Scurvy - Knowledge

1201:(1753) Lind explained the details of his clinical trial and concluded "the results of all my experiments was, that oranges and lemons were the most effectual remedies for this distemper at sea." However, the experiment and its results occupied only a few paragraphs in a work that was long and complex and had little impact. Lind himself never actively promoted lemon juice as a single 'cure'. He shared medical opinion at the time that scurvy had multiple causes – notably hard work, bad water, and the consumption of salt meat in a damp atmosphere which inhibited healthful perspiration and normal excretion – and therefore required multiple solutions. Lind was also sidetracked by the possibilities of producing a concentrated 'rob' of lemon juice by boiling it. This process destroyed the vitamin C and was therefore unsuccessful. 1424:

meat was well known as a practical antiscorbutic among civilian whalers and explorers in the Arctic. In the latter half of the 19th century there was greater recognition of the value of eating fresh meat as a means of avoiding or treating scurvy, but the lack of available game to hunt at high latitudes in winter meant it was not always a viable remedy. Criticism also focused on the fact that some of the men most affected by scurvy on Naval polar expeditions had apparently been heavy drinkers, with suggestions that this predisposed them to the condition. Even cooking fresh meat did not entirely destroy its antiscorbutic properties, especially as many cooking methods failed to bring all the meat to high temperature.

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championing the cause of citrus juice, therefore, had no practical impact. The medical theory was based on the assumption that scurvy was a disease of internal putrefaction brought on by faulty digestion caused by the hardships of life at sea and the naval diet. Although this basic idea was given different emphases by successive theorists, the remedies they advocated (and which the navy accepted) amounted to little more than the consumption of 'fizzy drinks' to activate the digestive system, the most extreme of which was the regular consumption of 'elixir of vitriol' – sulphuric acid taken with spirits and barley water, and laced with spices.

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It was the acid, not the (then-unknown) Vitamin C that was believed to cure scurvy. In fact, the West Indian limes were significantly lower in Vitamin C than the previous lemons and further were not served fresh but rather as lime juice, which had been exposed to light and air, and piped through copper tubing, all of which significantly reduced the Vitamin C. Indeed, a 1918 animal experiment using representative samples of the Navy and Merchant Marine's lime juice showed that it had virtually no antiscorbutic power at all.

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exclusively human disease. Certain birds, mammals, and fish are susceptible to scurvy, but pigeons are unaffected, since they can synthesize ascorbic acid internally. Holst and Frølich found they could cure scurvy in guinea pigs with the addition of various fresh foods and extracts. This discovery of an animal experimental model for scurvy, which was made even before the essential idea of "vitamins" in foods had been put forward, has been called the single most important piece of vitamin C research.

1397:, also known as "common scurvygrass", acquired its common name from the observation that it cured scurvy, and it was taken on board ships in dried bundles or distilled extracts. Its very bitter taste was usually disguised with herbs and spices; however, this did not prevent scurvygrass drinks and sandwiches from becoming a popular fad in the UK until the middle of the nineteenth century, when citrus fruits became more readily available. 1053:, landed on the northern coast of Madagascar specifically to obtain lemons and oranges for his crew to stop scurvy. Captain Lancaster conducted an experiment using four ships under his command. One ship's crew received routine doses of lemon juice while the other three ships did not receive any such treatment. As a result, members of the non-treated ships started to contract scurvy, with many dying as a result. 456: 4528: 51: 1250:

fresh food and greenstuffs. Another beneficial rule implemented by Cook was his prohibition of the consumption of salt fat skimmed from the ship's copper boiling pans, then a common practice elsewhere in the Navy. In contact with air, the copper formed compounds that prevented the absorption of vitamins by the intestines.

1019:) to make a tea that was later shown to contain 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams. Such treatments were not available aboard ship, where the disease was most common. Later, possibly inspired by this incident, several European countries experimented with preparations of various conifers, such as 1423:

expeditions in the mid 19th century it was widely believed that scurvy was prevented by good hygiene on board ship, regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew, rather than by a diet of fresh food. Navy expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy even while fresh (not jerked or tinned)

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had arrived in India after a four-month voyage without a trace of scurvy and with a crew that was healthier than when it set out. The effect was immediate. Fleet commanders clamoured also to be supplied with lemon juice, and by June the Admiralty acknowledged the groundswell of demand in the navy and

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Although towards the end of the century MacBride's theories were being challenged, the medical authorities in Britain remained committed to the notion that scurvy was a disease of internal 'putrefaction' and the Sick and Hurt Board, run by administrators, felt obliged to follow its advice. Within the

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Cook did not lose a single man to scurvy, and his report came down in favour of malt and wort, although it is now clear that the reason for the health of his crews on this and other voyages was Cook's regime of shipboard cleanliness, enforced by strict discipline, as well as frequent replenishment of

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Heald, Mr. Ferrar, and Cross have very badly swollen legs, whilst Heald's are discoloured as well. The remainder of the party seem fairly well, but not above suspicion; Walker's ankles are slightly swollen. within a fortnight of the outbreak there is scarcely a sign of it remaining Heald's is the

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of tissue saturation levels), and those given 10 mg per day (which produced lower blood levels). Men in the prison study developed the first signs of scurvy about four weeks after starting the vitamin C-free diet, whereas in the British study, six to eight months were required, possibly because

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began to supplement lemons, when Spain's alliance with France against Britain in the Napoleonic Wars made the supply of Mediterranean lemons problematic, and because they were more easily obtained from Britain's Caribbean colonies and were believed to be more effective because they were more acidic.

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On returning, Lopes' ship had left him on St Helena, where with admirable sagacity and industry he planted vegetables and nurseries with which passing ships were marvellously sustained. There were 'wild groves' of oranges, lemons and other fruits that ripened all the year round, large pomegranates

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Collagen is a primary structural protein in the human body, necessary for healthy blood vessels, muscle, skin, bone, cartilage, and other connective tissues. Defective connective tissue leads to fragile capillaries, resulting in abnormal bleeding, bruising, and internal hemorrhaging. Collagen is an

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An interesting early description of scurvy, and one which is quite convincing, is that of de Joinville, who accompanied the Crusaders in their invasion of Egypt under St. Lewis, about the middle of the thirteenth century. It is probable that scurvy existed in the northern parts of Europe and Asia

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Men in both studies, on a diet devoid or nearly devoid of vitamin C, had blood levels of vitamin C too low to be accurately measured when they developed signs of scurvy, and in the Iowa study, at this time were estimated (by labeled vitamin C dilution) to have a body pool of less than 300 mg,

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The belief that scurvy was fundamentally a nutritional deficiency, best treated by consumption of fresh food, particularly fresh citrus or fresh meat, was not universal in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and thus sailors and explorers continued to have scurvy into the 20th century. For example,

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was uninterested in the wort, malt and elixir of vitriol which were still being issued to ships of the Royal Navy, and demanded that he be supplied with lemons, to counteract scurvy on the voyage. Members of the Sick and Hurt Board, recently augmented by two practical naval surgeons, supported the

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their test diet of grains and flour, which had earlier produced beriberi in their pigeons, and were surprised when classic scurvy resulted instead. This was a serendipitous choice of animal. Until that time, scurvy had not been observed in any organism apart from humans and had been considered an

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Although throughout this period sailors and naval surgeons were increasingly convinced that citrus fruits could cure scurvy, the classically trained physicians who determined medical policy dismissed this evidence as merely anecdotal, as it did not conform to their theories of disease. Literature

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during World War II in Britain and in the United States on Iowa state prisoner volunteers in the late 1960s. These studies both found that all obvious symptoms of scurvy previously induced by an experimental scorbutic diet with extremely low vitamin C content could be completely reversed by

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As they sailed farther up the east coast of Africa, they met local traders, who traded them fresh oranges. Within 6 days of eating the oranges, da Gama's crew recovered fully and he noted, "It pleased God in his mercy that ... all our sick recovered their health for the air of the place is very

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It took a few years before the method of distribution to all ships in the fleet had been perfected and the supply of the huge quantities of lemon juice required to be secured, but by 1800, the system was in place and functioning. This led to a remarkable health improvement among the sailors and

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Apart from ocean travel, even in Europe, until the late Middle Ages, scurvy was common in late winter, when few green vegetables, fruits and root vegetables were available. This gradually improved with the introduction from the Americas of potatoes; by 1800, scurvy was virtually unheard of in

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Contudo, tais narrativas não impediram que novas tragédias causadas pelo escorbuto assolassem os navegantes, seja pela falta de comunicação entre os viajantes e responsáveis pela sua saúde, ou pela impossibilidade de se disponibilizar de frutas frescas durante as travessias marítimas.

