796:
1323:. Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly specific terms proliferated—chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer satisfactory to group together those who pursued science, without the caveats of "natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing divisions with Somerville's aim of " a most important service to science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united by the discovery of general principles." Whewell reported in his review that members of the
1255:, discovered animal electricity. He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this effect, and Galvani was convinced that he was seeing the effects of what he called animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the
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became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and
Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the
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in 2015, across all disciplines and employment sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held 53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and about
3181:
Scientist and engineering statistics are usually intertwined, but they indicate that women enter the field far less than men, though this gap is narrowing. The number of science and engineering doctorates awarded to women rose from a mere 7 percent in 1970 to 34 percent in 1985 and in engineering
858:
The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who
1594:). Scientists tend to be less motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with many other professions which require a similar amount of training and qualification.
1269:
is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.
1451:
As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized. However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal requirements for their practice (e.g.
3754:. "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."
871:
associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.
2958:
The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance, there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this number is 79 for the United
Kingdom, and 85 for the United States.
1443:
League of
Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.
1327:
had been complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a good term for "students of the knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with
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that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.
895:
contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by
4098:
was referred to in
Whewell 1834 only as "some ingenious gentleman." Ross added a comment that this "some ingenious gentleman" was Whewell himself, without giving the reason for the identification. Ross 1962,
1431:. By the twentieth century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place.
795:
944:—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.
1568:
they would like to work in. A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.
3167:
3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59% of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions.
1614:
to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks.
955:
generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge, although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the
3788:
Exploring the Limits of
Preclassical Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman
3413:
But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says.
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Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and
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A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
675:
624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the
707:"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist
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After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety of work settings and conditions. In 2017, the
British
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1661:, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier". There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the
920:
became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious
3450:
Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural
Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).
1411:. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter, or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.
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3397:
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1059:, made key improvements on the thermometer and telescope which allowed him to observe and clearly describe the solar system.
904:, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the
201:
1575:, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of
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alone the numbers of bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from only 385 in 1975 to more than 11000 in 1985.
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952:
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Lightman, Bernard (2011). "Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).
1564:
published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students worldwide, asking them which
711:(384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren
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1543:, usually a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates whereby they work as
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4025:
Steve Fuller, Kuhn VS. Popper: The
Struggle For The Soul Of Science. Columbia University Press 2004. Page 43.
3731:
On the historical development of the character of scientists and the predecessors, see: Steven Shapin (2008).
1427:
became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in
1336:, and added that there could be no scruple in making free with this term since we already have such words as
4210:
Tamara Preaud, Derek E. Ostergard, The Sèvres
Porcelain Manufactory. Yale University Press 1997. 416 pages.
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1407:. We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to call him a
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Friedrich
Ueberweg, History of Philosophy: From Thales to the Present Time. C. Scribner's sons v.1, 1887
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Whewell, William. Murray, John (ed.). "On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences By Mrs. Sommerville".
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for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some common training requirements include
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contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the
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in Physics for their scientific research; Marie also received the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"
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developed the general theory of relativity and made many substantial contributions to physics.
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791:, referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder of experimental biology.
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meaning that they practice science on their own, but to practice science there are no known
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The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) – Complete Text
4758:
4245:
Cyranoski, David; Gilbert, Natasha; Ledford, Heidi; Nayar, Anjali; Yahia, Mohammed (2011).
703:
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4130:
The age of wonder: How the romantic generation discovered the beauty and terror of science
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From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science
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made significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The Father of modern Science,
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God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science
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1996:
1981:
1936:
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1700:
1539:. To aid them in this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a
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3776:, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36
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made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory.
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The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914
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is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic bomb and nuclear reactor.
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311:
284:
45:
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by American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1917. v.45 1917 Jan-Jun.
3942:
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Whewell proposed the word again more seriously (and not anonymously) in his 1840
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Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still referred to as "
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262:
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49:
4857:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh Pennington (
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was able to reproduce the results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.
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1971:
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1911:
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in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of
1080:
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was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; the astronomer and physician
940:
912:, became closely linked to religious institutions in most European countries.
