: 439: 424: 387: 303: 253:transboundary pest 229:) is a species of 199:Acridium peregrina 2851: 2850: 2826:Open Tree of Life 2587:Taxon identifiers 1794:978-1-4615-6918-3 1636:(1588): 767–774. 1401:Gryllus gregarius 1399:(Desert locust) ( 625:Ottoman Palestine 621:Ethiopian famines 497:Arabian Peninsula 435:chromolithography 233:, a periodically 217: 216: 207:Gryllus rufescens 16:(Redirected from 2906: 2889:Animal migration 2844: 2843: 2834: 2833: 2821: 2820: 2808: 2807: 2795: 2794: 2792:NHMSYS0000377682 2782: 2781: 2769: 2768: 2756: 2755: 2743: 2742: 2730: 2729: 2717: 2716: 2704: 2703: 2691: 2690: 2678: 2677: 2665: 2664: 2652: 2651: 2642: 2641: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2614: 2613: 2612: 2582: 2544:Delivery systems 2488: 2478: 2350: 2296: 2290: 2281: 2280: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2189: 2180: 2179: 2161: 2159:10.1038/35002669 2137: 2131: 2130: 2128: 2127: 2112: 2106: 2105: 2103: 2102: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2063: 2057: 2056: 2054: 2052: 2037: 2031: 2030: 2004: 1995: 1989: 1985: 1979: 1978: 1966: 1960: 1959: 1957: 1956: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1912: 1906: 1905: 1903: 1902: 1882: 1871: 1870: 1842: 1833: 1832: 1830: 1829: 1814: 1799: 1798: 1778: 1772: 1771: 1753: 1751:10.1038/155792a0 1721: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1702: 1678: 1672: 1671: 1661: 1617: 1611: 1610: 1591:10.2307/20020916 1570: 1564: 1563: 1561: 1560: 1551:. Archived from 1540: 1534: 1533: 1531: 1530: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1507: 1506: 1492: 1483: 1482: 1454: 1448: 1447: 1441: 1433: 1423: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1413: 1391: 1385: 1384: 1382: 1381: 1363: 1343: 1340: 1336: 1225:muscle filaments 933:1960s to present 882: 734:parasitoid wasps 719:ultra-low volume 699:innovative tools 431:Swarm of Locusts 374: 373: 369: 366: 360: 359: 355: 352: 211: 203: 176: 156:S. gregaria 63: 62: 44: 32: 21: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2908: 2907: 2905: 2904: 2903: 2854: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2839: 2837: 2829: 2824: 2816: 2813:Observation.org 2811: 2803: 2798: 2790: 2785: 2777: 2772: 2764: 2759: 2751: 2746: 2738: 2733: 2725: 2720: 2712: 2707: 2699: 2694: 2686: 2681: 2673: 2668: 2660: 2655: 2647: 2645: 2637: 2632: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2608: 2607: 2602: 2589: 2561:Wayback Machine 2529:Wayback Machine 2518: 2456: 2372:Wayback Machine 2361:Wayback Machine 2324: 2305: 2303:Further reading 2300: 2299: 2291: 2284: 2240: 2239: 2235: 2191: 2190: 2183: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2125: 2123: 2114: 2113: 2109: 2100: 2098: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2065: 2064: 2060: 2050: 2048: 2039: 2038: 2034: 2002: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1986: 1982: 1968: 1967: 1963: 1954: 1952: 1944: 1943: 1939: 1929: 1927: 1914: 1913: 1909: 1900: 1898: 1884: 1883: 1874: 1844: 1843: 1836: 1827: 1825: 1822:Locust Handbook 1816: 1815: 1802: 1795: 1780: 1779: 1775: 1723: 1722: 1718: 1680: 1679: 1675: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1585:(17): 441–476. 1572: 1571: 1567: 1558: 1556: 1545:"Desert Locust" 1542: 1541: 1537: 1528: 1526: 1518: 1517: 1513: 1504: 1502: 1494: 1493: 1486: 1456: 1455: 1451: 1434: 1425: 1424: 1420: 1411: 1409: 1407:www.uniprot.org 1393: 1392: 1388: 1379: 1377: 1365: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1346:Premendra Mitra 1341: 1321: 1301: 1299:Religious books 1281: 1272: 1218: 1172: 1141:Cyclone Nisarga 1095: 981: 975: 935: 895: 889: 880: 873: 758: 633: 607:Locusts feeding 596:, fruit trees, 562: 493:northern Africa 416: 371: 367: 364: 362: 357: 353: 350: 348: 336: 295: 255:that threatens 209: 201: 184: 178: 172: 159: 57: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 2912: 2910: 2902: 2901: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2856: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2845: 2835: 2822: 2809: 2796: 2783: 2770: 2757: 2744: 2731: 2722:Fauna Europaea 2718: 2705: 2692: 2679: 2666: 2653: 2643: 2630: 2615: 2599: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2531: 2517: 2516:External links 2514: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2492: 2489: 2469:(3): 191–214. 2454: 2451: 2448: 2437: 2434: 2431: 2428: 2424: 2418: 2405: 2401: 2398: 2394: 2391: 2388: 2385: 2381: 2374: 2368: 2363: 2357: 2351: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2304: 2301: 2298: 2297: 2282: 2253:Annual Reviews 2233: 2204:Annual Reviews 2181: 2132: 2107: 2079: 2058: 2032: 2013:(2): 536–571. 