1257:, 1789–1794. Malaspina's medical officer, Pedro González, was convinced that fresh oranges and lemons were essential for preventing scurvy. Only one outbreak occurred, during a 56-day trip across the open sea. Five sailors came down with symptoms, one seriously. After three days at 1269:

Royal Navy, however, opinion – strengthened by first-hand experience of the use of lemon juice at the siege of Gibraltar and during Admiral Rodney's expedition to the Caribbean – had become increasingly convinced of its efficacy. This was reinforced by the writings of experts like

1549:". Szent-Györgyi suspected hexuronic acid, which he had isolated from adrenal glands, to be the antiscorbutic agent, but he could not prove it without an animal-deficiency model. In 1932, the connection between hexuronic acid and scurvy was finally proven by American researcher 424:(GULO) enzyme has no significance, and in modern Western societies, scurvy is rarely present in adults, although infants and elderly people are affected. Virtually all commercially available baby formulas contain added vitamin C, preventing infantile scurvy. Human 1457:

Infantile scurvy emerged in the late-19th century because children were being fed pasteurized cow's milk, particularly in the urban upper class. While pasteurization killed bacteria, it also destroyed vitamin C. This was eventually resolved by supplementing with

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Wilson, Nick; Ngheim, Nhung; Summers, Jennifer; Carter, Mary-Ann; Harper, Glyn; Wilson, Nicholas (2013). "A nutritional analysis of New Zealand Military food rations at Gallipoli in 1915: likely contribution to scurvy and other nutrient deficiency disorders".

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recorded a number of different remedies for scurvy known at this time in the Moluccas, including a kind of wine mixed with cloves and ginger, and "certain herbs". The Dutch sailors in the area were said to cure the same disease by drinking lime juice.

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These travel accounts did not stop further maritime tragedies caused by scurvy, first because of the lack of communication between travelers and those responsible for their health, and because fruits and vegetables could not be kept for long on ships.

1486:", particularly in tinned meat. However, Scott discovered that a diet of fresh meat from Antarctic seals cured scurvy before any fatalities occurred. But while he saw fresh meat as a cure for scurvy, he remained confused about its underlying causes. 1360:

helped the French to curb an epidemic of scurvy. The meat was cooked but was freshly obtained from young horses bought from Arabs, and was nevertheless effective. This helped to start the 19th-century tradition of horse meat consumption in France.

2384: 5054: 5039: 5024: 1690:. There are known species of birds and fish that do not synthesize their own vitamin C. All species that do not synthesize ascorbate require it in the diet. Deficiency causes scurvy in humans, and somewhat similar symptoms in other animals. 1597:

additional vitamin C supplementation of only 10 mg per day. In these experiments, no clinical difference was noted between men given 70 mg vitamin C per day (which produced blood levels of vitamin C of about 0.55 mg/dl, about

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published a book on scurvy in which he stated, "scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and greens; which is alone the primary cause of the disease", and urged the use of fresh fruit and vegetables as a cure.

376: 2919:"Relação do Piloto Anônimo", narrativa publicada em 1507 sobre a viagem de Pedro Álvares Cabral às Índias, indicava que os "refrescos" oferecidos aos portugueses pelo rei de Melinde eram o remédio eficaz contra a doença (Nava, 2004). 544:

important part of bone, so bone formation is also affected. Teeth loosen, bones break more easily, and once-healed breaks may recur. Defective collagen fibrillogenesis impairs wound healing. Untreated scurvy is invariably fatal.

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With the coming of war in 1793, the need to eliminate scurvy acquired a new urgency. But the first initiative came not from the medical establishment but from the admirals. Ordered to lead an expedition against Mauritius,

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Scurvy, including subclinical scurvy, is caused by a deficiency of dietary vitamin C, since humans are unable to metabolically synthesize vitamin C. Provided the diet contains sufficient vitamin C, the lack of working

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increased marine speed via steam shipping, and improved nutrition on land, reduced the incidence of scurvy – and thus the ineffectiveness of copper-piped lime juice compared to fresh lemons was not immediately

447:) and thus is still widespread in areas of the world dependent on external food aid. Although rare, there are also documented cases of scurvy due to poor dietary choices by people living in industrialized nations. 2964:

Logo que chegámos mandou-nos El Rey visitar e ao mesmo tempo um refresco de carneiros, galinhas, patos, limões e laranjas, as melhores que há no mundo, e com ellas sararam de escorbuto alguns doentes que tinhamos

1227:, Surgeon General of the Army and later President of the Royal Society, this idea was that scurvy was the result of a lack of 'fixed air' in the tissues which could be prevented by drinking infusions of malt and 1148:

formally demonstrated that scurvy could be treated by supplementing the diet with citrus fruit, in one of the first controlled clinical experiments reported in the history of medicine. As a naval surgeon on HMS

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A Treatise on the Scurvy: In Three Parts, Containing an Inquiry Into the Nature, Causes, an Cure, of that Disease, Together with a Critical and Chronological View of what Has Been Published on the Subject

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party wintering in the Antarctic Regions will have great difficulty in providing themselves with fresh food; and, as we have proved, where such conditions exist there need be no fear of the dreaded word

1388:", first for British sailors, then for English immigrants within the former British colonies (particularly America, New Zealand and South Africa), and finally, in old American slang, all British people. 2376: 1557:. King's laboratory was given some hexuronic acid by Szent-Györgyi and soon established that it was the sought-after anti-scorbutic agent. Because of this, hexuronic acid was subsequently renamed 1442:

fresh meat (especially organ meat and raw meat, consumed in arctic exploration) also cured scurvy, undermining the theory that fresh vegetable matter was essential to preventing and curing scurvy;

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as a handbook for apprentice surgeons aboard the company's ships. He repeated the experience of mariners that the cure for scurvy was fresh food or, if not available, oranges, lemons, limes, and

1098:. He was, however, unable to explain the reason why, and his assertion had no impact on the prevailing opinion of the influential physicians of the age, that scurvy was a digestive complaint. 918:

Scurvy will improve with doses of vitamin C as low as 10 mg per day though doses of around 100 mg per day are typically recommended. Most people make a full recovery within 2 weeks.

1208:, in his celebrated voyage of 1740–1744, lost nearly two-thirds of his crew (1,300 out of 2,000) within the first 10 months of the voyage. The Royal Navy enlisted 184,899 sailors during the 984:, a stopping point for homebound voyages from Asia, and left their sick who had scurvy and other ailments to be taken home by the next ship if they recovered. In 1500, one of the pilots of 4757:

Ohta Y, Nishikimi M (October 1999). "Random nucleotide substitutions in primate nonfunctional gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the missing enzyme in L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis".