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727:
684:
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441:
431:
421:
391:
296:
96:
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4167:
The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 2
3877:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12,
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2007:
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1653:, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study
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348:
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165:
115:
4817:. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards.
4709:
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4543:
4527:
4511:"Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects"
4510:
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1399:. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use
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project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of
1571:
Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The
738:
655:, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead,
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3108:
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3016:
3010:
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1004:
984:
963:, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern
841:
829:
817:
805:
794:
783:
780:, is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.
737:
714:
702:
426:
376:
1662:
1472:
In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an
1142:
1139:
366:
4834:, a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine
3733:
The Scientific Life: A Moral History of a Late Modern Vocation
1184:, all mathematicians, made major contributions to science and
411:
3969:(in Italian). Il museo di Lazzaro Spallanzani. Archived from
3162:, 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the
4577:"How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth?"
3699:
Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks
3454:. Chicago: University of Chicago, U.S.A. Press. p. 39.
1219:, such as the development of ideas about the circulation of
4631:"The Last Frontier - Carnegie Mellon University | CMU"
1423:. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later;
4176:. In the 1847 second edition, moved to volume 2 page 560.
3901:. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.
19:
This article is about the profession. For other uses, see
4733:
Women's Science: Learning and Succeeding from the Margins
726:
its modern name. Generally referred to as the father of
4542:
Lee, Adrian; Dennis, Carina; Campbell, Phillip (2007).
4427:
Lee, Adrian; Dennis, Carina; Campbell, Phillip (2007).
1606:
who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and
1375:, are applied to words of all origins: thus we have to
4775:
Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia.
3701:. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10.
1419:
at the same time, as a counterpart to the French word
1035:
have been considered the most recognizable polymaths.
3622:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367.
3570:
Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain
3503:
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
2963:
Scientists per 10,000 workers for selected countries
1200:. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including
3841:, The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, archived from
967:. Many of these early polymaths were also religious
659:
engaged in the philosophical study of nature called
4814:
The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research
4798:
The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession
3790:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6.
3679:. University of California - Museum of Paleontology
159:
133:
121:
111:
106:
90:
78:
70:
65:
4187:"William Whewell (1794-1866) gentleman of science"
3620:Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science
3597:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
3452:Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science
1325:British Association for the Advancement of Science
4838:Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists
4158:The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Volume 1
3309:List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1488:. Upon completion, they would normally attain an
1403:for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a
683:came into regular use after it was coined by the
4731:Margaret A. Eisenhart, Elizabeth Finkel (1998).
4240:
4238:
4229:"Everyone is a Scientist – Scientific Scribbles"
3532:The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography
4781:. The Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598.
3941:(2nd ed.). G. Routledge and Sons. p.
3645:Science and religion: a historical introduction
1357:
4642:
4640:
4478:"Flexible working: Science in the gig economy"
3993:"Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science"
3990:Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science.
3803:"Christianity and the rise of western science"
3555:A Short History of Science to the 19th century
1122:). He provided a comprehensive formulation of
1114:extended Descartes's mathematics by inventing
4380:"Why it is not a 'failure' to leave academia"
4373:
4371:
1512:of interest, publishing research findings in
1299:English philosopher and historian of science
889:Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity
613:
8:
3751:
745:, one of the founders and fathers of modern
33:
4544:"Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship"
4063:
4061:
2857:Operations research and management analysts
1621:often look to the frontiers. These include
1051:made substantial contributions in science.
802:, for whom the word "scientist" was coined.
4828:For best results, add a little inspiration
4735:. University of Chicago Press. p. 18.
4170:. New York, Johnson Reprint Corp. p.
4151:
4149:
2684:Industrial and organizational psychologist
1231:. Some scholars and historians attributes
620:
606:
244:
172:
39:
4672:
4559:
4526:
4509:Woolston, Chris (2007). Editorial (ed.).