1990: 1980: 1961: 1937: 1907: 1872: 1853:(4): 461–480. 1834: 1800: 1793: 1773: 1716: 1673: 1612: 1565: 1535: 1511: 1484: 1465:(3): 959–974. 1449: 1418: 1386: 1357: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1349: 1325: 1320: 1317: 1300: 1297: 1280: 1277: 1271: 1268: 1248:spermatogonial 1217: 1214: 1171: 1168: 1164:recent upsurge 1099:Cyclone Mekunu 1094: 1091: 1003:Canary Islands 977:Main article: 974: 971: 934: 931: 917:of almost all 888: 885: 872: 869: 845:microorganisms 757: 754: 707:infrastructure 632: 629: 561: 558: 545:Atlantic Ocean 432: 415: 412: 335: 332: 294: 291: 261:United Nations 215: 214: 213: 212: 210:Thunberg, 1815 204: 193: 192: 186: 185: 179: 168: 167: 161: 160: 153: 151: 147: 146: 139: 135: 134: 129: 125: 124: 119: 115: 114: 109: 105: 104: 99: 95: 94: 89: 85: 84: 79: 75: 74: 69: 65: 64: 51: 50: 46: 45: 37: 36: 35:Desert locust 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2911: 2900: 2897: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2884:Food security 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2859: 2842: 2836: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2631: 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Species of 795: 794: 789: 785: 781: 777: 775: 769: 766: 762: 761:Biopesticides 756:Biopesticides 755: 753: 751: 750:burning tires 745: 743: 739: 735: 730: 728: 724: 720: 716: 711: 708: 702: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 675: 671: 666: 662: 658: 655: 652:in 1936, and 651: 647: 643: 639: 630: 628: 626: 622: 618: 614: 605: 601: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 559: 557: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 520: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 495:, across the 494: 490: 489:Sahara Desert 486: 481: 478: 474: 469: 465: 455: 451: 448: 444: 436: 430: 428: 420: 413: 411: 408: 403: 400: 396: 392: 385: 380: 376: 344: 341: 333: 331: 329: 324: 322: 318: 313: 310: 309: 299: 292: 290: 288: 287:food security 284: 280: 276: 271: 267: 265: 262: 258: 254: 249: 247: 242: 240: 236: 232: 228: 227: 222: 221:desert locust 208: 205: 202:Olivier, 1804 200: 197: 196: 194: 191: 187: 182: 177: 175: 169: 166: 165:Binomial name 162: 158: 157: 152: 149: 148: 145: 144: 140: 137: 136: 133: 130: 127: 126: 123: 120: 117: 116: 113: 110: 107: 106: 103: 100: 97: 96: 93: 90: 87: 86: 83: 80: 77: 76: 73: 70: 67: 66: 61: 56: 52: 47: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 2594: 2466: 2462: 2414: 2408: 2377: 2330: 2326: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2199: 2193: 2149: 2145: 2135: 2124:. Retrieved 2122:. 2020-02-02 2119: 2110: 2099:. Retrieved 2096:ResearchGate 2095: 2089: 2082: 2070: 2061: 2049:. Retrieved 2035: 2010: 2006: 1993: 1983: 1974: 1964: 1953:. Retrieved 1949: 1940: 1928:. Retrieved 1924:the original 1910: 1899:. Retrieved 1895:the original 1890: 1850: 1846: 1826:. Retrieved 1821: 1783: 1776: 1733: 1729: 1719: 1690: 1686: 1676: 1633: 1629: 1624:Schistocerca 1623: 1615: 1582: 1578: 1575:Schistocerca 1574: 1568: 1557:. Retrieved 1553:the original 1548: 1538: 1527:. Retrieved 1523: 1514: 1503:. Retrieved 1499: 1471:10.2307/4238 1462: 1458: 1452: 1428: 1421: 1410:. Retrieved 1406: 1400: 1396: 1389: 1378:. 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857:formulation 798:Metarhizium 566:polyphagous 443:polyphenism 395:exoskeleton 293:Description 2858:Categories 2404:1322-1332. 2126:2020-02-18 2101:2021-11-23 1955:2020-02-16 1901:2015-04-11 1828:2015-04-11 1784:Entomology 1559:2020-02-16 1543:DLCEO-EA. 1529:2020-02-16 1505:2020-02-16 1412:2020-02-16 1380:2020-02-16 1353:References 1319:Literature 1309:rabbinical 1270:In culture 1198:pheromones 1178:pheromone 1170:Pheromones 1059:Mauritania 1023:the Gambia 1007:Cape Verde 919:vegetation 818:parasitoid 806:M. acridum 723:government 598:date palms 529:Hindu Kush 485:Mauritania 447:morphology 407:haemolymph 393:(shed its 305:The genus 118:Suborder: 112:Orthoptera 92:Arthropoda 2500:1616-1572 2269:0066-4278 2220:0066-4170 2051:7 January 1760:0028-0836 1650:0962-8452 1599:0199-9818 1438:cite book 1367:"species 1292:The Bible 1286:The Mummy 1263:chiasmata 1259:leptotene 1210:volatiles 967:2019-2021 963:1996-1998 959:2004-2005 955:1994-1996 951:1992-1994 947:1972-1974 943:1986-1989 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