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and described an often fatal condition associated with skin lesions, bleeding gums and lethargy. It was eventually identified as scurvy and the remedies already in use at sea implemented.

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Scurvy was not only a disease of seafarers. The early colonists of Australia suffered greatly because of the lack of fresh fruit and vegetables in the winter. There the disease was called

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for the Scurvy" amongst other largely medicinal and herbal recipes. The recipe consisted of extracts from various plants mixed with a plentiful supply of orange juice, white wine or beer.

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under Commodore Peter Rainier sailed for the east with an outward bound convoy, but the warships were fully supplied with lemon juice and the sugar with which it had to be mixed.

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request, and the Admiralty ordered that it be done. There was, however, a last minute change of plan, and the expedition against Mauritius was cancelled. On 2 May 1794, only

2737: 992:, its king offered the expedition fresh supplies such as lambs, chickens, and ducks, along with lemons and oranges, due to which "some of our ill were cured of scurvy". 900:, which is high in vitamin C. Nutritional supplements which provide ascorbic acid well in excess of what is required to prevent scurvy may cause adverse health effects. 3849: 4599: 5174: 3894: 2546: 910:

used fresh seal meat and increased allowance of bottled fruits, whereby complete recovery from incipient scurvy was reported to have taken less than two weeks.

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only case that hung at all and now he is able to get about once more. Cross's recovery was so rapid that he was able to join the seal-killing party last week.

3693: 3573: 2786:. Volume 5 of East Asian economic and socio-cultural studies: East Asian maritime history, ISSN 1860-1812. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 127. 4983: 4870:

Barlow JB, Bosman CK (February 1966). "Aneurysmal protrusion of the posterior leaflet of the mitral valve. An auscultatory-electrocardiographic syndrome".

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The knowledge that consuming foods containing vitamin C is a cure for scurvy has been repeatedly forgotten and rediscovered into the early-20th century.

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agreed to a proposal from the Sick and Hurt Board that lemon juice and sugar should in future be issued as a daily ration to the crews of all warships.

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Unfortunately, does not mention the nature of the provisions consumed aboard these ships in the Indian Ocean, or how they were stored and preserved.

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whose fermentation within the body would stimulate digestion and restore the missing gases. These ideas received wide and influential backing, when

2119: 1064:. Jonathan Lamb wrote: "In 1499, Vasco da Gama lost 116 of his crew of 170; In 1520, Magellan lost 208 out of 230; ... all mainly to scurvy." 201:

It takes at least a month of little to no vitamin C in the diet before symptoms occur. In modern times, scurvy occurs most commonly in people with

4404: 349:, loosening of teeth, poor wound healing, and emotional changes (which may appear before any physical changes). Dry mouth and dry eyes similar to 243:

Treatment is with vitamin C supplements taken by mouth. Improvement often begins in a few days with complete recovery in a few weeks. Sources of

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Observations on the Scurvy: With a Review of the Theories Lately Advanced on that Disease; and the Opinions of Dr Milman Refuted from Practice

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and a number of vegetables, including red peppers, broccoli, and tomatoes. Cooking often decreases the residual amount of vitamin C in foods.

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in both glycogen metabolism and fatty acid metabolism. Impairment of either fatty acid metabolism or glycogen metabolism leads to decreased

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in February 1928, where he and a companion ate only meat for a year while under close medical observation, yet remained in good health.

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Avoiding the Dire Straits: An Inquiry Into Food Provisions and Scurvy in the Maritime and Military History of China and Wider East Asia

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In the resulting confusion, a new hypothesis was proposed, following the new germ theory of disease – that scurvy was caused by

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consequently played a critical role in gaining the advantage in naval battles against enemies who had yet to introduce the measures.

4522: 4051: 3819: 3598: 2872: 2791: 2574: 1929: 2629: 2158:"Vitamin C deficiency and depletion in the United States: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988 to 1994" 2142: 1111: 2699: 5249: 5191: 2947: 1956: 5477: 5445: 4956: 2841: 1282: 3420:( ... but is explained very well by our cause, which is the absence of, lack of, and abstinence from fresh vegetables, ... ) 463:

Vitamins are essential to the production and use of enzymes that are involved in ongoing processes throughout the human body.

5160: 4512: 2763: 1717: 1531:, proved that the all-meat diet they consumed did not lead to vitamin deficiencies. He participated in a study in New York's 391: 3418:" ... sed ex nostra causa optime explicatur, quae est absentia, carentia & abstinentia a vegetabilibus recentibus, ... " 2097: 301:, more than 100 years before the birth of James Lind, thanks to the treatise by Fray Agustín Farfán in 1579 under the title 3846: 3635:

Stubbs, B. J. (2003). "Captain Cook's Beer; the anti-scorbutic effects of malt and beer in late 18th century sea voyages".

270:, and historically it was a limiting factor in long-distance sea travel, often killing large numbers of people. During the 5606: 4603: 4244: 1439:

that had been exposed to light, air and copper tubing did not – thus undermining the theory that citrus cured scurvy;

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Fresh meat from animals, notably internal organs, contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy, and even partly treat it.

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Blane, Gilbert (1785). Observations on the diseases incident to seamen. London: Joseph Cooper; Edinburgh: William Creech

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In 1907, an animal model which would eventually help to isolate and identify the "antiscorbutic factor" was discovered.

1409: 236:, and assists the intestines in the absorption of iron from foods. Diagnosis is typically based on outward appearance, 1700:(GULO) enzyme, which is required in the last step of vitamin C synthesis. The genomes of these species contain GULO as 5524: 1328: 1032:

Tractado breve de anathomía y chirugía, y de algunas enfermedades que más comúnmente suelen haver en esta Nueva España

4677:"Molecular basis for the deficiency in humans of gulonolactone oxidase, a key enzyme for ascorbic acid biosynthesis" 4434:"Medical experiments carried out in Sheffield on conscientious objectors to military service during the 1939–45 war" 3701: 3570: 1253:

The first major long distance expedition that experienced virtually no scurvy was that of the Spanish naval officer

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During the 18th century, scurvy killed more British sailors than wartime enemy action. It was mainly by scurvy that

190:(ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, fatigue, and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, 4846: 3950:""A Good Advertisement for Teetotalers": Polar Explorers and Debates over the Health Effects of Alcohol, 1875–1904" 2598: 1349: 1274: 1087: 5621: 2212: 3313: 1121:

In 2009, a handwritten household book authored by a Cornishwoman in 1707 was discovered in a house in Hasfield,

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the subjects were pre-loaded with a 70 mg/day supplement for six weeks before the scorbutic diet was fed.

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Hodges, R. E.; Baker, E. M.; Hood, J.; Sauberlich, H. E.; March, S. C. (1969). "Experimental Scurvy in Man".

4118:"Tainted bodies: scurvy, bad food and the reputation of the British National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904" 3991:"Tainted bodies: scurvy, bad food and the reputation of the British National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904" 5259: 4262: 3780:

Vale, Brian (2008). "The Conquest of Scurvy in the Royal Navy 1793–1800: a Challenge to Current Orthodoxy".

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contracted by ship's crews in the Norwegian Fishing Fleet, wanted a small test mammal to substitute for the

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in which he recommended oranges and lemons for scurvy, a remedy that was already known in the Spanish navy.