4493:
4452:
4403:
4351:
4310:
4270:
4087:
1314:On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences
1235:to having contributed to the rise of the
4094:To be exact, the person coined the term
3396:. E.O. Wilson Foundation. Archived from
3319:List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists
2961:
2875:
2798:
2719:
2566:
2155:
1689:
1353:The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences
1348:—but this was not generally palatable".
1075:and advanced ideas about the origins of
764:
52:demonstrating an apparatus that detects
4790:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
3766:Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science
3330:
1672:, much of which still remains unknown.
928:system, knowledge was divided into the
891:was pursued by many kinds of scholars.
358:
247:
175:
16:Person who conducts scientific research
4605:. National Academies Press (US). 1992.
4295:"STEM education: To build a scientist"
3786:Peter Damerow (2004). "Introduction".
3735:. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
3721:. German Patent and Trade Mark Office.
1134:founded a new branch of mathematics —
32:
4328:"What's the point of the PhD thesis?"
4132:. London: Harper Press. p. 449.
1211:There are many compelling stories in
7:
3925:University of Chicago Press. p. 204.
3518:Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato
3304:List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
3808:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
3719:"Johannes Kepler´s 450th birthday"
3299:List of Nobel laureates in Physics
1492:, with the highest degree being a
14:
4575:Stockton, Nick (7 October 2014),
3967:"Spallanzani - Uomo e scienziato"
3923:The Beginnings of Western Science
1247:During the age of Enlightenment,
1192:, and some of the foundations of
4617:"The Brain: The Final Frontier?"
4070:"Scientist: The story of a word"
3486:
589:
574:
4193:from the original on 2007-06-25
4117:(March & June 1834): 54–68.
3999:from the original on 2008-03-09
3426:"Our definition of a scientist"
3212:Hippocratic Oath for Scientists
1617:Those considering science as a
3801:Harrison, Peter (8 May 2012).
1756:Chemical laboratory technician
1:
4759:"Finding Our Inner Scientist"
4696:"Employment: Male majority".
4647:van Noorden, Richard (2015).
3557:. Streeter Press. p. 35.
1188:, including the ideas behind
875:Some historians point to the
672:
4429:"Nature's guide for mentors"
4247:"Education: The PhD factory"
3938:A popular history of science
3477:, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.
3371:. Cambridge University Press
3345:. Cambridge University Press
2933:Industrial/applied scientist
4160:. Cambridge. p. cxiii.
3160:National Science Foundation
734:as a scientific discipline.
691:, and historian of science
640:to advance knowledge in an
4896:
4405:10.1038/d41586-018-05838-y
3697:Rafferty, John P. (2012).
3642:Gary B. Ferngren (2002). "
3593:Cahan, David, ed. (2003).
3572:. Loose Leaf. p. 75.
3314:List of Russian scientists
3174:
2966:
2654:Developmental psychologist
2353:Human behavioral ecologist
2149:
2058:Condensed-matter physicist
1484:), mostly at the level of
1456:) and some scientists are
1415:He also proposed the term
1063:was not only a pioneer of
850:launched the 20th century
397:Interdisciplinary sciences
25:
21:Scientist (disambiguation)
18:
4704:(7642): 509. 2017-02-22.
4164:Whewell, William (1847).
4089:10.1080/00033796200202722
3935:Robert Routledge (1881).
3897:Gilley, Sheridan (2006).
3520:, University of Virginia
2669:Experimental psychologist
2664:Evolutionary psychologist
2588:Linguistic anthropologist
2227:Biological anthropologist
1136:infinite, periodic series
1015:was a priest. During the
953:Science in medieval Islam
56:. They received the 1903
38:
4378:Kruger, Philipp (2018).
3921:Lindberg, David. (1992)
3873:(1986), "Introduction",
2907:Mathematical sociologist
2659:Educational psychologist
1545:postdoctoral researchers
1533:thesis (or dissertation)
452:Research and development
26:Not to be confused with
4305:(7560): 371–373. 2015.
3752:Einstein (1954, p. 271)
3568:Needham, C. W. (1978).
2837:Environmental scientist
2731:Computational scientist
2595:Communication scientist
2583:Cultural anthropologist
2283:Developmental biologist
2262:Computational biologist
2048:Computational physicist
1519:and presenting them at
1296:" or "men of science".