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juice or cooked potatoes. Native Americans helped save some newcomers from scurvy by directing them to eat

194:, gum disease, changes to hair, and bleeding from the skin may occur. As scurvy worsens, there can be poor 5337: 2059: 1593: 1393: 1242:, malt and wort were top of the list of the remedies he was ordered to investigate. The others were beer, 1145: 573: 495: 491: 297:

However, the Spanish already knew about the use of citrus fruits as a remedy since the second half of the

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ration of one pound to sailors to prevent scurvy. The product became nearly ubiquitous, hence the term "

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Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail

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Moeller's disease, Cheadle's disease, scorbutus, Barlow's disease, hypoascorbemia, vitamin C deficiency

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Norum KR, Grav HJ (June 2002). "Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich--pioneers in the combat of scurvy".

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Ellis CN, Vanderveen EE, Rasmussen JE (1984). "Scurvy. A case caused by peculiar dietary habits".

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Lauchlin Rose patented a method used to preserve citrus juice without alcohol in 1867, creating a

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Various childhood onset disorders can mimic the clinical and X-ray picture of scurvy such as:

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While many animals produce their own vitamin C, humans and a few others do not. Vitamin C, an

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Torck, Mathieu (2009). "Of junks and compasses: food supplies of pre-modern Chinese seamen".

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had a lack of vitamin C in their diet which caused many of the soldiers to contract scurvy.

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Baron, Jeremy Hugh (2009). "Sailors' scurvy before and after James Lind - a reassessment".

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to vitamin C. However, some mammals have lost the ability to synthesize vitamin C, notably

5472: 5467: 3853: 3577: 3414: 3024: 3002: 2951: 2927: 2907: 2845: 2685: 2662: 1772: 1635: 1584:. Case reports in the developing world of those with poorly healing wounds have occurred. 1212:; 133,708 of these were "missing" or died from disease, and scurvy was the leading cause. 1122: 1068: 1038: 1000: 877: 719: 619: 275: 214: 202: 125: 105: 3815: 498:(energy) production. ATP is needed for cellular functions throughout the body, including 2838: 2621: 2495: 2444: 2134: 428:

contains sufficient vitamin C, if the mother has an adequate intake. Commercial milk is

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Weakness, feeling tired, changes to hair, sore arms and legs, gum disease, easy bleeding

5507: 4818: 4793: 3276: 3092: 3065: 2452: 2342: 2262: 2237: 2182: 2157: 1867: 1842: 1546: 1365: 1262: 1220: 1178: 1170: 935: 865: 759: 533: 429: 306: 274:, it was assumed that 50 percent of the sailors would die of scurvy on a major trip. A 254:

Scurvy is rare compared to other nutritional deficiencies. It occurs more often in the

4977: 4770: 4734: 4717: 4239: 4092: 4068: 2526: 5595: 5542: 5440: 4972: 4883: 4149: 4022: 3801: 3493: 3467: 2944: 2511: 1948: 1659: 1581: 1377: 1270: 1236: 970: 927: 841: 587: 540:

are important for stabilizing collagen by cross-linking the propeptides in collagen.

537: 468: 464: 291: 267: 233: 72: 5063: 4948: 3556: 3389: 2733: 2358: 490:

from lack of carnitine, and/or from lack of catecholamines which are needed for the

5460: 5435: 5389: 5183: 5131: 4585: 3793: 2468: 1569: 1381: 1294: 1219:

In 1764, a new and similarly inaccurate theory on scurvy appeared. Advocated by Dr

1190: 1083: 1011:' knowledge to save his men who were dying of scurvy. He boiled the needles of the 981: 973:, the curative effects of citrus fruit were already observed and were confirmed by 861: 833: 679: 659: 436: 298: 287: 259: 248: 109: 3694:"BBC - History - British History in depth: Captain Cook and the Scourge of Scurvy" 3540: 3373: 341:

production. Other symptoms include skin changes with roughness, easy bruising and

286:, is generally credited with proving that scurvy can be successfully treated with 5085: 4920: 4337: 4296:"The Albert Szent-Gyorgyi Papers Szeged, 1931-1947: Vitamin C, Muscles, and WWII" 3454: 2862: 2781: 2503: 2093: 1592:

Notable human dietary studies of experimentally induced scurvy were conducted on

5580: 5570: 5455: 5211: 5201: 5140: 5115: 2313: 1651: 1246:(a good source of vitamin C) and Lind's 'rob'. The list did not include lemons. 1020: 939: 897: 829: 729: 425: 346: 271: 221: 129: 100: 5137: 5134: 5096: 4219: 1858: 1568:

Rates of scurvy in most of the world are low. Those most commonly affected are

5272: 5230: 4910: 4809: 4693: 4676: 4624: 4568: 4551: 4133: 4006: 3880: 2716: 1701: 1687: 1539: 1510: 1490: 1373: 1357: 1243: 1232: 1154: 1114: 931: 873: 749: 611: 455: 366: 279: 266:

are reported at 5 to 45 percent. Scurvy was described as early as the time of

206: 158: 113: 4401:"Surprise scurvy cases suggest nutrient deficiencies, even amongst the obese" 4377: 4360: 4141: 4014: 3975: 432:, a heating process that destroys the natural vitamin C content of the milk. 5126: 5048: 4489: 3173:

Disguised As the Devil: How Lyme Disease Created Witches and Changed History

2253: 1721: 1627: 1621: 1479: 1095: 849: 821: 699: 669: 472: 382: 342: 338: 330: 244: 229: 198:

healing, personality changes, and finally death from infection or bleeding.

187: 93: 50: 4778: 4577: 4459: 4386: 4345: 4204: 4176: 3841: 3648: 3548: 3501: 3381: 3101: 3050: 2191: 1876: 1071:

advocated drinking orange and lemon juice as a means of preventing scurvy.

290:

in 1753. Nevertheless, it was not until 1795 that health reformers such as

4891: 4827: 4743: 4702: 4497: 3082: 2725: 2460: 2350: 2321: 2292: 2271: 2173: 5575: 5285: 5244: 5206: 4450: 4433: 3406:(Leiden ("Lugdunum Batavorum"), Netherlands: Conrad Wishof, 1734) p. 16. 1683: 1679: 1662:(non-tarsier prosimians) can make their own vitamin C, and these include 1577: 1502: 1400: 1345: 1166: 966: 893: 837: 709: 513: 483: 444: 440: 362: 354: 326: 263: 225: 133: 4987:. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 533. 4914: 3872: 3764: 3527:

Bartholomew, M. (January 2002). "James Lind and Scurvy: a Revaluation".

3448: 2590: 5384: 1647: 1643: 1162: 1158: 1050: 989: 889: 881: 853: 789: 779: 689: 568: 525: 479: 334: 322: 294:

persuaded the Royal Navy to routinely give lemon juice to its sailors.

17: 5016: 4994:

Physician to the Fleet: The Life and Times of Thomas Trotter 1760-1832

3612:

Physician to the Fleet; the Life and Times of Thomas Trotter 1760-1832

3302: 3037:

Martini E (2002). "Jacques Cartier witnesses a treatment for scurvy".

1110: 329:. After one to three months, patients develop shortness of breath and 5043: 5028: 3360:

Bartholomew, Michael (2002). "James Lind and scurvy: A revaluation".

2211:(Report). Meeting of Interested Parties: Geneva, 18 to 29 June 2001. 1841:

Agarwal, A; Shaharyar, A; Kumar, A; Bhat, MS; Mishra, M (June 2015).

1675: 1639: 1631: 1506: 1498: 1420: 1194: 1182: 1174: 1133: 1061: 951: 947: 943: 885: 869: 809: 799: 739: 639: 553: 529: 237: 191: 162: 1704:, which serve as insight into the evolutionary past of the species. 1454:, a waste product of bacteria, particularly in tainted tinned meat. 1336:

showing the effects of scurvy, from his time aboard HM Convict Ship

3966: 3949: 1678:. Ascorbic acid is also not synthesized by at least two species of 1416:, initially discouraged his men from eating penguin and seal meat. 3591:

Johnson's England: An Account of the Life & Manners of His Age

1671: 1667: 1663: 1655: 1528: 1482:(1901–1904), the prevailing theory was that scurvy was caused by " 1459: 1412:

of 1897–1899 became seriously affected by scurvy when its leader,

1385: 1327: 1186: 1109: 1012: 857: 845: 769: 649: 467:

is needed for a variety of biosynthetic pathways, by accelerating

454: 358: 310: 195: 154: 4079:

I understand that scurvy is now believed to be ptomaine poisoning

1980:

Globalisation, Migration and Health: Challenges and Opportunities

524:. These two enzymes are responsible for the hydroxylation of the 5074: 4324:

Khonsari, H; Grandière-Perez, L; Caumes, E (November 2005). "".

2329:

McKenna KE, Dawson JF (1993). "Scurvy occurring in a teenager".

1258: 1228: 600: 5156: 5152: 4552:"[Scurvy in capybaras bred in captivity in Argentine.]" 2431:

Rivers, JM (1987). "Safety of high-level vitamin C ingestion".

2654:, 3rd ed. (London, England: G. Pearch and W. Woodfall, 1772), 1372:. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1867 required all ships of the 1265:

and many ports of call made it easier to acquire fresh fruit.

369:, fever, convulsions, and eventual death are frequently seen. 303:

Tratado breve de anatomía y cirugía, y de algunas enfermedades

209:, and older people who live alone. Other risk factors include 4976: 4653:. Oregon State University, Micronutrient Information Center. 3303:"SCURVY and its prevention and control in major emergencies" 1843:"Scurvy in pediatric age group - A disease often forgotten?" 1060:(between 1500 and 1800), scurvy killed at least two million 2677:, vol. 1 (New York, New York: William Wood and Co., 1881), 2665:) Symptoms of scurvy were also described by: (i) Pliny, in 2642:

Hippocrates described symptoms of scurvy in book 2 of his

892:. Some fruits and vegetables not high in vitamin C may be 3432:

by Glenn Barnett — Military History — Oct 2006.

2482:

Speth, JD (2019). "Neanderthals, vitamin C, and scurvy".

2094:"A Brief History of Vitamin C and its Deficiency, Scurvy" 820:

Scurvy can be prevented by a diet that includes uncooked

2569:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2008. p. 161. 4627:. University of Maryland Medical Center. January 2007. 4759:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects

3847:Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment 2620:

Bradley S, Buckler MD, Anjali Parish MD (2018-08-27).

1277:

and by the reports of up-and-coming naval commanders.

4919:(3rd ed.). S. Crowder (and six others). p. 4794:"Infantile scurvy: the centenary of Barlow's disease" 3769:. Charles Elliott and G.G.J. and J. Robinson, London. 1056:

It has been estimated by researchers that during the

980:

The Portuguese planted fruit trees and vegetables on

856:. Other sources rich in vitamin C are fruits such as 459:

X-ray of the knee joint (arrow indicates scurvy line)

5006: 3871: 3116:"El descubrimiento español de la cura del escorbuto" 2120:"El descubrimiento español de la cura del escorbuto" 1427:

The confusion is attributed to a number of factors:

1153:, Lind had compared several suggested scurvy cures: 5558: 5523: 5421: 5352: 5229: 5220: 5190: 5106: 5010: 4039:

Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides)