934:—philosophy, including
4830:– The Telegraph about
4778:Science and the Church
4649:"India by the numbers"
4476:Kwok, Roberta (2017).
3294:List of mathematicians
2902:Mathematical physicist
2897:Mathematical economist
2887:Mathematical biologist
2649:Cognitive psychologist
2323:Evolutionary biologist
2273:Conservation biologist
1816:Supramolecular chemist
1781:Organometallic chemist
1566:sectors of the economy
1521:scientific conferences
1458:independent scientists
1413:
1259:, Galvani's colleague
965:scientific disciplines
910:spread of Christianity
855:
852:environmental movement
839:
827:
815:
803:
792:
781:
772:, the inventor of the
762:
735:
712:
359:Extrascientific fields
4796:Arthur Jack Meadows.
4326:Gould, Julie (2016).
4068:Ross, Sydney (1962).
3227:Independent scientist
2928:Independent scientist
2832:Engineering scientist
2674:Forensic psychologist
2644:Clinical psychologist
2639:Behavioral geneticist
2533:Theoretical biologist
2382:Integrative biologist
2152:List of life sciences
2108:Theoretical physicist
2063:Engineering physicist
2028:Atmospheric physicist
1731:Computational chemist
1237:Scientific Revolution
1194:statistical mechanics
1149:, and discovered the
1118:(at the same time as
924:. By the time of the
877:Scientific Revolution
845:
833:
821:
809:
798:
787:
768:
741:
718:
706:
596:Philosophy portal
528:Science communication
372:Communication studies
4111:The Quarterly Review
3369:Cambridge Dictionary
3343:Cambridge Dictionary
3045:United Arab Emirates
2943:Government scientist
2892:Mathematical chemist
2827:Biomedical scientist
2689:Medical psychologist
2615:Management scientist
2528:Structural biologist
2498:Population biologist
2422:Neuroendocrinologist
2038:Biological physicist
1643:elementary particles
1592:industrial scientist
1498:Doctor of Philosophy
1294:natural philosophers
1243:Age of Enlightenment
485:Scientific integrity
467:Vocational education
402:Knowledge management
292:Behavioural sciences
4880:Science occupations
4710:10.1038/nj7642-509b
4665:2015Natur.521..142V
4561:10.1038/nj7677-549a
4528:10.1038/nj7677-549a
4495:10.1038/nj7677-549a
4445:2007Natur.447..791L
4396:2018Natur.560..133K
4344:2016Natur.535...26G
4312:10.1038/nj7560-371a
4263:2011Natur.472..276C
3677:"Georgius Agricola"
3553:Singer, C. (2008).
3391:"Eusocial climbers"
2964:
2882:Materials scientist
2862:Physician scientist
2694:Social psychologist
2679:Health psychologist
2625:Political scientist
2620:Political economist
2449:Paleoanthropologist
2412:Molecular biologist
2293:Electrophysiologist
2257:Cognitive biologist
2073:Molecular physicist
1857:Dendroarchaeologist
1821:Theoretical chemist
1801:Solid-state chemist
1721:Biophysical chemist
1716:Atmospheric chemist
1647:high-energy physics
1610:who mainly develop
1602:Scientists include
1517:scientific journals
1482:research institutes
1332:, they might form
1267:Lazzaro Spallanzani
1257:University of Pavia
1253:bioelectromagnetics
1124:classical mechanics
1098:, who also studied
1017:Italian Renaissance
1013:Nicolaus Copernicus
926:medieval university
884:Classical antiquity
730:and the founder of
653:classical antiquity
116:Scientific research
35:
4832:What Inspired You?
4764:2016-04-12 at the
4156:Whewell, William.
4128:Holmes, R (2008).
4051:2017-03-02 at the
3871:Numbers, Ronald L.
3867:Lindberg, David C.