3005:, Cristina B. F. M. Gurgel I; Rachel Lewinsohn II, 2930:, Cristina B. F. M. Gurgel I; Rachel Lewinsohn II, 1235:set off to circumnavigate the world (1768–1771) in 169: 149: 139: 99: 88: 78: 66: 40: 35: 2982:História da Medicina Portuguesa Durante a Expansão 3818:. Knoxville Pediatric Associates. 11 April 2018. 3614:. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. pp. 29–33. 3204:Preserving the self in the south seas, 1680–1840 2754:(2005). Prance, Ghillean; Nesbitt, Mark (eds.). 1580:. There have been outbreaks of the condition in 1435:citrus (particularly lemons) cured scurvy, lime 1102:Scotland, where it had previously been endemic. 954:was carried on Chinese ships to prevent scurvy. 552:Diagnosis is typically based on physical signs, 4798:British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.) 4514:Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Volume 8 4263:"The Nobel Prize and the Discovery of Vitamins" 4218:McClellan Walter S., Du Bois Eugene F. (1930). 3066:"Arginine, scurvy and Cartier's "tree of life"" 2867:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. 2215:. 4 June 2001. MIP/01/APR.SDE.3. Archived from 2053: 2051: 2049: 2047: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2035: 1356:, wrote in his memoirs that the consumption of 409:Photo of the chest cage with scorbutic rosaries 381:A child presenting a "scorbutic tongue" due to 3637:Asia and Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2945:Santa Helena, A Forgotten Portuguese Discovery 2704:Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae (Roma) 1712:In babies, scurvy is sometimes referred to as 1693:Animals that can contract scurvy all lack the 516:, ascorbic acid is required as a cofactor for 504:(For low ATP within the muscle cell, see also 435:Scurvy is one of the accompanying diseases of 224:, is required to make the building blocks for 5168: 4716:Nishikimi M, Kawai T, Yagi K (October 1992). 3879:. U.K. Aug 20, 1867. section 4.5 – via 2971:, Metzer Leone Editorial Aster, Lisbon, p.244 2206:Area of work: nutrition. Progress report 2000 1612:with daily turnover of only 2.5 mg/day. 1527:, an Arctic explorer who had lived among the 1117:, a pioneer in the field of scurvy prevention 8: 4602:. Food Standards Agency (UK). Archived from 4165:Journal of the Norwegian Medical Association 3726:Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration 3665:Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration 3207:. University of Chicago Press. p. 117. 2406:"Forgotten Knowledge: The Science of Scurvy" 969:developed scurvy. In the 1497 expedition of 313:is recommended for the treatment of scurvy. 3442: 3440: 3438: 2066:. Vol. 3, no. 2. pp. 12–23. 1847:Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma 439:(other such micronutrient deficiencies are 62:between the teeth show redness of the gums. 5226: 5175: 5161: 5153: 5007: 4681:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 4550:Cueto GR, Allekotte R, Kravetz FO (2000). 4361:"Lessons on nutrition of displaced people" 3893:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2901:Infantile Scurvy: A Historical Perspective 2669:, book 3, chapter 49; and (ii) Strabo, in 2545:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2433:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1767: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1759: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 876:. It is also found in vegetables, such as 599:Foods and their Vitamin C content per 100 597: 153:Vitamin C supplements, diet that contains 49: 32: 27:Disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C 4817: 4733: 4692: 4567: 4517:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 389. 4449: 4376: 4238: 4097:. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 4073:. 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Crowder (and six others). p. 3339:"Cure for Scurvy discovered by a woman" 1745: 988:'s fleet bound for India noted that in 371: 4511:Miller RE, Fowler ME (July 31, 2014). 4478:American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 4261:Carpenter, Kenneth J. (22 June 2004). 3886: 3729:. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 3571:Captain Cook and the Scourge of Scurvy 3007:Marujos, Alimentação e Higiene a Bordo 2932:Marujos, Alimentação e Higiene a Bordo 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2740:from the original on 10 February 2008. 2632:from the original on 12 February 2010. 2538: 2028:from the original on 8 September 2017. 1997:from the original on 8 September 2017. 397:A child with scurvy in flexion posture 4675:Nishikimi M, Yagi K (December 1991). 4531:from the original on December 7, 2016 4438:International Journal of Epidemiology 4302:. U.S. National Library of Medicine. 4277:from the original on 24 February 2008 4116:Armston-Sheret, Edward (2019-07-01). 3989:Armston-Sheret, Edward (2019-07-01). 3948:Armston-Sheret, Edward (2019-09-01). 3668:. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 2331:Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 2070:from the original on January 24, 2021 1041:, while commanding the first English 7: 4306:from the original on 24 October 2007 4250:from the original on 1 January 2016. 3514: 2996:A medicina nas caravelas - Século XV 2984:, Círculo de Leitores, Lisbon, p.129 2921:A medicina nas caravelas - Século XV 2887:ever since they were settled by man. 2279:Sthoeger ZM, Sthoeger D (1991). "". 1943: 1941: 1783:from the original on 26 January 2017 1626:Most animals and plants are able to 946:." In 406 CE, the Chinese monk 4937:The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C 4843:The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C 4722:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 4411:from the original on 23 August 2017 3349:from the original on 10 March 2009. 3176:. Wythe Avenue Press. p. 114. 2700:"On the genetic etiology of scurvy" 2387:from the original on 16 August 2016 1724:who described it in 1883. However, 1517:In 1915, New Zealand troops in the 556:, and improvement after treatment. 240:, and improvement after treatment. 4959:from the original on 10 March 2010 4631:from the original on 12 April 2008 3840:Larrey is quoted in French by Dr. 3723:Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). 3662:Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). 3221:from the original on 24 June 2016. 2566:Manual of Nutritional Therapeutics 2453:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb23780.x 2343:10.1111/j.1365-2230.1993.tb00976.x 2145:from the original on 23 June 2011. 25: 4657:from the original on 6 March 2007 3319:from the original on 12 July 2018 3190:from the original on 15 May 2016. 2375:Feibel, Carrie (15 August 2016). 2162:American Journal of Public Health 1901:from the original on 30 July 2017 1646:. These make up one of two major 1478:made his first expedition to the 4926: 4649:Higdon, Jane (31 January 2006). 4220:"Prolonged meat diet experiment" 3908:Simpson, J.; Weiner, E. (1989). 3822:from the original on 21 May 2022 3494:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00205.x 3460: 2601:from the original on 6 July 2019 2412:from the original on 10 May 2016 2236:Davies IJ, Temperley JM (1967). 2100:from the original on 9 July 2014 1983:. World Scientific. p. 94. 1474:By the early 20th century, when 402: 390: 374: 4122:Journal of Historical Geography 3995:Journal of Historical Geography 3257:from the original on 2022-07-01 3122:from the original on 2018-02-28 3018:Jacques Cartier's Second Voyage 2758:. Routledge. pp. 163–164. 2648:Liber de internis affectionibus 2238:"A case of scurvy in a student" 2011:Mankind: The Story of All of Us 1959:from the original on 2018-09-16 1545:isolated a compound he called " 1076:Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola 353:may occur. In the late stages, 4992:Vale, B.; Edwards, G. (2011). 4841:Carpenter, Kenneth J. 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(Cited by James Lind, 2484:Quaternary International 1555:University of Pittsburgh 1344:The surgeon-in-chief of 1199:A Treatise on the Scurvy 211:intestinal malabsorption 122:intestinal malabsorption 4984:Encyclopædia Britannica 4694:10.1093/ajcn/54.6.1203s 4359:Mason, JB (July 2002). 3923:Mabey, Richard (1972). 3201:Lamb, Jonathan (2001). 3142:A history of Madagascar 3064:Durzan, Don J. (2009). 2864:Scurvy Past and Present 2848:. Retrieved 2016-05-31. 2302:Archives of Dermatology 2254:10.1136/pgmj.43.502.539 1953:Linus Pauling Institute 1594:conscientious objectors 1023:, as cures for scurvy. 1009:St. Lawrence Iroquoians 578:osteogenesis imperfecta 506:Purine nucleotide cycle 422:L-gulonolactone oxidase 4872:American Heart Journal 4432:Pemberton, J. (2006). 4378:10.1093/jn/132.7.2096s 3413:1 January 2016 at the 3170:Drymon, M. M. (2008). 2661:1 January 2016 at the 1922:Quick Look: Metabolism 1698:-gulonolactone oxidase 1630:through a sequence of 1394:Cochlearia officinalis 1341: 1118: 1003:, while exploring the 977:and his crew in 1507. 930:as early as 1550 574:Osteochondrodysplasias 560:Differential diagnosis 492:cAMP-dependent pathway 478:The early symptoms of 460: 118:substance use disorder 5431:Electrolyte imbalance 5299:Pyridoxine deficiency 5273:Riboflavin deficiency 4490:10.1093/ajcn/22.5.535 3468:second edition (1757) 3430:"The Blood of Nelson" 3232:Kerr, Gordon (2009). 3083:10.1186/1746-4269-5-5 2861:(31 December 2016) . 2698:Stone, Irwin (1966). 