3772:2012-03-24 at the
3650:2015-03-16 at the
3536:, Routledge, 2003
3217:History of science
2962:
2726:Computer scientist
2699:Sport psychologist
2548:Wildlife biologist
2518:Sclerochronologist
2278:Dendrochronologist
2083:Particle physicist
2068:Material physicist
2043:Chemical physicist
1952:Paleoclimatologist
1927:Hydrometeorologist
1811:Structural chemist
1706:Analytical chemist
1598:Research interests
1557:scientific journal
1531:, and defending a
1502:graduate education
1186:probability theory
1147:infrared radiation
957:Islamic Golden Age
936:natural philosophy
856:
840:
828:
816:
804:
793:
782:
776:and discoverer of
774:electrical battery
763:
736:
713:
661:natural philosophy
581:Science portal
123:Education required
4744:External articles
4659:(7551): 142–143.
4554:(7677): 549–552.
4439:(7146): 791–797.
4390:(7716): 133–134.
4257:(7343): 276–279.
4139:978-0-00-714953-7
4075:Annals of Science
3884:978-0-520-05538-4
3763:Stephen Hawking,
3579:978-0-398-03754-3
3529:Frank N. Magill,
3428:. Science Council
3289:List of engineers
3257:Normative science
3158:According to the
3151:
3150:
2938:Citizen scientist
2914:
2913:
2872:Interdisciplinary
2869:
2868:
2820:Medical physicist
2792:
2791:
2785:Systems scientist
2713:
2712:
2560:
2559:
2508:Quantum biologist
2432:Neuropsychologist
2402:Medical biologist
2143:
2142:
2124:Planetary science
2103:Quantum physicist
2093:Polymer physicist
2078:Nuclear physicist
1967:Paleoseismologist
1897:Geomicrobiologist
1766:Medicinal chemist
1761:Inorganic chemist
1676:By specialization
1659:neurotransmitters
1651:materials science
1631:molecular biology
1359:The terminations
1317:published in the
1251:, the pioneer of
1198:quantum mechanics
1151:greenhouse effect
1126:and investigated
1067:but formulated a
1065:analytic geometry
1053:Leonardo da Vinci
1021:Leonardo da Vinci
869:epistemic virtues
846:Marine Biologist
834:Atomic physicist
751:scientific method
720:Georgius Agricola
663:, a precursor of
630:
629:
543:Scientific method
533:Science education
474:
473:
457:Strategic studies
249:Scientific fields
171:
170:
4887:
4861:, Oct. 24, 2002)
4737:
4736:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4676:
4644:
4635:
4634:
4627:
4621:
4620:
4619:. November 2014.
4613:
4607:
4606:
4597:
4591:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4572:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4530:
4506:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4473:
4467:
4466:
4456:
4424:
4418:
4417:
4407:
4375:
4366:
4365:
4355:
4323:
4317:
4316:
4314:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4242:
4233:
4232:
4225:
4219:
4208:
4202:
4201:
4199:
4198:
4183:
4177:
4175:
4161:
4153:
4144:
4143:
4125:
4119:
4118:
4106:
4100:
4093:
4091:
4065:
4056:
4039:
4033:
4023:
4017:
4014:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4004:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3978:
3963:
3957:
3956:
3932:
3926:
3919:
3913:
3912:
3894:
3888:
3887:
3863:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3848:on 22 March 2015
3847:
3840:
3826:
3820:
3819:
3817:
3815:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3783:
3777:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3715:
3709:
3695:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3673:
3667:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3565:
3559:
3558:
3550:
3544:
3527:
3521:
3516:Michael Fowler,
3514:
3508:
3507:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3447:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3433:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3410:
3408:
3403:on 27 April 2019
3402:
3395:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3335:
3177:Women in science
2965:
2876:
2815:Health physicist
2799:
2720:
2567:
2493:Phytopathologist
2469:Paleopathologist
2397:Marine biologist
2338:Herbchronologist
2202:Bioinformatician
2192:Bioclimatologist
2156:
2088:Plasma physicist
2033:Atomic physicist
1877:Geoarchaeologist
1791:Physical chemist
1726:Clinical chemist
1690:
1686:Physical science
1645:as described by
1641:at the scale of
1604:experimentalists
1537:oral examination
1500:(PhD). Although
1486:graduate schools
1474:academic setting
1320:Quarterly Review
1303:coined the term
1276:discovered that
1261:Alessandro Volta
1162:Pierre de Fermat
1155:Girolamo Cardano
1033:Gerolamo Cardano
1019:scientists like
995:; the physician
987:; the physician
770:Alessandro Volta
674:
646:natural sciences
636:is a person who
622:
615:
608:
594:
593:
592:
579:
578:
538:Research funding
407:Language studies
339:Applied sciences
275:Natural sciences
245:
173:
92:Activity sectors
43:
36:
4895:
4894:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4886:
4885:
4884:
4865:
4864:
4855:"The Scientist"
4766:Wayback Machine
4749:Further reading
4746:
4741:
4740:
4730:
4729:
4725:
4695:
4694:
4690:
4674:10.1038/521142a
4646:
4645:
4638:
4629:
4628:
4624:
4615:
4614:
4610:
4599:
4598:
4594:
4585:
4583:
4574:
4573:
4569:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4508:
4507:
4503:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4454:10.1038/447791a
4426:
4425:
4421:
4377:
4376:
4369:
4353:10.1038/535026a
4338:(7610): 26–28.
4325:
4324:
4320:
4293:
4292:
4288:
4272:10.1038/472276a
4244:
4243:
4236:
4227:
4226:
4222:
4209:
4205:
4196:
4194:
4185:
4184:
4180:
4163:
4155:
4154:
4147:
4140:
4127:
4126:
4122:
4108:
4107:
4103:
4067:
4066:
4059:
4053:Wayback Machine
4040:
4036:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4002:
4000:
3991:
3989:
3985:
3976:
3974:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3953:
3934:
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3929:
3920:
3916:
3909:
3896:
3895:
3891:
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3864:
3860:
3851:
3849:
3845:
3838:
3828:
3827:
3823:
3813:
3811:
3800:
3799:
3795:
3785:
3784:
3780:
3774:Wayback Machine
3762:
3758:
3750:
3746:
3730:
3726:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3696:
3692:
3682:
3680:
3675:
3674:
3670:
3652:Wayback Machine
3641:
3637:
3630:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3605:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3580:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3552:
3551:
3547:
3528:
3524:
3515:
3511:
3506:. p. 1016.
3492:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3473:
3469:
3462:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3431:
3429:
3424:
3423:
3419:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3393:
3389:
3388:
3384:
3374:
3372:
3363:
3362:
3358:
3348:
3346:
3337:
3336:
3332:
3327:
3242:Natural science
3188:
3179:
3173:
3156:
2956:
2951:
2919:
2874:
2810:Applied physics
2797:
2718:
2565:
2358:Human biologist
2303:Endocrinologist
2252:Chronobiologist
2237:Biostatistician
2212:Bioarcheologist
2207:Biotechnologist
2154:
2148:
2098:Psychophysicist
1982:Sedimentologist
1902:Geomorphologist
1837:Earth scientist
1796:Quantum chemist
1776:Organic chemist
1771:Nuclear chemist
1688:
1683:
1681:Natural science
1678:
1600:
1553:
1490:academic degree
1470:
1449:
1437:
1309:Mary Somerville
1301:William Whewell
1290:
1245:
1087:interested the
1077:animal movement
1057:Galileo Galilei
1041:
1029:Galileo Galilei
1007:; the botanist
975:: for example,
959:are considered
950:
886:
812:Albert Einstein
800:Mary Somerville
743:Johannes Kepler
701:
693:William Whewell
665:natural science
626:
590:
588:
573:
568:
567:
523:
522:
513:
512:
508:Research ethics
503:Logical fallacy
493:Reproducibility
488:
487:
476:
475:
312:Anthropological
258:Formal sciences
242:
241:
221:
197:Article indexes
162:
138:
136:
124:
93:
81:
80:Occupation type
61:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4893:
4891:
4883:
4882:
4877:
4867:
4866:
4863:
4862:
4851:
4850:
4846:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4824:
4823:
4819:
4818:
4809:
4794:
4782:
4773:
4772:, Winter 2004.