2174:10.2105/AJPH.94.5.870 1730:mitral valve prolapse 1525:Vilhjalmur Stefansson 1354:Dominique-Jean Larrey 1331: 1113: 1067:In 1593, Admiral Sir 488:fatty acid metabolism 458: 245:vitamin C in the diet 60:triangle-shaped areas 5607:Vitamin deficiencies 5409:Vitamin K deficiency 5403:Vitamin E deficiency 5380:Vitamin D deficiency 5361:Vitamin A deficiency 5260:Korsakoff's syndrome 4407:. 28 November 2016. 3852:4 March 2016 at the 3782:The Mariner's Mirror 3281:. New York: Viking. 2969:Pedro Álvares Cabral 2752:Pickersgill, Barbara 2525:Scott, R.F. (1905). 2408:. 28 November 2010. 2381:Houston Public Media 2222:on 16 December 2006. 1897:. 11 February 2016. 1779:. 1 September 2016. 1734:John Brereton Barlow 1628:synthesize vitamin C 1543:Albert Szent-Györgyi 1419:In the Royal Navy's 1283:Rear Admiral Gardner 1263:Spain's large empire 1255:Alessandro Malaspina 975:Pedro Álvares Cabral 965:In the 13th century 822:vitamin C-rich foods 610:Vitamin C contents ( 512:In the synthesis of 258:in association with 5617:Nutritional anemias 3447:James Lind (1772). 3343:The Daily Telegraph 3234:Timeline of Britain 2950:29 May 2011 at the 2667:Naturalis historiae 2597:. 25 October 2017. 2531:. London. pp. 2496:2019QuInt.500..172S 2445:1987NYASA.498..445R 2122:. 27 February 2018. 2060:"The Age of Scurvy" 1538:In 1927, Hungarian 1476:Robert Falcon Scott 1380:to provide a daily 1177:, and a mixture of 1017:eastern white cedar 603: 321:Early symptoms are 173:Rare (contemporary) 5423:Mineral deficiency 5222:Vitamin deficiency 5107:External resources 4949:"Scott and Scurvy" 4451:10.1093/ije/dyl020 4371:(7): 2096S–2103S. 3859:Musée des Familles 2967:in Portuguese, in 2844:2015-10-19 at the 2839:"Scott and Scurvy" 2684:5 May 2016 at the 2139:Medscape Reference 2133:Lynne Goebel, MD. 1728:may also refer to 1519:Gallipoli Campaign 1484:ptomaine poisoning 1414:Adrien de Gerlache 1366:concentrated drink 1342: 1119: 1092:The Surgion's Mate 1088:East India Company 1058:Age of Exploration 1043:East India Company 1005:St. Lawrence River 598: 518:prolyl hydroxylase 500:muscle contraction 461: 351:Sjögren's syndrome 317:Signs and symptoms 134:being stuck adrift 5589: 5588: 5538:Failure to thrive 5533:Delayed milestone 5417: 5416: 5395:Harrison's groove 5325:Folate deficiency 5312:Biotin deficiency 5150: 5149: 4945:Cegłowski, Maciej 4856:978-0-521-34773-0 3934:978-0-00-724768-4 3740:978-0-393-06259-5 3679:978-0-393-06259-5 3621:978-1-84383-604-9 3482:Nutrition Reviews 3288:978-0-312-31391-3 3214:978-0-226-46849-5 3183:978-0-615-20061-3 3155:Rogers, Everett. 1990:978-1-78326-889-4 1697: 1551:Charles Glen King 1533:Bellevue Hospital 1401:West Indian limes 1370:Rose's lime juice 1334:Henry Walsh Mahon 1136:-based physician 1030:published a book 1007:, used the local 832:(sweet peppers), 818: 817: 522:lysyl hydroxylase 305:where the use of 177: 176: 145:Based on symptoms 141:Diagnostic method 30:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 5629: 5622:Collagen disease 5227: 5177: 5170: 5163: 5154: 5008: 4997: 4988: 4980: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4947:(7 March 2010). 4940: 4931: 4930: 4924: 4896: 4895: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4838: 4832: 4831: 4821: 4804:(6408): 1862–3. 4789: 4783: 4782: 4754: 4748: 4747: 4737: 4728:(30): 21967–72. 4713: 4707: 4706: 4696: 4672: 4666: 4665: 4663: 4662: 4646: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4636: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4611: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4571: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4473: 4464: 4463: 4453: 4429: 4420: 4419: 4417: 4416: 4397: 4391: 4390: 4380: 4356: 4350: 4349: 4321: 4315: 4314: 4312: 4311: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4283: 4282: 4271:Nobel Foundation 4258: 4252: 4251: 4249: 4242: 4224: 4215: 4209: 4208: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4113: 4107: 4106: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4033: 4027: 4026: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3969: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3920: 3914: 3913: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3892: 3884: 3878: 3868: 3862: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3760: 3754: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3700:. Archived from 3690: 3684: 3683: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3607: 3601: 3587: 3581: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3477: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3458: 3444: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3345:. 5 March 2009. 3335: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3318: 3307: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3272: 3266: 3265: 3263: 3262: 3244: 3238: 3237: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3127: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3095: 3085: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3034: 3028: 3015: 3009: 2991: 2985: 2978: 2972: 2961: 2955: 2940: 2934: 2917: 2911: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2883: 2881: 2855: 2849: 2835: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2807: 2802: 2800: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2748: 2742: 2741: 2719: 2695: 2689: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2561: 2555: 2550: 2544: 2536: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2479: 2473: 2472: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2402: 2396: 2395: 2393: 2392: 2372: 2366: 2362: 2325: 2296: 2275: 2265: 2230: 2224: 2223: 2221: 2210: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2185: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2130: 2124: 2123: 2116: 2110: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2089: 2080: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2055: 2030: 2029: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1974: 1968: 1967: 1965: 1964: 1945: 1936: 1935: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1870: 1838: 1793: 1792: 1790: 1788: 1769: 1726:Barlow's disease 1714:Barlow's disease 1695: 1616:In other animals 1606: 1605: 1601: 1574:developing world 1225:Sir John Pringle 1210:Seven Years' War 1138:Johann Bachstrom 1128: 1125:, containing a " 961:Early modern era 938:, the physician 878:brussels sprouts 604: 583:Blount's disease 406: 394: 378: 256:developing world 203:mental disorders 106:Mental disorders 53: 33: 21: 5637: 5636: 5632: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5626: 5602:Animal diseases 5592: 5591: 5590: 5585: 5554: 5519: 5413: 5348: 5341: 5334: 5321: 5308: 5295: 5282: 5269: 5241: 5216: 5193: 5186: 5181: 5151: 5146: 5145: 5102: 5101: 5019: 5005: 5000: 4991: 4971: 4962: 4960: 4943: 4934: 4925: 4909: 4905: 4903:Further reading 4900: 4899: 4869: 4868: 4864: 4857: 4849:. p. 172. 4840: 4839: 4835: 4791: 4790: 4786: 4765:(1–2): 408–11. 4756: 4755: 4751: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4674: 4673: 4669: 4660: 4658: 4648: 4647: 4643: 4634: 4632: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4609: 4607: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4525: 4510: 4509: 4505: 4475: 4474: 4467: 4431: 4430: 4423: 4414: 4412: 4399: 4398: 4394: 4358: 4357: 4353: 4323: 4322: 4318: 4309: 4307: 4294: 4293: 4289: 4280: 4278: 4260: 4259: 4255: 4247: 4222: 4217: 4216: 4212: 4199:(1373): 12–29. 4189: 4188: 4184: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4090: 4089: 4085: 4066: 4065: 4061: 4054: 4035: 4034: 4030: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3947: 3946: 3942: 3935: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3907: 3906: 3902: 3885: 3870: 3869: 3865: 3854:Wayback Machine 3839: 3835: 3825: 3823: 3814: 3813: 3809: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3707: 3705: 3704:on 3 March 2009 3692: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3661: 3660: 3656: 3634: 3633: 3629: 3622: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3588: 3584: 3580:" BBC – History 3578:Wayback Machine 3568: 3564: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3466:(Also archived 3459: 3446: 3445: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3415:Wayback Machine 3401: 3397: 3359: 3358: 3354: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3322: 3320: 3316: 3305: 3301: 3300: 3296: 3289: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3260: 3258: 3246: 3245: 3241: 3236:. Canary Press. 3231: 3230: 3226: 3215: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3184: 3169: 3168: 3164: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3140:Brown, Mervyn. 3139: 3138: 3134: 3125: 3123: 3114: 3113: 3109: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3036: 3035: 3031: 3025:Wayback Machine 3016: 3012: 3003:Wayback Machine 2992: 2988: 2979: 2975: 2962: 2958: 2952:Wayback Machine 2941: 2937: 2928:Wayback Machine 2918: 2914: 2908:Wayback Machine 2897: 2893: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2857: 2856: 2852: 2846:Wayback Machine 2836: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2766: 2750: 2749: 2745: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2686:Wayback Machine 2663:Wayback Machine 2641: 2637: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2604: 2602: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2563: 2562: 2558: 2537: 2524: 2523: 2519: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2430: 2429: 2425: 2415: 2413: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2390: 2388: 2374: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2328: 2299: 2278: 2248:(502): 549–50. 