4751:
4750:
4745:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4723:
4688:
4636:
4622:
4608:
4592:
4567:
4534:
4501:
4468:
4419:
4367:
4318:
4286:
4234:
4220:
4203:
4178:
4145:
4138:
4120:
4101:
4057:
4034:
4018:
4009:
3983:
3958:
3951:
3927:
3914:
3907:
3889:
3883:
3858:
3821:
3793:
3778:
3756:
3744:
3724:
3710:
3690:
3668:
3635:
3629:978-0226317830
3628:
3610:
3603:
3585:
3578:
3560:
3545:
3522:
3509:
3496:, ed. (1870).
3494:Smith, William
3479:
3467:
3461:978-0226317830
3460:
3442:
3417:
3382:
3356:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3279:
3277:Social science
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3187:
3184:
3172:
3169:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3128:
3125:United Kingdom
3122:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3088:
3082:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3066:
3060:
3054:
3048:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3020:
3014:
3006:
3005:
3004:
2998:
2992:
2986:
2980:
2974:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2842:Food scientist
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2807:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2740:
2739:
2738:
2736:Data scientist
2733:
2717:
2716:Formal science
2714:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2573:Anthropologist
2564:
2563:Social science
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2523:Sociobiologist
2520:
2515:
2513:Radiobiologist
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2478:Parasitologist
2473:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2464:Paleontologist
2461:
2459:Paleobiologist
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2427:Neuroscientist
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2407:Microbiologist
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
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2313:Epidemiologist
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2018:Agrophysicist
2016:
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1997:Volcanologist
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3368:
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3342:
3333:
3252:Protoscience
3222:Intellectual
3207:Fields Medal
3180:
3157:
3063:South Africa
3051:Saudi Arabia
2957:
2852:Nutritionist
2773:Statistician
2634:Psychologist
2538:Toxicologist
2488:Physiologist
2377:Immunologist
2333:Hematologist
2308:Entomologist
2298:Embryologist
2232:Biophysicist
2146:Life science
1992:Speleologist
1987:Seismologist
1972:Palynologist
1942:Mineralogist
1912:Glaciologist
1907:Geophysicist
1882:Geobiologist
1867:Edaphologist
1862:Dendrologist
1741:Femtochemist
1711:Astrochemist
1635:human genome
1616:
1601:
1589:
1570:
1559:
1554:
1506:specializing
1478:universities
1471:
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1435:20th century
1424:
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1210:
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1130:and optics.
1042:
1025:Michelangelo
997:Ibn al-Nafis
951:
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906:Roman Empire
898:philosophers
887:
874:
861:social norms
857:
824:Enrico Fermi
680:
677:19th century
657:philosophers
650:
633:
631:
584:
552:
417:Liberal arts
317:Sociological
263:Mathematical
161:Related jobs
112:Competencies
46:Pierre Curie
4859:In Our Time
4785:Thomas Kuhn
4586:3 September
4521:: 549–552.
4488:: 419–421.