2235: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2208: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2155: 2154: 2150: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2118: 2117: 2113: 2103: 2101: 2091: 2090: 2083: 2073: 2071: 2057: 2056: 2033: 2022: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1991: 1976: 1975: 1971: 1962: 1960: 1947: 1946: 1939: 1932: 1919: 1918: 1914: 1904: 1902: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1840: 1839: 1796: 1786: 1784: 1771: 1770: 1747: 1742: 1710: 1636:monosaccharides 1624: 1618: 1603: 1599: 1598: 1590: 1566: 1495:Theodor Frølich 1472: 1348:'s army at the 1326: 1123:Gloucestershire 1108: 1074:A 1609 book by 1069:Richard Hawkins 1039:James Lancaster 1001:Jacques Cartier 963: 924: 916: 720:Brussels sprout 700:Green kiwifruit 596: 562: 550: 453: 417: 410: 407: 398: 395: 386: 379: 319: 278:surgeon in the 31: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5635: 5633: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5594: 5593: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5562: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5553: 5552: 5551: 5550: 5540: 5535: 5529: 5527: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5517: 5512: 5511: 5510: 5508:Keshan disease 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5464: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5427: 5425: 5419: 5418: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5411: 5405: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5368: 5356: 5354: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5339: 5332: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5301: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5288: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5275: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5239: 5235: 5233: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5198: 5196: 5192:Protein-energy 5188: 5187: 5182: 5180: 5179: 5172: 5165: 5157: 5148: 5147: 5144: 5143: 5123: 5111: 5110: 5108: 5104: 5103: 5100: 5099: 5088: 5077: 5066: 5051: 5036: 5020: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5011:Classification 5004: 5003:External links 5001: 4999: 4998: 4989: 4978:"Scurvy" 4975:, ed. (1911). 4973:Chisholm, Hugh 4969: 4941: 4932: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4898: 4897: 4862: 4855: 4833: 4784: 4749: 4708: 4667: 4641: 4616: 4606:on 1 July 2006 4591: 4542: 4523: 4503: 4484:(5): 535–548. 4465: 4444:(3): 556–558. 4421: 4392: 4351: 4332:(11): 885–90. 4316: 4287: 4267:nobelprize.org 4253: 4210: 4182: 4171:(17): 1686–7. 4155: 4108: 4083: 4059: 4052: 4028: 3981: 3967:10.1086/705337 3960:(2): 257–285. 3940: 3933: 3915: 3900: 3863: 3833: 3807: 3788:(2): 160–175. 3772: 3755: 3746: 3739: 3715: 3685: 3678: 3654: 3627: 3620: 3602: 3582: 3562: 3519: 3507: 3488:(6): 315–332. 3472: 3434: 3422: 3395: 3352: 3330: 3294: 3287: 3267: 3239: 3224: 3213: 3193: 3182: 3162: 3147: 3132: 3118:. 2018-02-27. 3107: 3056: 3029: 3010: 2986: 2973: 2956: 2935: 2912: 2891: 2873: 2850: 2821: 2817:Cegłowski 2010 2809: 2792: 2771: 2764: 2743: 2690: 2671:Geographicorum 2644:Prorrheticorum 2635: 2612: 2582: 2575: 2556: 2517: 2474: 2423: 2397: 2367: 2364: 2363: 2326: 2297: 2276: 2232: 2225: 2197: 2148: 2125: 2111: 2081: 2031: 2021:978-0762447176 2020: 2000: 1989: 1969: 1955:. 2014-04-22. 1937: 1930: 1912: 1882: 1794: 1744: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1716:, named after 1709: 1706: 1617: 1614: 1589: 1586: 1572:people in the 1565: 1562: 1559:ascorbic acid. 1547:hexuronic acid 1471: 1468: 1448: 1447: 1443: 1440: 1325: 1322: 1318:Spring disease 1275:Thomas Trotter 1221:David MacBride 1179:balsam of Peru 1107: 1104: 1028:Agustin Farfán 962: 959: 936:Ancient Greece 923: 920: 915: 912: 816: 815: 812: 806: 805: 802: 796: 795: 792: 786: 785: 782: 776: 775: 772: 766: 765: 762: 756: 755: 752: 746: 745: 742: 736: 735: 732: 726: 725: 722: 716: 715: 712: 706: 705: 702: 696: 695: 692: 686: 685: 682: 676: 675: 672: 666: 665: 662: 656: 655: 652: 646: 645: 642: 636: 635: 632: 626: 625: 622: 616: 615: 608: 595: 592: 591: 590: 585: 580: 571: 561: 558: 549: 546: 534:Hydroxyproline 452: 449: 416: 413: 412: 411: 408: 401: 399: 396: 389: 387: 380: 373: 357:, generalised 318: 315: 262:. Rates among 234:catecholamines 175: 174: 171: 167: 166: 151: 147: 146: 143: 137: 136: 130:voyages at sea 103: 97: 96: 90: 86: 85: 82: 76: 75: 70: 64: 63: 55: 54: 46: 45: 42: 38: 37: 29: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5634: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5597: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5557: 5549: 5546: 5545: 5544: 5543:Short stature 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5516: 5513: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5432: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5420: 5410: 5406: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5382: 5381: 5377: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5366:Bitot's spots 5364: 5363: 5362: 5358: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5343: 5336: 5335: 5330: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5309: 5304: 5300: 5297: 5296: 5291: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5270: 5265: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5219: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5189: 5185: 5178: 5173: 5171: 5166: 5164: 5159: 5158: 5155: 5142: 5139: 5136: 5133: 5129: 5128: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5113: 5112: 5109: 5105: 5098: 5094: 5093: 5089: 5087: 5083: 5082: 5078: 5076: 5072: 5071: 5067: 5065: 5061: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5050: 5046: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5035: 5031: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5021: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4995: 4990: 4986: 4985: 4979: 4974: 4970: 4958: 4954: 4953:IdleWords.com 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4922: 4918: 4917: 4912: 4908: 4907: 4902: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4878:(2): 166–78. 4877: 4873: 4866: 4863: 4858: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4788: 4785: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4753: 4750: 4745: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4712: 4709: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4671: 4668: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4642: 4630: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4562:(1): 97–101. 4561: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4543: 4530: 4526: 4524:9781455773992 4520: 4516: 4515: 4507: 4504: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4472: 4470: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4396: 4393: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4355: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4317: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4257: 4254: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4214: 4211: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4186: 4183: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4156: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4095: 4087: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4063: 4060: 4055: 4053:0-394-73127-1 4049: 4045: 4041: 4040: 4032: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3985: 3982: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3944: 3941: 3936: 3930: 3926: 3925:Food for free 3919: 3916: 3911: 3904: 3901: 3896: 3890: 3882: 3877: 3875: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3848: 3843: 3837: 3834: 3821: 3817: 3811: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3776: 3773: 3768: 3767: 3759: 3756: 3750: 3747: 3742: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3727: 3719: 3716: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3666: 3658: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3643:(2): 129–37. 3642: 3638: 3631: 3628: 3623: 3617: 3613: 3606: 3603: 3600: 3599:1-4067-2726-1 3596: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3572: 3566: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3508: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3476: 3473: 3469: 3463: 3456: 3452: 3451: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3423: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3409: 3408:From page 16: 3405: 3399: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3334: 3331: 3315: 3311: 3304: 3298: 3295: 3290: 3284: 3280: 3279: 3271: 3268: 3256: 3252: 3251: 3243: 3240: 3235: 3228: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3210: 3206: 3205: 3197: 3194: 3189: 3185: 3179: 3175: 3174: 3166: 3163: 3158: 3151: 3148: 3144:. p. 34. 3143: 3136: 3133: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3019: 3014: 3011: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2997: 2990: 2987: 2983: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2960: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2946: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2922: 2916: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2902: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2876: 2874:9781540659040 2870: 2866: 2865: 2860: 2854: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2840: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2795: 2793:9783447058728 2789: 2785: 2784: 2775: 2772: 2767: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2710:(4): 345–50. 2709: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2639: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2613: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2586: 2583: 2578: 2576:9780781768412 2572: 2568: 2567: 2560: 2557: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2534: 2530: 2529: 2521: 2518: 2513: 2509: 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