3432:7 September
3407:3 September
3339:"scientist"
3247:Nobel Prize
3069:New Zealand
2917:By employer
2768:Probabilist
2706:Sociologist
2605:Demographer
2483:Pathologist
2444:Osteologist
2392:Mammalogist
2367:Ichnologist
2348:Histologist
2222:Biolinguist
2167:Acarologist
2053:Cosmologist
2013:Acoustician
1977:Petrologist
1932:Limnologist
1922:Hydrologist
1701:Agrochemist
1573:Nobel Prize
1440:Marie Curie
1397:Tobacconist
1166:Von Neumann
1045:Renaissance
1043:During the
1039:Renaissance
973:theologians
948:Middle Ages
689:philosopher
521:Instruments
442:Professions
437:War studies
344:Engineering
107:Description
58:Nobel Prize
50:Marie Curie
4875:Scientists
4869:Categories
4197:2007-05-19
4003:2008-01-15
3977:2010-06-07
3852:14 January
3830:Noll, Mark
3542:1135457395
3534:, Volume 1
3325:References
3202:Researcher
3175:See also:
2995:Bangladesh
2954:By country
2949:Demography
2778:Topologist
2748:Algebraist
2543:Virologist
2417:Mycologist
2328:Geneticist
2318:Ethologist
2217:Biochemist
2119:Astronomer
1887:Geographer
1872:Gemologist
1746:Geochemist
1535:during an
1496:such as a
1447:Profession
1393:Journalist
1389:Heathenism
1280:can cause
1138:— studied
1089:physicists
1081:perception
941:quadrivium
902:physicians
836:Niels Bohr
822:Physicist
810:Physicist
728:mineralogy
685:theologian
638:researches
563:Technology
432:Philosophy
422:Literature
392:Humanities
382:Futurology
332:Linguistic
217:Philosophy
212:Literature
202:Glossaries
150:government
137:employment
97:Laboratory
85:Profession
66:Occupation
4811:Science,
4718:256770781
4096:scientist
3814:28 August
3657:JHU Press
3475:Aristotle
3365:"science"
3232:Licensure
3192:Engineers
3171:By gender
3097:Australia
2977:Indonesia
2610:Economist
2553:Zoologist
2288:Ecologist
2177:Anatomist
2162:Biologist
2134:Cosmology
2008:Physicist
1892:Geologist
1623:cosmology
1585:chemistry
1523:, giving
1494:doctorate
1468:Education
1462:licensure
1454:licensure
1425:scientist
1421:physicien
1417:physicist
1409:Scientist
1405:Physicist
1401:physician
1385:Witticism
1377:pulverize
1339:economist
1334:scientist
1305:scientist
1206:musicians
1190:computers
1096:Helmholtz
1073:mechanics
1061:Descartes
1001:muhaddith
981:al-Biruni
961:polymaths
938:—and the
922:patronage
918:astronomy
914:Astrology
747:astronomy
724:chemistry
709:Aristotle
695:in 1833.
681:scientist
667:. Though
634:scientist
553:Scientist
307:Political
166:Engineers
154:nonprofit
135:Fields of
74:Scientist
34:Scientist
4822:Websites
4800:, 2004.
4770:Daedalus
4762:Archived
4683:25971491
4602:Foreword
4463:17568738
4414:30065341
4362:27383968
4281:21512548
4218:Page 36.
4191:Archived
4049:Archived
4046:Page 274
3997:Archived
3770:Archived
3683:April 4,
3659:. p.33.
3648:Archived
3498:"Thales"
3197:Inventor
3186:See also
3001:Pakistan
2989:Thailand
2983:Malaysia
2923:Academic
2763:Logician
2758:Geometer
2242:Botanist
1633:and the
1577:medicine
1529:teaching
1525:lectures
1381:colonize
1213:medicine
1174:Khinchin
1116:calculus
1049:Italians
989:Avicenna
558:Research
447:Religion
349:Medicine
327:Military
302:Economic
280:Physical
268:Computer
192:Category
146:industry
142:Academia
4793:, 1962.
4661:Bibcode
4441:Bibcode
4392:Bibcode
4340:Bibcode
4259:Bibcode
4042:Science
3272:Science
3267:Scholar
3103:Germany
2971:Nigeria
2795:Applied
2753:Analyst
1696:Chemist
1670:thought
1627:biology
1581:physics
1476:(e.g.,
1345:atheist
1282:disease
1217:biology
1202:Galileo
1132:Fourier
1120:Leibniz
1104:hearing
977:Alhazen
969:priests
931:trivium
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755:natural
732:geology
699:History
644:of the
387:History
234:Outline
207:History
187:Outline
177:Science
128:Science
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4581:Wired
4099:p.72.
3846:(PDF)
3839:(PDF)
3401:(PDF)
3394:(PDF)
3145:: 140
3131:Japan
3109:Italy
3079:Spain
3057:China
3035:Egypt
3023:Chile
3017:Kenya
3011:India
1667:human
1655:brain
1379:, to
1225:Galen
1223:from
1221:blood
1128:light
1108:music
1092:Young
1005:ulema
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4679:PMID
4588:2018
4459:PMID
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4277:PMID
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